Ultrasonic Range

Related terms:

Energy Engineering, Dielectrics, Ultrasonics, Transducers, Transformers, Piezoce-

ramics, Piezoelectric

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Neural Vehicles
Ben Kröse, Joris van Dam, in Neural Systems for Robotics, 1997

Collision-Free Navigation
Instead of using vision for road following, similar approaches have been presented
which use ultrasonic range measurements in order to navigate without collisions.
An example is the work carried out within the Esprit project ANNIE [32]. In this
work a simulated vehicle is equipped with sensors which measure the range to
objects which are nearest within their field of view. The corresponding range values
are assigned logarithmically to a discrete set of values, in correspondence with the
sensitivity to near obstacles. The 16 range values are coded in 4 bits (the authors do
not indicate why this input representation was chosen). There are 9 sensors, resulting
in a network input of 36 (binary) input units. The network has 8 hidden units and an
output layer of 3 units, which give a coded representation of the 8 different actions.
The network was trained supervisedly by navigating it around 10 different obstacles
separately. After teaching all obstacles, the vehicle is able to drive without collisions.

> Read full chapter

Nondestructive evaluation technolo-

gies for monitoring corrosion
G. Light, in Techniques for Corrosion Monitoring, 2008
12.2.4 Guided waves and equipment
One of the fastest growing techniques for monitoring corrosion is the use of
long-range ultrasonics, primarily using guided waves. Guided waves refer to me-
chanical (or elastic) waves in ultrasonic and sonic frequencies that propagate in a
bounded medium (pipe, plate, rod, etc.) parallel to the plane of its boundary. The
wave is termed ‘guided’ because it travels along the medium guided by the geometric
boundaries of the medium.

Since the wave is guided by the geometric boundaries of the medium, the geometry
has a strong influence on the behavior of the wave.18−20 In contrast to ultrasonic
waves used in conventional ultrasonic inspections that propagate with a constant
velocity, the velocity of the guided waves varies significantly with wave frequency
and geometry of the medium. In addition, at a given wave frequency, the guided
waves can propagate in different wave modes and orders.

The properties of guided waves and examples of their dispersion curves (which
refer to the relationship between the velocity and the wave frequencies) are given in
Figs. 12.5 and 12.6 for pipe and plate geometries, respectively. In pipe, the guided
waves exist in three different wave modes: longitudinal (L), torsional (T), and flexural
(F). In plate, they exist in two different wave modes: longitudinal that is generally
called ‘Lamb’ waves and exists in symmetric (S) and antisymmetric (A) modes; and
shear horizontal (SH).

12.5. Examples of dispersion waves of various guided wave modes in pipe (for
114-mm-OD, 8.6-mm-thick pipe). The numbers in parentheses indicate the order
of the wave mode.
12.6. Example of dispersion curves of various guided wave modes in plate (for
6.35-mm-thick plate). The numbers after the letter (0 and 1) indicate the order of
the wave mode.

Although the properties of guided waves are complex, with judicious selection and
proper control of wave mode and frequency, the guided waves can be used to achieve
100% volumetric inspection of a large area of a structure from a single sensor
location.

Guided waves can be developed at a single location on a component and then travel
long distances from the source point to monitor the condition of that component.
The guided wave fills the entire volume of the component, and any change in
cross-section of the component, such as a weld or corrosion/erosion, usually reflects
or scatters the guided wave so that the change in cross-section is detected. Depend-
ing on frequency and material conditions, guided waves can travel as far as 150 m or
more from one source, and defects such as corrosion scatter back the guided waves,
thus giving an indication of corrosion locations.

There are two types of guided wave systems based on the physics of generating
the guided waves. One type uses a large number of piezoelectric transducers that
are pressure coupled to the pipe. This technology was developed and distributed
by Guided Wave Ultrasonics Limited21 and requires a mechanical fixture to squeeze
the transducers onto a pipe. This fixture can be expensive and can only be used on
cylindrical-type geometries such as pipe. The defect detection sensitivity is estimated
to be 5 to 10% of the pipe cross-section.

