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THEATER IN MALAYSIA
 INDIGENOUS TRADITIONS: MAIN PUTERI
 Mak Yong, Ancient Malay Dance-Drama
 History of Mak Yong
 Mak Yong Performances
 Shadow Puppetry in Malaysia
 Wayang Kilit
 Nora Dance-Drama
 Bangsawan Popular Theater
 Modern Theater in Malaysia

INDIGENOUS TRADITIONS: MAIN PUTERI

 Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen of the Finnish Theatre Academy wrote: “Like most of the Southeast
countries, Malaysia also has several theatre and dance traditions that still clearly have their roots
in indigenous animism. Many of them have flourished in Sabah and Sarawak and at least two in
the Malay Peninsula. These two are the healing ritual called main puteri and an indigenous form
of sung dance-drama, called mak yong. [Source: Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen,Asian Traditional
Theater and Dance website, Theatre Academy Helsinki |~|]
 “Main puteri is a healing ritual with some theatrical features. It has been practised in the state of
Kelantan, on the east cost of the peninsula. Its primus motor is a shaman (bomoh), who also
often plays a three-stringed rebab violin. With his or her assistant the shaman aims to heal a
patient by personifying the illness as a malevolent spirit. Main puteri has features common to
some other animistic ritual performances around Southeast Asia and even Sri Lanka. This seems
to confirm the fact that it is indeed is a tradition originating from pre-Islamic times. It may also
reflect the Tantric belief-system, common in regions before the arrival of Islam. |~|
 “The rituals usually take place at night. Hours of prayers are followed by invocations and
offerings. The actual healing ritual is saved until just before the dawn, when the spirits are
believed to be forced to withdraw from the human world. The main puteri ceremony is
accompanied by a small orchestra. The ceremony usually takes one whole night to perform,
sometimes even several nights. |~|
 “The theatrical features of a main puteri ritual include dances accompanied by singing and an
orchestra. The spirit’s arrival is made known by the change of the dance style towards
uncontrolled, jerky trance movements. Then follows the actual communication with the spirit
including offerings and negotiations by the shaman. This dialogue-like communication with the
spirit of the illness may last long and it often includes even obscene humour.” |~|

Mak Yong, Ancient Malay Dance-Drama

 Mak yong or mak yung is a traditional form of dance-drama from northern Malaysia, particularly
the state of Kelantan. It was banned by the Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party in 1991 because of its
animist and Hindu-Buddhist roots which pre-date Islam in the Asian region by far. In 2005
UNESCO declared mak yong a "Masterpiece Of The Oral And Intangible Heritage Of Humanity".
The late Cik Ning was a leading mak yong performer in the 1980s. [Source: Wikipedia]
 Mak yong is considered the most authentic and representative of Malay performing arts because
it is mostly untouched by external sources. Although most traditional Malay dances were
influenced by India, Java and other parts of Southeast Asia, mak yong's singing and musical
repertoire are unique. Of the major stories performed in mak yong, most are derived from
Kelantan-Pattani mythology. Some of those obtained from outside the Malayan-Thai region have
now died out elsewhere such as Anak Raja Gondang, a story originally from the Jataka tales but
now almost unknown in India.
 According to UNESCO: This ancient theatre form created by Malaysia’s Malay communities
combines acting, vocal and instrumental music, gestures and elaborate costumes. Specific to the
villages of Kelantan in northwest Malaysia, where the tradition originated, Mak Yong is performed
mainly as entertainment or for ritual purposes related to healing practices. [Source: UNESCO]
 Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen of the Finnish Theatre Academy wrote: “The Malays are the largest
individual ethnic group in modern-day Malaysia, but they have only a few drama traditions of their
own. The most sophisticated, albeit rarely performed, tradition is mak yong, an ancient form of
sung dance-drama from the state of Kelantan. In the 20th century it gradually developed into a
folk form, usually performed by the wives of rice farmers in remote areas in Kelantan. [Source:
Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen,Asian Traditional Theater and Dance website, Theatre Academy Helsinki |
~|]

