Abstract

In the literature, fractional models are commonly approximated by transfer

functions with a geometric distribution of poles and zeros, or equivalently, using
electrical Foster or Cauer type networks with components whose values also meet
geometric distributions. This paper first shows that this geometric distribution is
only a particular distribution case and that many other distributions (an infinity) are
in fact possible. From the networks obtained, a class of partial differential
equations (heat equation with a spatially variable coefficient) is then deduced. This
class of equations is thus another tool for power law type long memory behaviour
modelling, that solves the drawback inherent in fractional heat equations that was
proposed to model anomalous diffusion phenomena.

Graphical abstract
Power law type behaviour of T0,sφ0,s.

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Keywords
Power law type long memory behaviours
Fractional models
Cauer networks
Foster networks
Heat equation
Poles and zeros geometric distributions

Introduction
It is well known that the diffusion equation of the
form(1)∂ϕx,t∂t=Df∂2ϕx,t∂x2produces power law type long memory behaviours of
order 0.5 (Df is a diffusion coefficient). That is why the Warburg impedance,
defined in the frequency domain (variable ω) by Zjω=jω-1/2, was introduced to
model numerous diffusion-controlled processes in many domains such as
electrochemistry [44], [23], [42], [36], [3], solid-state electronics and
ionics [15], [41], [2]. However, it is also well-known that there are processes
whose behaviour cannot be modelled by the Warburg impedance as they exhibit a
power law type behaviour of the form(2)Zjω=jω-ν0<ν<1ν∈Rat least in a limited
frequency range. These behaviours are connected to anomalous diffusion-based
processes [10]. To model this kind of behaviour, “fractionalizations” of the
diffusion equation were introduced [4]. These fractional (in time) diffusion
equations are defined by(3)∂νϕx,t∂tν=Df∂2ϕx,t∂x20<ν<1
However, this class of equations has similar drawbacks to those recently
highlighted for fractional differential equations [34], [35] and for the resulting
fractional models such as pseudo state space descriptions [28]. First, in relation (3),
the fractional differentiation operator ∂ν∂tν is not defined uniquely. More than 30
definitions were listed in [9]. Results presented in the literature are obtained by
choosing the most convenient definition to obtain them. In most cases, it is the
Caputo definition that is chosen, as it can take into account the initial conditions
without taking into account all the past of the system. However it was
demonstrated in [25], [30] that all the system past (t→-∞)must be taken into
account to ensure a proper initialisation, thus leading to difficulties in the definition
of this past. This reflects the fact that the fractional differentiation
operator ∂ν∂tν (but also the fractional integration operator) has an infinite memory,
and exhibits infinitely slow and infinitely fast time constants. Such a situation
excludes the possibility of linking the model internal variables to physical
variables, even if fractional models remain accurate fitting models. Along the same
lines, there is no proof for the physical meaning of parameter units associated to
relation (3) (parameter Df). To conclude this list of drawbacks, fractional
differentiation and fractional integration operators are defined using singular
kernels [32], [34], thus leading to difficulties in the solution/simulation of the
fractional diffusion equation (3).
For all these reasons, alternative models must be found to model anomalous
diffusion processes that exhibit power law type long memory behaviours, as was
done recently for fractional differential equations [35], [37]. To reach this goal, this
paper first reminds several solution that can be found in the literature for the
approximation of fractional integration operator. The approximation based on a
transfer function whose poles and zeros (frequency modes) are geometrically
distributed is used in the sequel. This approximation method is efficient but two
limitations must be mentioned:
–
the resulting transfer function behaves exactly as a limited frequency band
fractional integration operator with an infinite number of poles and
zeros [20] but becomes sub-optimal for a limited number of poles and
zeros [31],
–
the geometric distribution of poles and zeros is a particular case, as an
infinite number of distributions is possible.

The latter limitation is demonstrated in this paper on the integral form of the
impulse response of a fractional integrator. This integral form also permits a direct
approximation with a Foster network with resistors and capacitors whose values
are linked with defined functions.

For a geometric distribution for the resistor and capacitor values, it is also
demonstrated in the paper that a Cauer network impedance also exhibits a power
law type behaviour. From this geometric distribution, it is then shown that an
infinity of other distributions is permitted to produce a power law type behaviour
in the case of a Cauer network, reducing the geometric distribution to a particular
case.

As a Cauer network can be viewed as the discrete form of a diffusion equation, the
last part of the paper deduces diffusion equations with spatially variable
coefficients that enable power law type behaviours to be produced. It is argued that
this class of equations is a possible alternative to fractional diffusion equations for
anomalous diffusion process modelling.