The other type uses a thin ferromagnetic strip (approximately 0.15 mm) that has a
high magnetostrictive property and is bonded to the pipe21−28 and is referred to as
magnetostrictive sensor (MsS) technology. The ferromagnetic strip and excitation
coil are relatively inexpensive and can be used on piping, plate, bar and a wide
range of geometries. However, time for bonding the ferromagnetic strip onto the
geometry is required.
Generally speaking, the MsS approach can be used as an inspection mode to detect
defects on the order of 3 to 5% of the component cross-section, but if the sensor
can be left in place for long periods of time (most feasible with the ferromagnetic
strip concept) and data are collected at various times during its life, defects as small
as 0.5% can be detected. However, guided waves tend to be poor at quantifying the
corrosion and should really be used as more of a screening and locating tool.

The piezoelectric sensor system is limited in temperature applications of 70 °C to

120 °C. The MsS technology has been used on components ranging from approxi-
mately − 150 °C to 300 °C.

Guided waves have been used to inspect various types of pipeline, on land as well as
offshore. An example of an offshore application is the inspection of risers. Offshore
pipeline failure statistics have been collected for more than 30 years and illustrate
that the riser predominantly fails as a result of corrosion. The consistent wetting
and drying in the splash zone, combined with defects in the coatings, are the
usual contributors to the problem. A guided wave approach using torsional waves
can be deployed to detect significant reduction in wall thickness. This allows the
detection of wall-thinning areas in the riser without removing the outside coatings.
For detecting and monitoring corrosion under insulation, the MsS can be placed
on a pipe with many welded sections as shown in Fig. 12.7, with the data shown in
Fig. 12.8. The directionality of the guided wave from the MsS is controlled so the
wave can be transmitted to the right of the sensor or to the left.

12.7. Illustration of MsS guided wave sensor attached to pipe.

12.8. Illustration of guided wave data collected by MsS system. The top waveform
directed to right of the MsS sensor shown in 12.7 and the lower waveform is directed
to the left of the MsS sensor shown in 12.7.

Presently, the MsS technology uses the T-wave mode primarily for piping inspection
that is generated and detected with the thin ferromagnetic (typically nickel) layer
approach. Reasons for this practice include: (1) the fundamental T-wave mode is
not dispersive and, therefore, no consideration is necessary for possible dispersion
effects that exist in the L-wave mode; (2) the T-wave MsS has fewer effects than
other extraneous wave modes and, therefore, it gives better signal-to-noise ratio
and its data are easier to analyze; (3) the T-wave does not interact with liquid
inside the pipe and, therefore, is far superior to the L-wave24 for inspection of
liquid-filled pipes; and (4) the T-wave MsS does not require heavy bias magnets
and, therefore, is much easier and safer to handle than the L-wave counterpart. The
disadvantage of the T-wave MsS is the requirement for direct physical access to the
pipe surface for bonding of the thin ferromagnetic layer. Therefore, to apply the
T-mode MsS for bitumen-coated piping, for example, the coating must be removed
beforehand, whereas the L-mode MsS can be applied without removing the coating.
However, the advantage of the T-mode MsS greatly outweighs the disadvantage and,
consequently, the T-mode MsS is used primarily for long-range piping inspection.

Table 12.1 summarizes the capabilities and limitations of the present guided wave
technology for long-range piping inspection in bare pipes. The effects of pipeline
geometric features and other conditions such as coating and liquid inside pipe on
the inspection capabilities are also summarized in Table 12.2.

Table 12.1. Capabilities and limitations of guided wave systems for pipe inspection
Item Capabilities/limitations
Spatial resolution 3 to 7 inches (7.5 to 17.8 cm), depending on
frequency and mode
Pipe material Any material
Pipe size Up to 60 in. (152 cm) diameter for MsS technolo-
gy, approximately 32 in. (81.3 cm) for piezoelectric
system and less than 0.75 in. (19 mm) wall thick-
ness
Inspection range 100 ft (30 m) or greater, depending on coating and
for aboveground piping
Detectable defect type Isolated corrosion pits and circumferential cracks
Minimum detectable defect size 2 to 5% of pipewall cross section
Defect location Axial location within ± 2 in. (5 cm), depending on
operational frequency and mode
Defect characterization Limited to rough estimation of circumferential
cross-section
Long term monitoring Only with MsS system because cost of MsS sen-
sors are much less than piezoelectric sensor belt