History of Mak Yong

 According to UNESCO: “Experts believe that Mak Yong appeared well before the Islamization of
the country. It was performed as a royal theatre under the direct patronage of the Kelantan
Sultanate until the 1920s. Henceforth the tradition was perpetuated in its original rural context
without forsaking the numerous refinements acquired at the court, such as sophisticated costume
design. Mak Yong has been preserved until the present day thanks largely to oral transmission,
which requires long years of training. In today’s society, few young people are willing to commit
to such rigorous apprenticeships. As a result this important tradition is undergoing steady
decline, as attested by reduced dramatic and musical repertories and a shortage of seasoned
performers.[Source: UNESCO]
 Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen of the Finnish Theatre Academy wrote: “Mak yong is believed to be
derived from ancient shamanistic healing rituals, and even today its performances are regarded
as having magical significance and a special healing effect. Sometimes it is actually performed
combined with the healing ritual described above, main puteri. Present-day mak yong combines
indigenous rituals with elements borrowed from Indonesia, the Near East, and the nora tradition
of Thailand. It has a vast repertoire consisting mainly of dramatised folk-tales. The performances
combine dialogue, hypnotic music and singing with dance and are staged under small bamboo
roof structures open at the sides. [Source: Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen,Asian Traditional Theater and
Dance website, Theatre Academy Helsinki |~|]
 “It is generally agreed that mak yong evolved from indigenous animistic rituals. Later it became
popular folk dance-drama, accompanied by an orchestra including a rebab violin, bronze gongs
and drums. Its music consists of 35 fixed-type melodies including extremely expressive singing.
In the 1920s its popularity led, for a short period, to close ties with the Kelantan court and its cast
grew to 20 dancers, singers and musicians. After this, in the 1970s, commercial mak yong
groups also performed for a short time. |~|

Mak Yong Performances

 A typical Mak Yong performance opens with an offering followed by dances, acting and music as
well as improvised monologues and dialogues. A single story can be presented over several
consecutive nights in a series of three-hour performances. In the traditional village setting, the
performances are held on a temporary open-walled stage constructed of wood and palm leaves.
The audience sits on three sides of the stage, the fourth side being reserved for the orchestra
consisting of a three-stringed spiked fiddle (rebab), a pair of double-headed barrel drums
(gendang) and hanging knobbed gongs (tetawak). Most roles are performed by women and the
stories are based on ancient Malay folk tales peopled with royal characters, divinities and clowns.
Mak Yong is also associated with rituals in which shamans attempt to heal through song, trance-
dance and spirit possession. [Source: UNESCO]
 Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen of the Finnish Theatre Academy wrote: “The repertory of mak yong
includes 12 stock stories. One of them, Deva Muda, a kind of “original” mak yong legend, gives a
mythical explanation of how mak yong was created. It also represents an indigenous literary
tradition without traces of outside influences. As is often the case in Asia, the stories are rarely
staged from the beginning to the end. Selected scenes from the basic stories, already familiar to
the audience, are enacted, and much space is given to the improvisation. The performance starts
with rituals, in which, among others, the rebab violin, the leading instrument of the orchestra, is
venerated. After the formal ceremonies the traditional opening melodies are played. The actual
drama proper usually starts with an audience at the palace. After the introduction of the story’s
main character the actual drama starts. [Source: Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen,Asian Traditional Theater
and Dance website, Theatre Academy Helsinki |~|]
 “Since the early 1900s female performers have been seen in all the leading roles of mak yong,
including the heroes (pak yong) and the heroines (mak yong). Male actors can, however, appear
in minor comic roles. Thus the hypnotic songs, characteristic of the genre, are always sung by
actresses. All the actors are present through the whole performance. The leads, the supporting
choir and the orchestra sit in a circular formation. The most dramatic scenes take place inside
this circle. Long songs are sung either in a couching or a sitting position. |~|
 “No stage decorations are employed, but some stylised stage properties, such as a sword, a
dagger etc. may be used when necessary. Scene changes are announced by means of dances,
which are performed inside the circle. The solemn female dance technique includes few symbolic
hand gestures, reflecting the influence of Indianised culture. The dances of the males are more
lively and accentuated in character. |~|
 “Originally the mak yong performances lasted for several days, sometimes even weeks.
Nowadays the performances usually start at around 8 PM and end at around midnight. At
present, mak yong is very rare, high-quality performers are becoming scarce, and even
recordings of mak yong, either on CD or DVD seem almost impossible to find in Malaysia.” |~|

