Genetics Lec - Mitosis

G1 Cells
– growth of nucleus
– nucleus enlarges (cells double in size)
– cytoplasm increases in amount
– signals necessary for cell division are received
– synthesis of enzymes for DNA synthesis
– synthesis of proteins that initiate DNA synthesis and trigger cell division
– chromatins: extended, not distinguishable

S phase
– synthesis of DNA
– synthesis of histones
– maturation of daughter centrioles
– RNA synthesis
– Synthesis of DNA polymerase
– Synthesis of RNAs needed for degeneration of nuclear membrane (to free chromosomes from nucleus)

G2 phase
– RNA synthesis (in lesser amounts)
– finishing touches of cell
– separation of daughter centrioles in pairs
– synthesis of RNAs needed to direct synthesis of proteins necessary for mitosis

G0 phase
– extension of interphase
– entered into by cells that: are differentiated or highly specialized + are metabolically active but will not
replicate anymore
– ex. muscles, nerves, brain, heart and eyes

Prophase
– nuclear membrane starts to disintegrate
– nucleolus starts to disappear
– chromosomes start to condense
– Coiling: Chromosomes will be cut or shortened because it will go out of the nucleus and it is too long if
not shortened
– spindle fibers start to form
– centrosomes start to move on opposite poles
– pairing

Nucleolus does NOT disintegrate. It only disassembles.

Nuclear membrane disintegrates.

Difference between chromosomes and chromatin:

Chromatin - uncoiled version of chromosome; in interphase stage
Chromosomes - coiled and thicker; most likely occurs in pairs
Both are made of nucleosomes - complex formed by DNA double helix packaged by histones
Both made of nucleic acid
They are the same but different forms

3 kinds of spindle fibres:

– Astral - position spindle in cell
– Polar - separate 2 poles
– Kinetochore - attached to kinetochore

Difference of centrosome and centriole:

Difference of centrosome and centriole:
Centriole
– housed in the centrosome
– used to form cilium and flagellum
– organise centrosome
Centrosome
– region in cell near nucleus consisting of centrioles at right angles to each other
– microtubules organizing enters (MTOC)
– duplicated during S phase
– forms microtubules that help in making cytoskeleton
– forms spindle fibres

Events that lead to disintegration of nuclear membrane

– nuclear membranes are fragmented into vesicles by enzymes
– nuclear pore complexes dissociate/disassemble
– nuclear lamina depolymerises

Nucleolus
– region of interphase nucleus
– contains many of genes that code for rRNAs
– nuclear subdomain that assembles ribosomal subunits in eukaryotic cells
– nucleolar organiser regions of chromosomes, which contain genes for pre-ribosomal ribonucleic acid
(rRNA), serve as foundation for nucleolar structure
– disassembles at the start of mitosis
– its components disperse in various parts of the cell and reassembly occurs during telophase and G1
phase
– Main composition: RNA, DNA, proteins
– also contains proteins and RNAs that are not related to ribosome assembly
– other functions: assembly of signal recognition particles, sensing cellular stress and transport of (HIV-1)
virus

Prometaphase
– nuclear membrane completely breaks down
– centrosomes continue to move apart
– chromosomes start to move towards metaphase plate
– chromosomes coil and supercoil

Chromosomes move to metaphase plate

– 2 kinetochores on each pair of sister chromatids becomes attached to kinetochore microtubules from
opposite poles
– Chromosomes pushed to center

Kinetochore - protein complex

– those associated with centromeres have ability to bind microtubules and depolarize them during cell
division during cell division
Centromere - constricted region on chromosome with highly specialized, repetitive DNA sequences
– cannot bind microtubules

Metaphase plate - where centromeres and chromosomes convene

– equidistant from 2 centrosome poles
– position of centrosome determines orientation

Metaphase
– chromosomes are at their thickest and shortest
– aligned at metaphase plate at random

Anaphase
Anaphase
– spindle fibers shorten and pull chromosomes towards opposite pole of cell
– sister chromatids separate

cohesin holds chromatids

metaphase: most cohesion is removed except for at the centromere
securin inhibits separase
securine is hydrolyzed in anaphase = separase hydrolyzes remaining cohesin

What causes change of shape in cell?

– spindle fibers not attached to chromosomes interact and lengthen to push poles of cell apart = oval
– START of cytokinesis

Cytokinesis
– division of cytoplasm
– starts when chromosomes arrive at opposite poles
– presence of cleavage furrow
– microfilament (actomyosin) attach to plasma membrane and form ring around equator of cell
Ring contracts and constricts equator
cell is divided once constricted
 – plants: cell wall —> makes it impossible to just divide cell into 2 by just pinching
Carbohydrate-filled vesicles which bud off the golgi complexes line up along cell’s equator between the
2 nuclei
vesicles fuse producing cell plate
pectins deposited between the 2 membranes form middle lamella
cellulose is brought to middle lamella

Telophase
– reorganisation stage of cell
– spindle fibers disintegrate
– nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear
– chromosomes revert back to extended state

Checkpoints
– points in cell cycle which progression of cell can be halted until conditions are favorable
– near end of G1
– at transition of G2 to mitosis
– metaphase

G1/S checkpoint
– makes decision of whether cell should divide, delay or rest
– will only pass if appropriate size and has enough energy
– check DNA damage
– can halt cycle and attempt to remedy problematic condition OR cell can advance to G0 and await further
signals

G2/M checkpoint
– ensures that cells dont initiate mitosis until damaged or incompletely replicated DNA is sufficiently
repaired
may lead to death or apoptosis
– If DNA has been replicated correctly, cyclin dependent kinases (CDKs) signal beginning of mitosis

M/APC checkpoint
– occurs near end of metaphase
– spindle checkpoint
– determines if all sis chromatids are attached to spindle microtubules
– because separation of sis chromatids during anaphase is irreversible:
cycle will not proceed until kinetochores of each pair are firmly anchored to at least 2 spindle fibres
arising from opposite sides