Table 12.2. Effects of pipeline geometric features and other conditions on inspection

capabilities

Features/conditions Effects
Flange/valve Prevents wave propagation; forms end point of
inspection range
Tee Causes a large disruption in wave propagation
and limits inspection range up to that point
Elbow Causes a large disruption in wave propagation
and limits inspection range no farther than the
elbow region
Bend Has negligible effect if the bend radius is greater
than three times the pipe OD; if the bend radius
is less than the above, behaves like an elbow
Side branch Causes a wave reflection and thus produces a
signal; no significant effects on inspection ca-
pabilities
Clamp Causes a wave reflection and thus produces a
signal; no significant effects on inspection ca-
pabilities
Weld attachment Causes a wave reflection and thus produces a sig-
nal; if the attachment is large (such as pipe shoes),
can reduce inspection range
Paint Has negligible effects
Insulation Has no effects unless the insulation is bonded
to the pipe surface, in which case the inspection
range will be shortened due to higher wave atten-
uation
Coating Has negligible effects if the coating is thin (e.g.
fusion-bonded epoxy coating); thicker coating
(e.g. bituminous coating, polyethylene coating)
increases wave attenuation and shortens inspec-
tion range
Liquid in pipe No effect on torsional-wave; significant degra-
dation on longitudinal-wave
General surface corrosion Increases wave attenuation and shortens inspec-
tion range
Soil
 If pipe is buried, the surrounding soil greatly
increases wave attenuation, and the inspection
range is significantly shortened

Corrosion monitoring on other components, such as plate, has been demonstrated

in the laboratory using MsS technology. For this application, the ferromagnetic sen-
sor (Fig. 12.9) is permanently bonded to the surface of the structure with appropriate
adhesive, such as epoxy, and then magnetically conditioned. The coil is used to
generate a guided wave in the ferro-magnetic strip and also to receive any guided
waves scattered from defects. Because the sensor is fixed to the surface, the data
collected periodically can be carefully compared to the baseline data established
at the time of sensor installation. This allows trending of the structural condition
changes as a function of time. An effective determination of damage and its location
can be obtained through the monitoring mode and used in a suitable structural
management decision code.

12.9. Illustration of the flat MsS guided-wave probe for structural health monitoring.
The coil is placed directly on the nickel layer.

An example application is on aircraft structures such as fuselage and wing skins

that are assembled with fasteners. Corrosion and cracking that occur around and
under fasteners are major concerns for assuring structural safety of the aircraft.
Because of the complicated geometry of the fastened structure and the large number
of fasteners, inspection of such structures is time consuming and difficult.
Cost-effective and economical maintenance of fastened aircraft structures could be
achieved by applying a suitable structural integrity monitoring (SIM) method.

An example of this application is shown in Fig. 12.10 for an aluminum test panel

that was a 1/4 in. thick (6.3 mm), 3 × 4 ft (0.9 m × 1.2 m) aluminum plate and had a
large number of 1/4 in. (6.3 mm) diameter tapered fastener holes along two edges
of the plate. The center of each hole was located at approximately 1 inch (25.4 mm)
from the edge of the plate, and the distance between the centers of the adjacent
holes was approximately 3 in. (76.2 mm). As the simulated corrosion was increased
from approximately 0.05 in. (1.3 mm) on the side to 0.2 in. (5 mm) on the side,
the monitoring showed that the changes in the corrosion could be detected and
monitored, as illustrated in the data shown in Fig. 12.11.
12.10. Configuration of test panel and laboratory MsS probe and photograph of
fastener hole showing simulated corrosion.

12.11. Monitoring data showing the defect signal increasing as the simulated
corrosion increases from no corrosion to 0.2 in. by 0.2 in. (5.1 mm × 5.1 mm) by
approximately 0.05 in. (1.3 mm) deep.

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SLAM for Pedestrians and Ultrason-

ic Landmarks in Emergency Response
Scenarios
Carl Fischer, ... Mike Hazas, in Advances in Computers, 2011

1.4 Multimodal Pedestrian SLAM

Considering the pros and cons of the various techniques described in the previous
section for tracking pedestrians indoors, we have chosen to use two key technologies:
inertial dead-reckoning and ultrasonic range and bearing measurements.
PDR using inertial sensors is one key sensing modality used in our work. The other
modality is range and bearing estimation using ultrasound. By measuring the time
of flight and amplitude of an ultrasonic pulse, we are able to estimate the range
and bearing to a transmitter, relative to the receiver. By attaching such a sensor
to our target (a pedestrian) and deploying other sensors on the ground, we obtain
information that can be used to locate the target. This is achieved by combining these
range and bearing measurements with the dead-reckoning estimates according to
the methods described in the Section 2.