Shadow Puppetry in Malaysia

 Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen of the Finnish Theatre Academy wrote: “The Indonesian influence is
particularly present in the traditions of Malaysia’s shadow theatre traditions, while the Thai
influence is evident both in shadow theatre and in a dance-drama called nora. All these
traditions, either in their story material or in their performance techniques, bear influences that
were received through the trade contacts from India already hundreds, even thousands, of years
ago. [Source: Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen,Asian Traditional Theater and Dance website, Theatre
Academy Helsinki |~|]
 “All the three traditional forms of shadow theatre in Malaysia technically present the same basic
type of shadow theatre as the whole wayang family in Indonesia and the nang talung of Thailand.
In all these forms the centre of the whole performance is the narrator-puppeteer (dalang). He sits
behind the white screen, operates the puppets, tells and improvises the story, and also leads the
accompanying percussion-dominated orchestra. |~|
 “The old Javanese influence can be traced in the wayang kulit djava and the wayang kulit
melayu, two of Malaysia’s three forms of shadow theatre. These genres differ mainly in the styles
of their puppets. In wayang kulit djava, the puppets are highly stylised in the Javanese fashion,
and both arms are movable. The wayang kulit melayu puppets, on the other hand, are less
stylized, with only one movable arm. The stories in both genres have been mainly borrowed from
the Javanese tradition, that is, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, and the Prince Panji cycle.
They are, however, all recited in dialects of the Malay language. Sometimes Islamic stories, such
as the Adventures of Amir Hamzah, are performed. The new story material and a clear Arabic
influence in the accompanying music are clear contributions of Islam to the traditional theatre of
Malaysia. |~|
 “The third type of Malay shadow theatre, the wayang kulit siam, is linked to the culture of the
Thais, Malaysia’s northern Buddhist neighbours. The northern provinces of Malaysia were at
times under Thai rule, and the population of the border areas has intermingled, and it is thus only
natural that the Thai traditions of the performing arts were established in these areas. The
puppets of wayang kulit siam, its performing technique, and the stories enacted all bear a close
resemblance to the nang talung shadow theatre of South Thailand. |~|
 “The basic story is the Ramayana, although among its main characters also appear local comic
or demonic characters. The leather silhouette figures were painted in older times with non-
transparent enamel colours, whereas now transparent ink is generally used. In a similar way as
in Thai shadow theatre puppets, so too in wayang kulit siam the puppets have either one or two
moving hands. Their exquisite design follows exact rules and models. Details are made clear by
punching holes in leather.” |~|