The main contributions of this paper are found in Sections ‘Beyond geometric
distribution, Extension to Cauer type networks, Heat equation with spatially
variable coefficients for power law type long memory behaviour modelling
and Discussions around some other distributions for further’. Section ‘Prior
art on the approximation of fractional order integrators and the resulting
electrical networks’ is dedicated to reminders on the approximation of a fractional
order integrator and to the resulting electrical networks, results which will be used
in the sequel of the paper. As a first contribution, Section ‘Beyond geometric
distribution’ shows that a geometric distribution of poles and zeros for the
approximation of a fractional order integrator is only a particular distribution and
that an infinity of other distributions are permitted. The analytic way to obtain
these new distributions had never been presented before in the literature. Due to the
close link between the approximations obtained and Foster type networks, Section
‘Beyond geometric distribution’ also demonstrates as a new contribution that an
infinity of Foster type networks can be used to produce power law type behaviours.
Section ‘Extension to Cauer type networks’ is dedicated to Cauer type networks.
It is well known that a geometric distribution of the parameters in these networks
produces power law type behaviours. But the present work proposes an analytical
proof never published and uses it to produce other distributions (an infinity exist)
of parameters that also lead to the same kind of behaviour. As a Cauer type
network can be obtained through the discretisation of a heat equation, Section
‘Heat equation with spatially variable coefficients for power law type long
memory behaviour modelling’ proposes a class of heat equation with spatially
varying coefficients that produce power law type behaviours. This is another
contribution of the paper that can be viewed as an alternative solution to fractional
diffusion equation for anomalous diffusion modelling, without the limitations and
drawbacks associated to fractional differentiation. The paper ends with a
discussion and propositions for finding other spatially varying coefficients for the
heat equation leading to power law type long memory behaviours.
Prior art on the approximation of fractional order
integrators and the resulting electrical networks
Fractional models and consequently fractional order integrator are infinite
dimensional, thus their simulations or their implementations require their
approximations. Many methods were proposed in the literature to obtain
approximate models and many have overlaps so that it is not easy to categorize
them. 28 methods are analysed in [39]. Some of them are implemented in digital
tools, a comparison of which is proposed in [14]. Note also that discussions about
power law in electrical circuits and some power-law relations in Laplace
transforms can be found in [38], [40], [9].
In most of these methods the fractional model is replaced by a classical integer
model under various forms: continuous time model, discrete time model, electrical
network (it is often simple to go from one form to another). Some apply to the full
fractional model such as frequency domain fitting based methods [1]. But, as a
fractional integrator chain appears in a fractional model, a large part of the
proposed methods concentrates on the approximation of the fractional integrator of
transfer function s-ν. Among all these methods, the following are the most common
–
power series expansion (PSE) techniques based on Taylor series, Maclaurin
series, etc. [40], [21], [6],
–
continued fractional expansion based methods [43],
–
impulse response based method [29],
–
time moments based approaches [12],
–
Carlson method based approaches [7],
–
optimisation based methods [5],
–
frequency distribution mode approach [16], [11], [19], [24], [8], [45].
In this last class of method, a widely used is the one known in the literature as the
Oustaloup method [20] although a similar approach was proposed by Manabe [16].
This method, based on a geometric distribution of mode is widespread because it
comes in the form of a simple algorithm, given below.
Algorithm 1
In the frequency band ωl,ωh, the limited frequency band fractional integrator of
transfer function ILbνs defined in (4) can be approximated by the transfer
function INνs
(4)ILbνs=C01+sωh1+sωlν≈INνs=C0'∏k=1N1+sωk'∏k=1N1+sωkC0=1+1ωh21+1ωl2-ν
As shown in [20], the corner frequencies ωkandω'k (respectively the poles and zeros
of the transfer function INνs) are geometrically distributed to obtain the required
 frequency behaviour:(5)r=ωhωl1Nα=rνη=r1-
ν(6)ω1=η1/2ωlω'1=αω1ω'k+1=rω'kωk+1=rωkk∈1..N.
Remark 1
As shown in [20] this algorithm is exact as N tends towards infinity:
(7)ILbνs=C0limN→∞∏k=1N1+sωk'∏k=1N1+sωkandthusr→1but becomes sub-
optimal [31] with a finite number of corner frequencies ωkandω'k. In this case, the
sub optimality relates to the absolute and relative error between ILbνsandINνs for a
given N.
Using fraction expansion, approximation (4) can be rewritten as:
(8)INνs=∑k=1NRk1+sωk
If it is assumed that the transfer function INνs links an input current Is to an output
voltage Us, then, from relation (8) the following relation holds:
(9)Us=∑k=1NUkswithUks=Rk1+sωkIs.
The transfer function INνs can thus be represented by the electrical network of Fig.
1 by introducing parameters Ck such that RkCk=ωk. Corner frequencies ωk are
linked by the ratio r so that ωk+1=rωk. For large values of N, Fig. 2 shows that the
following relations also hold:(10)Rk+1≈αRkwithCk+1≈ηCkand the transfer
function INνs exhibits a power law behaviour.

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Fig. 1. Electrical network (Foster type) whose impedance is INνs.
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Fig. 2. Logarithm of ratios Rk+1RkandCk+1Ck in
relation (10) for ωl=1,ωh=106; ν=0.3 with α=1.0208, η=1.0493and N = 200 (a)
or α=1.0021, η=1.0048 and N = 2000 (b).
This geometric distribution of corner frequencies or of components in the electrical
network of Fig. 1 (electrical networks with resistors and inductors are also
possible), now admitted by all, is however a particular case among an infinity of
other possible distributions. Other distributions are presented in the next section:
some can improve the optimality problem mentioned in remark 1 [31], and can be
applied to more complex transfer functions such as the one given by
relation (4) (see Appendix A.1).
–
Beyond geometric distribution.