The benefits of inertial dead-reckoning are clear—it is able to track pedestrian

motion using only a small foot-mounted sensor. We believe that the ultrasound
sensors are a suitable technology for this application for three reasons: (1) each
sensor has a unique identifier which is present in every measurement so landmark
identification is not a problem, (2) each measurement contains explicit range and
bearing information which does not need to be inferred from other types of data,
and (3) sensors can be deployed as required, and their number and position can
be chosen depending on the type of environment and the requirements of the
situation. Visual landmarks satisfy none of these criteria. RFID tags provide unique
identification and can be deployed as required, but they do not provide precise range
and bearing information.

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Improved Performance of Guided Wave

Ultrasonic Testing for Long Range
Inspection of Pipelines using Mul-
ti-Channel Systems
Lei Zhang, ... Wamadeva Balachandran, in Proceedings of the 3rd Gas Processing
Symposium, 2012

6 Conclusions
The use of an FPGA-based system architecture has allowed savings in both numbers
of discrete components and the space required for the control elements in the mul-
ti-channel Teletest® long range ultrasonic system. This system has a soft processor
implemented on the FPGA which has the potential for it to be reconfigured to meet
the requirements of different ultrasonic testing applications. The performance of
the multichannel ultrasonic testing system has been improved in terms of increased
speed, reduced size and reduced power consumption. Figure 8 shows the completed
Teletest® FOCUS+ prototype system and its internal assembly of the first prototype
unit. This product has been commercially successful globally since it was firstly
released to the market in May 2011 for the improvements made by the new FPGA
embedded system design over the previous system.

Figure 8. Teletest® FOCUS + Electronic Unit and Internal Assembly of the First
Prototype Unit

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Lamb wave-based quantitative identif-

ication of delamination in composite
laminates
Z. SU, L. Ye, in Delamination Behaviour of Composites, 2008

Fibre-optic sensor
Featuring light weight, wide bandwidth, good compatibility and immunity to elec-
tromagnetic interference, long life and low power consumption, optical fibres are
widely used as sensing devices, particularly for capturing static or quasi-dynamic
strain. However, application of optical fibre as a Lamb wave sensor in the ultrasonic
range is limited (Staszewski et al., 1999; Culshaw et al., 1998; Levin, 2001; Pierce et
al., 1996) because of the low sampling rate of the optical spectrum analyser (OSA).
This difficulty has recently been circumvented by using a fibre Bragg grating (FBG)
filter connected with a photodetector. The major drawback of using an optical fibre
sensor in collecting Lamb wave signals is that, since the measured response is of
a three-dimensional nature, careful analysis of the output is necessary to extract
axial composition. The accuracy of measurement is often influenced by the strong
directionality of optical fibre (the Lamb wave signal captured by an optical fibre
sensor perpendicular to Lamb wave propagation can be 100 times lower in amplitude
than that collected by a sensor paralleling the direction of wave propagation).
> Read full chapter

Sensor Technologies
Alan S. Morris, Reza Langari, in Measurement and Instrumentation (Second Edi-
tion), 2016

13.10.6 Effect of Noise in Ultrasonic Measurement Systems

Signal levels at the output of ultrasonic measurement systems are usually of low
amplitude and are therefore prone to contamination by electromagnetic noise.
Because of this, it is necessary to use special precautions such as making ground
(earth) lines thick, using shielded cables for transmission of the signal from the
ultrasonic receiver and locating the signal amplifier as close to the receiver as
possible.

Another potentially serious form of noise is background ultrasound produced by

manufacturing operations in the typical industrial environment that many ultrasonic
range measurement systems operate. Analysis of industrial environments has shown
that ultrasound at frequencies up to 100 kHz is generated by many operations
and some operations generate ultrasound at higher frequencies up to 200 kHz.
There is not usually any problem if ultrasonic measurement systems operate at
frequencies above 200 kHz, but these often have insufficient range for the needs
of the measurement situation. In these circumstances, any objects that are likely
to generate energy at ultrasonic frequencies should be covered in sound-absorbing
material such that interference with ultrasonic measurement systems is minimized.
The placement of sound-absorbing material around the path that the measurement
ultrasound wave travels along contributes further toward reducing the effect of
background noise. A natural solution to the problem is also partially provided by
the fact that the same processes of distance traveled and adsorption that attenuate
the amplitude of ultrasound waves traveling between the transmitter and receiver
in the measurement system also attenuate ultrasound noise that is generated by
manufacturing operations.