Wayang Kilit
 Wayang kulit is a traditional theatre form that brings together the playfulness of a puppet show,
and the elusive quality and charming simplicity of a shadow play. The flat two-dimensional
puppets are intricately carved, then painted by hand. It is either made of cow or buffalo hide.
Each puppet, a stylised exaggeration of the human shape, is given a distinctive appearance and
not unlike its string puppet cousins, has jointed "arms". Conducted by a singular master
storyteller called Tok Dalang, wayang kulit usually dramatises ancient Indian epics.
 Wayang kulit is similar to forms of shadow puppet drama popular in Indonesia. It is are based on
the Hindu epics the Ramayana and Mahabharata and performed by puppeteers known as
dalang who stands behind a screen and chants the story. Unlike the Indonesian shadow
puppetry, it is not performed to gamelon music, but rather to music performed by aderams (long
drums), painted wooden xylophone and serunai (an oboe-like instrument).
 Wayang kulit was originally introduced from India and has traditionally been an art form that
thrived in villages and rural areas. It has been performed at birthdays and harvest celebrations
and to help people cleanse themselves of “bad air.” The performances have mystical side.
Skilled dalang have been credited with “giving life” to their puppets. It is not unusual for
performances to draw audiences of 800 people and last several nights. The dalang is either paid
by the host or by a communal contribution.
 Describing a performance Marty Logan of Reuters wrote, “The dalang sits cross-legged, a bare
lightbulb suspended between him and a large white screen. Sauteed on the floor are the
puppets, cut from buffalo or goat hide and painted in bright colors to represent patience,
goodness, courage and other virtues. Seated in the dark, the audience watch the figure of the
virtuous Sri Rama suddenly appear. Then the black shadow of the evil demon Ravana swoops to
confront him. the figures feint and threaten. The dlang works their jaws, speaking a mix of
Kelantanese and Thai while the sound of drums, gongs and horn rises to a crescendo.”
 Islamic rulers in the state of Kelantan have banned wayang kulit on the grounds that is
unIslamic. In some places performances are only allowed to be staged for tourists not local
people. Interest in the art form has been waning as people have turned to television, karaokes
and DVDs for entertainment.

Nora Dance-Drama
 Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen of the Finnish Theatre Academy wrote: “Nora is a form of dance-drama
mainly performed in the southernmost provinces of Thailand and northern parts of Malaysia. The
name nora is a shortened form of the name Manora, the standard heroine of an ancient tale,
which often serves as the plot material for this type of dance-drama. Traditionally, nora has been
interwoven with elements of ancestor worship and spirit possession while, at the same time, it is
also a complex form of dance-drama. [Source: Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen,Asian Traditional Theater
and Dance website, Theatre Academy Helsinki |~|]
 “Nora has its own musical tradition and its movement techniques appear to have come almost
directly from far-off India; and it has an undeniable magical character. Its origin has been the
subject of much speculation. According to one theory, it is the link between the ancient theatrical
forms of the Malay Peninsula and the lakhon dance-drama of Central Thailand. |~|
 “It has also been claimed that nora separated from the Central Thai tradition at an early stage,
developing in isolation. It seems to be clear, however, that nora is a result of cultural contacts
with Sri Lanka and/or India. This is supported by the fact that its dance poses include direct
borrowings from early Indian dance as well as Sri Lankan dance. Furthermore, South Thailand
and North Malaysia, where nora still flourishes, were the crossroads of ancient sea trade routes
which connected the area with India as well as with Sri Lanka.” |~|
Whatever its origin, nora is a unique theatre tradition in its inimitability and expressiveness. It is
an embodiment of the complex syncretistic belief system of the region where it is performed. Its
ritual elements reflect the local animism, its central plot material is derived from Buddhist lore,
and its movement technique is related to the Indian Hindu tradition, while the tradition is now
thriving in predominantly Muslim communities.