Using the Cauchy method, the impulse response ht of a fractional model of transfer
function Hs can be written under the form(11)ht=L-1H(s)=∫0∞μxe-txdx.
As an example, consider the transfer function(12) Hs=1sν.
It can be shown that [22](13)ht=∫0∞μxe-txdxwithμx=sinνππxνand
thus(14)Hs=∫0∞μxs+xdx
Remark 2
If ht is the impulse response of a model whose input is ut, the convolution product
of relation (11) with an input ut means that the model output can be written as:
 (15)yt=∫0∞μxwt,xdx,ẇt,x=-xwt,x+utwhich is in fact the diffusive representation
introduced by [18], [17].
From the discretization of integral (14), it is easy to deduce an electrical network
whose transfer function is an approximation of Hs on a given frequency
range xmin,xmax. Using the Euler approximation method (but many other methods
of higher order can be used), integral (14) can be approximated as follows:
(16)Hs=∫0∞μxs+xdx≈Has=∑k=0NμxkΔxs+xk,withx0=xminwith(17)x0=xminΔx=xmax-
xminNxk=xmin+kΔx.
Applied to transfer function (12), the following approximation can be
obtained(18)Hs≈Has=sinνππ∑k=0Nxk-νs+xkΔx.
For ν=0.4, on the frequency range ωl,ωh with ωl=0.001rd/sandωh=1000rd/s the
approximation Has Bode diagrams are shown in Fig. 3 with several values ofN,
(N=105,N=5∗105,N=106), showing that a large number N is required for the power
law type behaviour appears.

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Fig. 3. Bode diagram of Has (given by relation (18)).
As relation (15) can be rewritten as(19)Has=∑k=0Nsinνππxk-ν-1sxk+1Δx,it permits a
realization using an RC network like the one in Fig. 1 with(20)Rk=sinνππxk-ν-
1Δx,Ck=1sinνππxk-ν-1Δxandωk=1RkCk=xkas the circuit impedance in Fig.
1 is(21)Gs=∑k=0NRkRkCks+1
Note that an RL (resistor-self) circuit can also be designed. Also note that this
approximation method can be applied to many other transfer functions of which a
non-exhaustive list is given in Appendix A.1, Table A1. For instance, the impulse
 response of transfer function (4) is defined by (see Appendix A.1)(22)L-
1Iaνs=C0sωh+1νsωl+1ν=C0ωlωhνδ(t)+sin(νπ)π∫ωhωb(ωh-x)ν(x-ωl)ν(s+x)dxwhere δ(t) is
the Dirac impulse function. According to the previous comments,
(23)ILbνs≈a0+∑k=0Naksωk+1with(24)a0=C0(ωlωh)ν,ak=C0(ωlωh)νsin(νπ)π(ωh-ωk)ν(ωk-
ωl)νωkΔx,ωk=ωh+kΔx,Δx=ωh-ωbN.
Fraction expansion of INνs in relation (4) can also be written
as(25)ILbνs=a'0+∑k=0Na'ksωk+1
A comparison of coefficients akanda'kis given by Fig. 4. It reveals that, for a large
value of N, ak≈a'k and that the two approximations are very close.

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Fig. 4. Comparison of coefficients akanda'k, with N=2000
and ν=0.3, ωl=1rd/s, ωh=106rd/s (zoom inside the figure).
If the transfer function Hs of relation (12) is considered again (for simplicity but a
similar analysis can be done with the transfer functions of Table A1),
relation (20) highlights that the capacitors and resistors are linked by the
recurrence relations:(26)Rk+1Rk=xk+1-ν-1xk-ν-1Ck+1Ck=xk-ν-1xk+1-ν-1
It can be noticed, that unlike relation (10), the ratios linking two resistors or two
capacitors are not constant and depend on k. This discretization can be viewed as
an alternative solution to algorithm 1, but as parameter N must be very large to
have an accurate approximation on a large frequency band, it requires a very large
number of components in the network of Fig. 1. Such a defect is due to the fixed
step discretization of integral (11). To overcome this defect, it is possible to search
 for a change of variable that contracts the frequency domain, thus making the fixed
step discretization more efficient.
As a first try, the following change of variable is used in relation (14):
(27)x=az=ezlnawitha∈R+∗thusdx=lnaezlnadz.
Hs can be rewritten as:(28)Hs=∫-∞∞μezlnas+ezlnalnaezlnadz=∫-∞∞lnaμezlnasezlna+1dz.
This transfer function can be approximated by:
(29)Has=∑k=0Nlnaμezklnasezklna+1Δzwith(30)z0=lnxminlnaΔx=lnxmaxlna-
lnxminlnaNzk=lnxminlna+kΔz.
Such a discretisation permits the realization of Fig. 1 with:(31)Rk=sinνππlnae-
νzklnaΔzCk=1sinνππlnae-ν+1zklnaΔzand(32)ωk=1RkCk=ezklna.
If =0.4,a=10, N=10, ωl=0.001rd/s, ωh=1000rd/s, the Bode diagrams of the
approximation Has in relation (29) with change of variable (27) are shown in Fig.
5. They are very similar to those of Fig. 3 obtained with relation (18) and N=106,
thus showing the interest of the change of variable (27) in reducing the size of the
approximation.
Remark 3
Whatever the value of a, and as:
(33)zk+1-zk=lnxminlna+k+1Δz-lnxminlna-kΔz=Δz