Because ultrasonic energy is emitted at angles other than the direction that is normal
to the face of the transmitting element, a problem arises in respect of energy that
is reflected off some object in the environment around the measurement system
and back into the ultrasonic receiver. This has a longer path than the direct one
between the transmitter and receiver and can cause erroneous measurements in
some circumstances. One solution to this is to arrange for the transmission-time
counter to stop as soon as the receiver first detects the ultrasound wave. This will
usually be the wave that has traveled along the direct path, and so no measurement
error is caused as long as the rate at which ultrasound pulses are emitted is such
that the next burst is not emitted until all reflections from the previous pulse have
died down. However, in circumstances where the direct path becomes obstructed by
some obstacle, the counter will only be stopped when the reflected signal is detected
by the receiver, giving a potentially large measurement error.

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Electronics used in high-performance

apparel—Part 1/2
R.R. Bonaldi, in High-Performance Apparel, 2018

12a.1.1.2 Electronic components

Electronic components can be divided into active or passive components. In elec-
tronics, a passive component is capable of operating without an external power
source such as resistors, capacitors, and inductors; whereas active components re-
quire a source of power to operate, such as transistors, integrated circuits, LEDs, etc.
Sensors can be active or passive, whereas actuators always require a power source. An
electronic system comprises normally sensors, microprocessors, actuators, power
source, communication networks, and interface devices.

Sensors
Sensors convert a physical variable into an electrical signal. Sensors are able to
detect thermal, optical, chemical, mechanical, and electromagnetic information and
translate it into electrical signals mainly through differences in electrical resistance,
capacitance, and inductance. Sensors based on changes in electrical resistance are
the most common, such as piezoresistive sensors. Piezoresistive sensors are active
sensors that change resistivity as a response to strain, and require a power supply and
an electrical current to function. The resistive change is obtained by physical changes
such as stretching, bending, pressure, deformation, and friction. In contrary, passive
piezoelectric sensors generate electrical current as a response to deformation with
no use of batteries; instead, intrinsically piezoelectric materials are used to generate
electricity from movement.

A light-dependent resistor (LDR) or a photodiode are examples of light sensors; they

alter their electrical characteristics depending on the amount of light they receive.
Optical fibers can be used as strain or temperature sensors. The microphone is the
most common acoustic sensor; it measures sound by using a small diaphragm that
vibrates in response to variations in air pressure, which then produces an electrical
signal. Other forms of acoustic sensors include ultrasonic range finders, which emit
short pulses of sound that hit the object and are reflected back to determine distance
from objects. Motion can be detected using vibration sensors or simple tilt switches,
such as accelerometers, pedometers, or gyroscopes. A global positioning system
(GPS) is also normally used for location sensors. Most sensors provide information,
as a range of changing voltages or resistive properties, in analogue form. These
electrical signals are converted into numeric form by analogue-to-digital conversion
(ADC) and are analyzed mathematically using software.

Actuators
Actuators convert electrical energy into physical manifestations. Actuators are always
active and include electroactive materials that generate different types of outputs in
response to an electrical field and current, such as sound, temperature, movement,
and light. Several electronic systems making use of power source can be classified as
actuators, such as electrical heating resistances, where heating is generated from the
conductive wires under the application of a high electric potential. Other examples
are electrical muscle stimulators and mechanical actuators used in robotics. An LED
is a common example of a light actuator. LEDs normally contain electroluminescent
layers sandwiched by two electrodes (anode and cathode), thereby generating cur-
rent. The electric current passing through the electroluminescent material causes it
to emit light (photons).

Microprocessors
The microprocessor usually performs the processing, storage, and communication
of data. A microcontroller can work in digital or analogue form. Data processing
includes the use of software and hardware. Software is the logical instructions and
operations in charge of analyzing, organizing, interpreting, processing, and com-
municating the signals with the use of specially developed algorithms. Hardware is
all the physical parts or components of a system, including memory, interfaces, and
integrated circuits.