Bangsawan Popular Theater

 Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen of the Finnish Theatre Academy wrote: “The popular theatre of the
Malays is called bangsawan (bangsa: people; wan: noble). Its stories are from Arabian
romances, other Islamic literature, and Malay history. They usually deal with rulers and
aristocrats and some themes are borrowed from Western theatre. [Source: Dr. Jukka O.
Miettinen,Asian Traditional Theater and Dance website, Theatre Academy Helsinki |~|]
 “Bangsawan is a kind of melodramatic, semi-operatic form of drama that combines songs with
spoken dialogue. Its popularity has recently faded, but it was extremely well liked, especially
before World War II, when bangsawan troupes toured as far as Sumatra and Java, influencing
popular theatre there. |~|
 “The origins of bangsawan can be traced back to popular Indian theatre. In 1875 a Parsi theatre
company from Bombay performed with great success in Penang, which led to the creation of
bangsawan. It is usually performed on a Western-kind of proscenium stage with painted
backdrops and semi-historical costuming. From the very beginning it has been purely commercial
theatre without any links to either courts of the religion. |~|
 “In bangsawan throughout written scripts are rare. The more or less fantastic plots give only
rough outlines of the action, thus leaving much space for improvisation. The stories include Arab
material, such as the Thousand and One Nights, as well as Indian, Indonesian, and Chinese
stories. Even Western stories are popular, including Shakespeare’s plays. |~|
 “In their quality the colourful, painted backdrops reflected the economic standing of the troupe.
The wealthier the group, the more pompous were the paintings. A set of backdrops usually
includes a curtain, a street scene, a garden, a palace hall, and a jungle view. Until the early 20th
century it was customary that these scenes followed each other in a certain order, but this
practice was later abolished. |~|
 “Even troupes with less elaborate backdrops aimed to create “local flavour” in their productions.
For example, plays with Indian themes are accompanied by Indian Bollywood-kind music and
costuming in order to refer to India, and Chinese stories were staged similarly with some
references to Chinese music and visual elements. |~|
 “Although the story material of the bangsawan repertoire is vast and heterogeneous, the role
types seen on the stage follow a fixed system. The lead is often a young man, even a poor one,
but through his cleverness and other qualities he attains his status as a hero. The female lead is
usually a charming maiden. Other stock characters are a king, ministers and courtiers. Spirits,
hermits and clowns may also be included, according to general Southeast Asia tradition. |~|
 “The acting is not limited by any rigid style, which is often the case in ceremonial or court
traditions. Bangsawan acting is characterised by melodramatics and improvisation, as well as a
kind of elasticity, which makes it possible to change the style according to the performers’ skills
and the needs of the play performed. Battle scenes are often enacted by the use of movements
and poses of the pentjak silat martial arts. |~|

Modern Theater in Malaysia

 Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen of the Finnish Theatre Academy wrote: “Malaysia’s traditional performing
arts are in a serious crisis. The reason is the multi-ethnicity of the country and the official cultural
policy, dictated by the Muslin-dominated bureaucrats. Most of the traditional performing art
traditions described above belong to a smaller cultural sphere, main puteri and mak yong to
sultanates of the east coast, with its long Hindu-Buddhist tradition, and others to either Chinese
or Indian etc. minorities. The significant Chinese community, amounting to roughly one third of
the population, brought their once thriving operatic tradition with them. Chinese puppet theatre
can also sometimes be seen.[Source: Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen,Asian Traditional Theater and
Dance website, Theatre Academy Helsinki |~|]
 “The official cultural policy in some of the sultanates, however, follows the guidelines set mainly
by fundamentalist Muslims, who do not appreciate cultural traditions stemming from other belief
systems. For example, in 2001, staging the unique performing art traditions of the east coast
was, if not completely banned, at least seriously restricted. |~|
 “The cultural climate varies from region to region. In the capital, Kuala Lumpur, various kinds of
performances can be seen. Bangsawan, a form of folk theatre, was still a kind of Pan-Malaysian
form of entertainment some decades ago, which was not restricted to any particular local
tradition. In 1979 an attempt was made by the theatre specialist Ghulam-Sarwar Yousof to create
a new kind of shadow theatre, wayang kulit malaysia. The old Hindu Ramayana was replaced by
stories that were not contradictory to the tradition of Islam. |~|
 “All kinds of forms of Western entertainment from movies to musicals are popular. The only
bangsawan troupe still active is connected to the Universiti Sains Malaysia, in Penang. This
university is one of the active centres of theatre and theatre research. It has, for example, invited
dalang puppeteer masters to teach there. The university theatres serve as platforms for a new
generation of playwrights, directors and actors, who often work in the field of Western-influenced
spoken drama. However, interesting experiments have been made in the modern performance
arts as well in dance. Several dancers and choreographers are aiming to create a new kind of
dance by combining Malaysian traditions, such as main puteri and silat, with contemporary
elements.” |~|