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Fig. 5. Bode diagram of Has with change of variable (27) and comparison with the
Bode diagrams of approximation (18).
It can be noticed that(34)Rk+1Rk=e-νzk+1lnae-νzklna=e-νΔzlnaCk+1Ck=1e-
ν+1zk+1lnae-ν+1zklna=e-ν+1lna
 And(35)ωk+1ωk=1RkCk=eΔlna.
The previous relation highlights a geometric distribution of the values of resistors,
capacitors and corner frequencies, defined by the following ratios:(36) α=e-
νΔzlnaη=e-ν+1lna.
This geometric distribution generalises the one introduced by Oustaloup [19], [20].
The latter is indeed a particular case obtained with a=10, among the infinite number
of distributions obtained for all the other values of a, and for other changes of
variable that can be proposed instead of relation (27). Among this infinity, the
following one is interesting as it also makes it possible to contract the frequency
domain.
Using the following change of variable(37)zn=xorz=x1/nwithn∈N∗thusdx=nzn-
1dzrelation (14) can be rewritten as:(38)Hs=sinνππ∫0∞z-νns+znnzn-1dz=sinνππ∫0∞nz-
νn-1szn+1dzand permits the network of Fig. 1 with:(39)Rk=sinνππnzk-νn-
1Δz,Ck=1sinνππnzk-νn-1+nΔz,and(40)ωk=1RkCk=zkn.
If ν=0.4,n=60, N=10, ωl=0.001rd/s, ωh=1000rd/s is the Bode diagrams of the
approximation Has obtained by discretisation of integral (38) and change of
variable (37) are shown in Fig. 6. They are compared with the Bode diagrams
obtained with change of variable (27). The comparison reveals that the two
changes of variable are of equivalent quality with the same complexity ( N=10).

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Fig. 6. Bode diagram of Has with the change of variable (37) and comparison with
change of variable (27).
 As an infinity of changes of variable can be proposed, an infinity of Foster type
networks can be used to generate a power law behaviour. The following section
shows that Cauer networks can also generate this type of behaviour with an infinity
of different distributions.

Extension to Cauer type networks

The Cauer network of Fig. 7 is considered.

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Fig. 7. Cauer type RC network.
For the geometric distribution, such as the one defined by relations (5), (6), an
analytical result can be obtained to show that a Cauer type network generates a
power law behaviour. Considering the network in Fig. 7, the following relations
hold(41)1sCkIk-1s-Iks=Uksand(42)Uk+1s-Uks=-RkUks.
From relations (41), (42) respectively, it can be written that(43)UksUk-
1s=1sCk1+1sCkIksUksand(44)IksUks=1Rk1+1RkUi+1sIis.
Combining relations (43), (44), it can be shown that the input admittance of the
network in Fig. 7 is defined by the continued fraction:
(45)Hs=I0sU0s=1R11+1sC1R11+1sC1R21+1sC2R21+⋯.
Suppose that in Fig. 7, the resistors and capacitors are geometrically distributed
and linked by the following ratios (as in [19]):(46)Rk+1Rk=σandCk+1Ck=ρ,and
if Zs=1sC1R1 relation (45) becomes(47)Hs=I0sU0s=1R11+Zs1+Zs/σ1+Zs/σρ1+Zs/σ2ρ1
+Zs/σ2ρ21+⋯Zs/σNρN1+Zs/σN+1ρN.
Introducing the
function(48)gZs,σ,ρ=Zs1+Zs/σ1+Zs/σρ1+Zs/σ2ρ1+Zs/σ2ρ21+⋯Zs/σNρN1+Zs/σN+1ρN
relation (48) becomes(49)Hs=I0sU0s=1R11+gZs,σ,ρ.
If N tends towards infinity, function gZs,σ,ρ meets the following property:
Property 1
Function gZs,σ,ρ meets the following relation gZs,σ,ρ=Zs1+gZs,ρ,σ
Thanks to property 1, the function gZs,σ,ρ can be written under the form of a
rational function with descending powers.
Theorem 1
With N→∞(50)gZs,σ,ρ=Kσ,ρZsν1+∑k=1∞C2k-1σ,ρZsσ-ν-k+1+C2kσ,ρZsσ-
k1+∑k=1∞C2k-1ρ,σZs-ν-k+1+C2kρ,σZs-k
Using theorem 1, demonstrated in Appendix A.2, for Zs≫1, (as σ>1),
admittance Hs meets the relation(51)Hs≈1R1Kσ,ρZsν
If the network results from an infinitesimal slicing of a continuous medium of
abscissa z, the ratio of two consecutive components (capacitor or resistor)
denoted Fis given by:(52)Fk+1Fk=Fkdz+dzdzFkdzdzwhere dz denotes the thickness
of the considered slices, with dz→0.
Given that(53)Fkdz+dz-Fkdzdz=F'kdzdz→0where F'z denotes the derivative of Fz and
thus(54)Fkdz+dz=Fkdz+F'kdzdzthe ratio of
relation (52) becomes(55)Fk+1Fk=1+F'kdzFkdzdz.
If this ratio, only a function of dz, is assumed constant ∀k as in relation (46) and
equal to Λ, using relation (55),(56)Λ=1+F'kdzFkdzdz=1+λfdzwith(57)F'kdzFkdz=λf
After resolution of the differential equation (57), function Fkdz is given
by(58)Fkdz=F0eλfkdzz∈0,∞.
This shows that the lineic characteristics of the discretized medium that produces
the network of Fig. 7 are defined by:(59)Rz=R0eλRzandCz=C0eλCzz∈0,∞.
The ratio of two consecutive resistors and capacitors is thus defined by:
(60)Rk+1Rk=Rk+1dxRkdx=eλRΔzandCk+1Ck=Ck+1dxCkdx=eλCΔz.
Now consider the change of variable z=logx, x∈1,∞, then
relation (59) becomes(61)Rx=R0xλRandCx=C0xλCx∈1,∞
With an infinitesimal slicing of the continuous medium, the system can be
characterised by the network of Fig. 7 with:
(62)Rk=Rkdx=R0kdxλRdxandCk=Ckdx=C0kdxλCdx
The ratio of two consecutive resistors and capacitors is thus defined by:
(63)Rk+1Rk=R0k+1dxλRdxR0kdxλRdx=k+1λRkλRandCk+1Ck=C0k+1dxλCdxC0kdxλCdx
=k+1λCkλC
These ratios are similar to those given by relation (26) for the Foster circuit of Fig.
1.
The following change of variable z=logxn, x∈1,∞, n∈N+∗ is now considered.
Relation (62) thus becomes(64)Rx=R0xnλRandCx=C0xnλCx∈1,∞.
With an infinitesimal slicing of the continuous medium, the system can be
characterised by the network of Fig. 7 with:
(65)Rk=Rkdx=R0kdxnλRdxandCk=Ckdx=C0kdxnλCdx.
 The ratio of two consecutive resistors and capacitors is thus defined by:
(66)Rk+1Rk=R0k+1dxnλRdxR0kdxnλRdx=k+1nλRknλRandCk+1Ck=C0k+1dxnλCdxC0kd
xnλCdx=k+1nλCknλC.
These ratios are similar to those given by relation (39) for the Foster circuit of Fig.
1.
These networks and the associated distributions are used in the next section to
introduce a class of heat equation that exhibits a power law type long memory
behaviour.