Communication and network technologies

Wearable electronics need to be connected together on the garment for the in-
formation to be communicated for the wearer and the outside environment. This
communication can be achieved via wired or wireless systems. Short-range commu-
nication, also called Personal Communications Networks (PCN) or Body Area Network
(BAN), receives the information provided by the sensors, store and prepare this to be
transferred by Wireless Fidelity (WiFi), Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access
(WiMax), Radio Frequency Identification (RFID), Infrared, and Bluetooth. Antennas
can also be used for wireless communication for medium and short distances.
Long-range communication is a wireless communication including Wide Area Net-
works (WAN). The radio device checks the connectivity to the far-end servers via a
mobile phone using General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), Enhanced Data rates for
GSM Evolution (EDGE), or third-/fourth-Generation Mobile Service.

Power supply
The power source provides the voltage needed for the electronic systems to function.
The most common type of power source is the battery. Other sources of power
include photovoltaic (PV) cells, fuel cells, thermoelectricity, and piezoelectricity. A
battery is an electrochemical device that converts chemical energy into electric-
ity. The most commonly used batteries are lead acid, alkaline, nickel–cadmium
(NiCd), nickel–metal–hydride (NiMH), lithium ion (Li-ion), and lithium polymer
(Li-polymer). Capacitive batteries store energy in an electric field. For the capacitive
batteries, density of storage is limited so they require high volume or surface.
Rechargeable batteries have a larger energy storage density, but their lifetime is
limited. Supercapacitors, on the other hand, provide an unlimited life cycle; however,
their energy storage density is low.

Instead of batteries, energy can be harvested from the environment under the form
of heat, light, and motion. Energy from motion can be achieved by piezoelectric
materials, or by electromagnetic (EM) induction. A fuel cell is an electrochemical
device that converts hydrogen and oxygen into water and, in the process, produces
electricity and heat. A thermoelectric generator is a semiconductor device that
converts heat into electricity based on the electrical power that is generated when
a temperature difference is established across the two ceramic plates. Solar energy
can be converted into electrical energy using PV cells (solar cells). A solar cell is a
semiconductor device in which solar energy of certain wavelengths can be absorbed
to generate electric power.

Interface technologies
Interface devices are used for transferring information between devices and the
wearer as well as between the wearer and the environment. Interface devices can
be used for input or output information using sensors and actuators. Devices for
input information include buttons, keyboards, voice recognition, and writing pads.
An output interface is used for presenting information to the wearer, such as vibra-
tion interfaces, audio interface, voice synthesis, and visual interface (liquid-crystal
displays LCD, LEDs, fiber optics display FOD, electrophoretic display). The LCD is
neither flexible nor lightweight and offers poor angle visibility. In contrast, elec-
trophoretic display and polymer light-emitting diodes (PLEDs) provide high contrast
and brightness, require less power, and are flexible.

> Read full chapter

Introduction
Mohammad Jamshidnezhad, in Experimental Design in Petroleum Reservoir Stud-
ies, 2015

1.2 Petroleum rock properties

Different properties of reservoir rocks are characterized when a petroleum reser-
voir is studied. These properties are: mineralogy, grain size, porosity, permeability,
acoustic properties, electrical properties, radioactive properties, magnetic proper-
ties, and mechanical properties.

Mineralogy and grain size: Quartz and calcite are the most common minerals in
reservoir rocks. Trace minerals are often present as individual grains or as cement.
Grain size and sorting can vary considerably; however, reservoir quality tends to
decrease with decreased grain size. Accordingly, very finely grained rocks (such as
shale) tend to have sealing properties.

Acoustic properties: Acoustic measurements include sonic and ultrasonic ranges.

The primary and most routine use of acoustic measurement in reservoir engineering
is porosity determination.

Electrical properties: Studies of electrical properties in rocks are mainly performed

for determination of formation resistivity and water saturation.

Radioactive properties: Geological age of a formation and the volume of shale in

the formation are estimated by measuring radioactivity in rocks. The gamma logs (a
tool for measuring the natural radioactivity from potassium, thorium, and uranium
isotopes in the earth) are used as a shaliness indicator in petroleum reservoir studies.

Magnetic properties: Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), a subcategory of elec-

tromagnetic logging, measures the induced magnetic moment of hydrogen nuclei
contained within the fluid-filled pore space of porous media (reservoir rocks). NMR
provides information about: the volume (porosity) and distribution (permeability) of
the rock pores, rock composition, and type and quantity of fluid hydrocarbons.