Heat equation with spatially variable coefficients for

power law type long memory behaviour modelling
The following heat equation with spatially dependent parameters is now
considered.(67)∂Tz,t∂t=γz∂∂zβz∂Tz,t∂zwith z∈R+.
This equation is a simplified form of the equation studied in [13].
Let(68)φz,t=βz∂Tz,t∂z.
Discretisation of equation (68) with a discretisation stepΔzleads to:
(69)φz,t=βzTz+dz,t-Tz,tΔzand thus:(70)Tz,t-Tz+dz,t=-Δzβzφz,t.
Using relation (69), relation (67) can be rewritten as:(71)∂Tz,t∂t=γz∂φz,t∂z.
Spatial discretisation of Eq. (71) with a discretisation step Δz leads to:
(72)∂Tz,t∂t=γzφz+dz,t-φz,tΔz=γzΔzφz+dz,t-φz,t.
For z=kΔz and if the following notations are introduced(73) Ck=-
ΔzγkΔz=CkΔzΔzandRk=-ΔzβkΔz=RkΔzΔzdiscretisation of Eq. (67) thus leads to the
Cauer network of Fig. 8.

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Fig. 8. Cauer type RC network resulting from the discretization of relation (67).
As Ck=CkΔzΔzandRk=RkΔzΔz, according to relations (46), (62), (72), the transfer
function φ0,s/T0,s of the Cauer network of Fig. 8 exhibits a power law type long
memory behaviour if(74)Rk+1Rk=eλRΔzandCk+1Ck=eλCΔz(relation(46))
(75)Rk+1Rk=k+1λRkλRandCk+1Ck=k+1λCkλC(relation(62))
(76)Rk+1Rk=k+1nλRknλRandCk+1Ck=k+1nλCknλC(relation(72))and according to the
 relations (59), (60), (63), the heat equation (67) exhibits a power law type long
memory behaviour if (as γz=-1/Czandβz=-1/Rz according to relation (73))(77)-γz=-
1C0eλCzandβz=-1R0eλRzz∈0,∞.(relation(59))(78)γz=-1C0zλCandβz=-
1R0zλRz∈1,∞(relation(60))(79)γz=-1C0znλCandβz=-1R0znλRz∈1,∞(relation(63))
Of course, as previously explained, many other spatially varying coefficients can
be obtained using other changes of variable than those proposed at the end of
Section ‘Extension to Cauer type networks’.
Discussions around some other distributions for further
Now, among the infinity of distributions that can be obtained using changes of
variable as shown in Section ‘Beyond geometric distribution’, the following is
studied:(80)z=x-ν,orx=z-1/νthusdx=-1νz-1ν-1dz
Using this change of variable, relation (14) becomes:(81)Hs=sinνππ∫+∞0zs+z-1ν-1νz-
1ν-1dz=sinνππ∫0∞1νz-1νs+z-1νdzor after simplification(82)Hs=sinνπνπ∫0∞1sz-1ν+1dz
and permits the realization of Fig. 1 with:
(83)Has=∑k=0NRkRkCks+1Rk=sinνπνπΔz=CteCk=νπzk1νsinνππΔzandωk=1RkCk=zk-1ν.
If =0.4,N=10,000, ωl=0.001rd/s, ωh=1000rd/s the Bode diagrams of the
approximation Has are shown in Fig. 9. They are compared with the Bode diagrams
of approximation (18) and the one obtained with change of variable (37). As for
approximation (18), parameterNmust be very large to have an accurate
approximation of s-νon a large frequency band, but the interest of this change of
variable is not there.

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 Fig. 9. Bode diagram of Has of relation (83) with change of variable (80) and
comparisons with the Bode diagrams of approximation (18) and the one obtained with
change of variable (37).
The distribution of resistors and capacitors of relation (83) is now used to build the
Cauer network of Fig. 7, with ν=0.4, N = 1000, Δz=2 and(84)C0=νπsin(νπ).
The resulting Bode diagram of the transfer function I0s/U0s is represented by Fig.
10. This diagram shows yet again that a power law behaviour can be obtained
without a geometric distribution of resistors and capacitors. In this circuit, all the
resistors have the same values and the capacitors are linked by the following
relation(85)Ck+1Ck=N-k-1Δz1νN-kΔz1ν=N-k-11νN-k1ν.

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Fig. 10. Bode diagram of transfer function I0s/U0s of the Cauer type RC network with
distribution of relation (83).
This class of components distribution, that cannot be deduced using a change of
variable in relation (59), and the resulting class of spatially varying coefficients in
relation (67) will be studied by the author in future work.
Conclusion
This paper shows that an infinity of

–
pole and zero distributions (frequency modes) in classical integer transfer
functions,

–
 passive component value distributions (such as capacitors or resistors) in
Foster type networks,

can generate power law type long memory behaviours. Hence, the geometric
distributions [19], [20] often encountered in the literature are a particular case
among an infinity of distributions.
For the Foster type network the proof is easy to establish using several changes of
variables, as this network results directly from the discretisation of a filter transfer
function that exhibits a power law behaviour. The proof for the Cauer type network
is more tedious and is developed in the paper.

Due to the close link between Cauer type networks and heat equations (through
discretisation), this paper also shows the ability of heat equations with a spatially
variable coefficient to have a power law type long memory behaviour. This class of
equation is thus another tool for power law type long memory behaviour modelling
that solves the drawback inherent in fractional heat equations. This class of
equation will be more deeply studied by the author.

Finally, this paper shows, without proof, that other distributions and thus heat
equations with spatially variable coefficients also exhibit power law type long
memory behaviours. Moreover, by increasing the number of components in each
branch of the Cauer network, it is possible to keep a power law behaviour, which
suggests that there are a very large number of partial differential equations, other
than the heat equations, which can produce a power law type long memory
behaviour, some were already proposed in [27].
With reference to other papers recently published by the author [33], [35], this
work is a new contribution to the dissemination of models not based on fractional
differentiation but which exhibit power law type long memory behaviours.
Compliance with ethics requirements
This article does not contain any studies with human or animal subjects.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The author has declared no conflict of interest.

Appendix A.1. Impulse response of some transfer

functions that exhibit power law type long memory
behaviours
 The approximations given in Section ‘Beyond geometric distribution’ are made
on the integral form of the impulse response of the transfer function H(s)=1sν. The
methodology used to derive the approximations and the change of variable used in
Sections ‘Beyond geometric distribution’ and ‘Extension to Cauer type
networks’ can be extended to other transfer functions. The following one is now
considered:(A1.1)H1s=C1sωh+1ν-1sωl+1νwithC1=1ωl2+1ν21ωh2+1ν-12.
The impulse response of H1(s) is defined by(A1.2)h1t=12πj∫c-j∞c+j∞H1setsdswithc>-
ωl.
For the computation of integral (A1.2), path Γ=γ0∪...∪γ7 of Fig. A11 is considered
with c>-ωl.