Mechanical properties: Mechanical properties of rocks are important in formation

evaluation, drilling, development planning and production. These properties are
useful in borehole stability analysis, sand production prediction, hydraulic fracture
design and optimization, compaction/subsidence studies, drill bit selection, casing
point selection and casing design.

Porosity: Usually petroleum rock pores are filled with connate water and hydrocar-
bons. Porosity is the ratio of pore volume to bulk volume and is usually reported as
percentage. Two porosity values are usually measured: total porosity and effective
porosity. Total porosity is the fraction of rock bulk volume that is void, whether the
individual pores are interconnected or not. Effective porosity is the ratio of connected
void space to rock bulk volume. It is the effective porosity that reservoir engineers
are interested in and, in almost all cases, the porosity measured in the laboratory is
the effective porosity.

Uniformity of grain size, degree of cementation, amount of compaction during and

after deposition, and methods of packing are the factors governing the magnitude
of porosity [Tiab and Donaldson, 2004].

Porosities are measured in core laboratories, as well as by using the sonic-acoustic

log, the formation density log, and the neutron porosity log [Tiab and Donaldson,
2004]:In the core laboratory bulk volume, pore volume, rock matrix volume, and
irreducible water saturation are measured. By knowing these parameters, total
porosity and effective porosity are calculated. Commonly, mercury injection and gas
compression/expansion are used to determine total porosity and effective porosity,
respectively.

In the sonic log, the time required for a sound wave to travel through one foot of
formation is measured. This transiting time is then correlated to the porosity.

In the formation density log, the bulk density of the reservoir rock is measured.
Using bulk density, matrix density and average density of fluids filling the formation,
porosity is evaluated.

The neutron log is sensitive to the amount of hydrogen atoms in a formation. In the
neutron log, a neutron source is employed to measure the ratio of the concentration
of hydrogen atoms in the material, to that of pure water at 75°F. This ratio (called
hydrogen index, HI) is directly related to porosity.

Permeability: The second main property of a reservoir rock, after porosity, is per-
meability. Porous medium is not sufficient for a reservoir rock—the pores must
be connected to each other. Permeability is a measure of the rock’s capability to
transport fluids. Primary work on permeability was done by Darcy in 1856. Darcy’s
law is formulated as:

(1.1a)
 The unit of permeability (k) is the darcy, which is the permeability of a rock trans-
porting a fluid of 1 cp viscosity (μ) with a velocity (U) of 1 cm per second and 1
atmosphere pressure drop (P1−P2) along a rock of 1 cm length (L). Permeability of
most hydrocarbon reservoirs is much less than one darcy, so the unit of millidarcy
(0.001 darcy, abbreviated “md”) is usually applied.

For laminar gas flow through porous media, Darcy’s law is shown as:

(1.1b)

The permeability of a hydrocarbon reservoir is measured (or estimated) using one

of the methods described in the following paragraphs.

The first method is by using well testing data. In a well test, by changing the flow rate
of a well, variation in well bottom-hole pressure is recorded as a function of time.
The flow rate of a well is changed by increasing or decreasing the rate. The pressure
change is analyzed by plotting the recorded pressure and its derivative versus time.
The two most common tests are the buildup and drawdown tests. In a buildup test
the well is shut in after a period of production and then its pressure is measured.
In a drawdown test the pressure is measured in a well that is open after a period of
well shutting in.

The second method is measuring the permeability in a core laboratory. A known gas
(air or nitrogen) is injected into a core (or a plug) at controlled velocity and then the
pressure drop is measured. Using Darcy’s law (Eq. 1.1b), permeability is calculated
and it is then extrapolated to the zero value of the reciprocal pressure (1/p) to estimate
liquid (oil or water) permeability.

In the presence of more than one fluid, permeability is referred to as the effective
permeability. In this case, the ratio of effective permeability of any phase to the
absolute permeability of the rock is called the relative permeability (kr) of that phase.
Darcy’s law for multiple phase flow through the rock is formulated as:

(1.2)

where the subscript p denotes phase.

Shape and size of grains, lamination, cementation, fracturing and solution are the
factors governing the magnitude of porosity [Tiab and Donaldson, 2004].

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