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Fig. A1.1. Integration path considered.
This path bypasses the negative axis around the branching point z=-ωlandz=-
ωh for t>0. It thus avoids the complex plane domain for which the transfer
function H1(s) is not defined, i.e. the segment -ωh,-ωl.
On path Γ, the radii of sub-path γ1andγ7 tend towards infinity, and the radius of
sub-path γ4 tends towards 0. Using Cauchy’s theorem with c>-ωl:(A1.3)h1t=12πj∫c-
j∞c+j∞H1setsds=-12πj∫Γ-γ0H1setsds+∑polesinΓResH1sets.
Since(A1.4)Res[H1(s)ets]=0,operator H1(s) being strictly proper, by Jordan's lemma
integrals on the large circular arcs of radius R, R → ∞ can be neglected:
(A1.5)∫γ1+γ7H1(s)etsds=0
Let s=xejπ, x∈]∞,ωh] on γ2 and thus ds=ejπdx. Let also s=xe-jπ, x∈[ωh,∞[ on γ6 and
thus ds=e-jπdx. Then(A1.6)∫γ2+γ6H1setsds=ωlνωhν-1∫ωh∞xejπ+ωhν-1xejπ+ωlνe-
xtejπdx+ωlνωhν-1∫∞ωh(xe-jπ+ωh)ν-1(xe-jπ+ωl)νe-xte-
jπdx=Jγ2+γ6(t)or(A1.7)Jγ2+γ6(t)=ωlνωhν-1∫ωh∞ej(ν-1)π(x-ωh)ν-1ejνπ(x-ωl)νejπe-
xtdx+ωlνωhν-1∫∞ωhe-j(ν-1)π(x-ωh)ν-1e-jνπ(x-ωl)νe-jπe-xtdxand thus(A1.8)Jγ2+γ6(t)=0.
Let s=-ωl+ρejθ, θ∈]-π,π] and thus ds=jρejθdθ with ρ→0,
then(A1.9)∫γ4H1(s)etsds=ωlνωhν-1∫-ππ(-ωl+ωh+ρejθ)ν-1(ρejθ)νjρejθet(-ωl+ρejθ)dθ.
As ρ→0(A1.10)∫γ4Iν1(s)etsds=0.
Let s=xejπ, x∈[ωh,ωl] on γ3 and thus ds=ejπdx. Also let s=xe-jπ, x∈[ωl,ωh] on γ5 and
thus ds=e-jπdx. Then(A1.11)∫γ3+γ5H1(s)etsds=ωlνωhν-1∫ωlωhxejπ+ωhν-1xejπ+ωlνe-
xtejπdx+ωbνωhν-1∫ωhωl(xe-jπ+ωh)ν-1(xe-jπ+ωl)νe-xte-jπdx,and
then(A1.12)∫γ3+γ5H1(s)etsds=ωlνωhν-1∫ωhωb(ωh-x)ν-1(x-ωl)ν(ejνπ-e-jνπ)e-
xtdx=2jsin(νπ)ωlνωhν-1∫ωhωb(ωh-x)ν-1(x-ωl)νe-xtdx.
As(A1.13)h1(t)=-12πj∫Γ-γ0H1(s)etsdsusing
relations (A1.3), (A1.4), (A1.10), (A1.12), the impulse response of H1(s) is given
by, for t > 0:(A1.14)h1t=sinνππωlνωhν-1∫ωhωbωh-xν-1x-ωlνe-xtdx.
The same calculation can be done, with other transfer functions, giving Table
A1.1.
Table A1.1. Table of inverse Laplace transform of some transfer functions with power
law type long memory behaviour.
Hi(s) hi(t)

∑l=0Lblsβl∑k=0Kaksαk ∑i=1r∑j=1nirijYjtesit+1π∫0+∞∑k=0K∑l=0Lakblsinαk-
βlπxαk+βl∑k=0Kak2x2αk+∑0≤k≤l≤Kakalcosαk-αlπxαk+αle-xtdx

From [17] with demonstration in [26]. si are the poles.

1sν sin(νπ)π∫+∞01xνe-xtdx
1sωl+1ν sin(νπ)π∫+∞ωlωlν(x-ωl)νe-xtdx
sωh+1ν-1sωl+1ν sin(νπ)πωlνωhν-1∫ωhωl(ωh-x)ν-1(x-ωl)νe-xtdx
sωh+1νsωl+1ν (ωlωh)νδ(t)+sin(νπ)π∫ωhωb(ωh-x)ν(x-ωl)ν(s+x)dx  δ(t): Dirac impulse
1ssωl+11-νsωh+11-ν ωhωl1-νHet+sin1-νππ∫ωhωlx-ωl1-νxωh-x1-νe-xtdx  Het: Heaviside step function
e- 1π∫+∞b/acoszax-bax-be-xtdx
zas+bas+ba>0,b>0,z>0

Appendix A. 2. Demonstration of theorem 1

Suppose that the function gZs,σ,ρ is given by:(A2.1)gZs,σ,ρ=Kσ,ρZsνσ,ρ1+∑k=1∞a2k-
1σ,ρZs-νσ,ρ-k+1+a2kσ,ρZs-k1+∑k=1∞b2k-1σ,ρZs-νρ,σ-k+1+b2kσ,ρZs-kwhere 0<νσ,ρ<1an
d0<νρ,σ<1.
To make the demonstration easier to read, the following notations are
used: ν,ν',K,ak,bk to denote respectively νσ,ρ,νρ,σ,Kσ,ρ,akσ,ρ,bkσ,ρ.
Relation (A2.1) can thus be rewritten:(A2.2)gZs,σ,ρ=KZsν1+∑k=1∞a2k-1Zs-ν-
k+1+a2kZs-k1+∑k=1∞b2k-1Zs-ν'-k+1+b2kZs-k.
Also, let K',a'k,b'k denote the functions Kρ,σ,akρ,σ,bkρ,σ. The function gZs,ρ,σ is thus
defined by:(A2.3)gZs,ρ,σ=K'Zsν'1+∑k=1∞a'2k-1Zs-ν'-k+1+a'2kZs-k1+∑k=1∞b'2k-1Zs-ν-
k+1+b'2kZs-k.
Now using Z=Zsσ, the function gZsσ,ρ,σis defined by:
(A2.4)1+gZ,ρ,σ=1+K'Zν'+∑k=1∞b'2k-1Z-ν-k+1+K'a'2k-1Z-k+1+b'2kZ-k+K'a'2kZν'-
k1+∑k=1∞b'2k-1Z-ν-k+1+b'2kZ-kor(A2.5)1+gZ,ρ,σ=K'Zν'1+Z-ν'K'+∑k=1∞b'2k-1K'Z-ν-ν'-
k+1+a'2k-1Z-ν'-k+1+b'2kK'Z-ν'-k+a'2kZ-k1+∑k=1∞b'2k-1Z-ν-k+1+b'2kZ-k
Taking into account property 1,(A2.6)gZs,σ,ρ=Zs1+gZs,ρ,σand using relation (A2.5),
the function gZs,σ,ρis given by:(A2.7)gZs,σ,ρ=σν'Zs1-σ'1+∑k=1∞b'2k-1Zs-ν-
k+1+b'2kZs-kK'1+Zs-ν'K'+∑k=1∞b'2k-1K'Zs-ν-ν'-k+1+a'2k-1Zs-ν'-k+1+b'2kK'Zs-ν'-
k+a'2kZs-k
Term-to-term identification of relations (A2.1), (A2.7) leads to the following
equations:(A2.8)ν+ν'=1orνσ,ρ+νρ,σ=1and(A2.9)K=σν'K'orKσ,ρKρ,σ=σνρ,σ.
Eq. (A2.9) is symmetric in relation to ρandσ. It is thus possible to write
that(A2.10)σνρ,σ=Kσ,ρKρ,σ=Kρ,σKσ,ρ=ρνσ,ρand thus(A2.11)σνρ,σ=ρνσ,ρor taking the
logarithm of relation (A2.10)(A2.12)νρ,σlog=νσ,ρlogρ.
Using relation (A2.8), relation (A2.12) permits the following
equations(A2.13)νσ,ρ=logσlogσ+logρandνρ,σ=logρlogσ+logρ.
Term-to-term identification of relations (A2.1), (A2.7) also permits the following
equations:(A2.14)a2k-1=b'2k-1σν+k-1withk∈N∗(A2.15)b2k-1=a'2k-1+b'2k-1K'σν'+k-
1withk∈N∗andb'0=1(A2.16)a2k=b'2kσkwithk∈N∗(A2.17)b2k=a'2k+b'2k-1K'σkwithk∈N∗.
Eq. (A2.14) being symmetric in relation to ρandσ, it can be rewritten as(A2.18)a'2k-
1=b2k-1σν'+k-1withk∈N∗enabling Eq. (A2.15) to be rewritten as(A2.19)b2k-1=b2k-
1ρσν'+k-1+b'2k-2K'σν'+k-1withk∈N∗andb'0=1or using relation (A2.9):(A2.20)b2k-
1=Kb'2k-2σk-11-ρσν'+k-1withk∈N∗andb'0=1.
Eq. (A2.20) being symmetric in relation toρandσ, it can be rewritten as(A2.21)b'2k-
1=K'b2k-2ρk-11-ρσν+k-1withk∈N∗andb0=1.
Also, Eq. (A2.16) being symmetric in relation toρandσ, it can be rewritten
as(A2.22)a'2k=b2kρkwithk∈N∗enabling Eq. (A2.17) to be rewritten
as(A2.23)b2k=b2k-1ρσk+b'2k-2K'σkwithk∈N∗and thus(A2.24)b2k=b2k-1σkK'1-
ρσkwithk∈N∗andb'1=K'1-σor given relation (A2.21)(A2.25)b2k=b2k-2σkρk-11-ρσk1-
ρσν+k-1withk∈N∗andb0=1
The symmetric form of relation (A2.25) in relation to ρandσ permits to
write(A2.26)b'2k=b'2k-2ρkσk-11-ρσk1-ρσν'+k-1withk∈N∗andb'0=1.The set of
relations (A2.13), (A2.21) and (A2.25) thus prove that the function gZs,σ,ρmeets
the relation(A2.27)gZs,σ,ρ=Kσ,ρZsν1+∑k=1∞C2k-1ρ,σKρ,σZsσ-ν-k+1+C2kρ,σZsσ-
k1+∑k=1∞C2k-1σ,ρKσ,ρZs-ν'-k+1+C2kσ,ρZs-
kwith(A2.28)νσ,ρ=logσlogσ+logρ0<νσ,ρ<1(A2.29)c2kσ,ρ=σkρk-11-ρσk1-ρσν+k-1c2k-
2σ,ρk∈N∗andc0σ,ρ=1(A2.30)c2k-1σ,ρ=σk-11-ρσν'+k-1withk∈N∗-1andc1σ,ρ=11-ρIn
relation (A2.27), only coefficient Kσ,ρ remains to be computed. It is possible to
give an expression of Kσ,ρ in the form of a ratio of two series as Eq. (A2.27) can be
rewritten as:
(A2.31)gZs,σ,ρ=Kσ,ρZsν1+Kρ,σh1Zsσ,ρ,σ+h2Zsσ,ρ,σ1+Kσ,ρh1Zs,σ,ρ+h2Zs,σ,ρor using
relation (A2.9)
(A2.32)gZs,σ,ρ=Kσ,ρZsν1+σνKσ,ρh1Zsσ,ρ,σ+h2Zsσ,ρ,σ1+Kσ,ρh1Zs,σ,ρ+h2Zs,σ,ρ,with(A
2.33)h1Zs,σ,ρ=∑k=1∞C2k-1σ,ρZs-ν'-k+1,and(A2.34)h2Zs,σ,ρ=∑k=1∞C2kσ,ρZs-k.Now
usingZs=1in relation (A2.32), coefficient Kσ,ρ is given by:
(A2.35)Kσ,ρ=g1,σ,ρ+h21,σ,ρ-σνh11,ρ,σ1-h11,σ,ρ+h21,ρ,σ.
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