THE PSYCHOLOGICAL SELF

This chapter provides the students an overview of the psychological perspective in

understanding the self. This orients them to the various theories and concepts formulated to
expound about the human being and his self-development.

LEARNING OUTCOMES:

After studying this chapter, the students are expected to:

1. Define what psychology is and how this discipline contributes to the complete
understanding of oneself;
2. Explain some psychological theories about the self;
3. Identify factors that influence the development of the psychological self;
4. Assess one’s psychological self through the use of simple psychological
techniques and tools; and
5. Appreciate one’s uniqueness and individuality;

Psychology: A Discipline that Studies the Self

Psychology is defined as the scientific study of human behavior. It started as a topic in

philosophy and had taken much concepts from physiology until it emerged as an independent
scientific discipline (Atkinson, H.E.R. et al., 2015). Through the years, the field of psychology
has found its niche in almost any area of life. Psychology uses various methods in the
investigation of human behavior. It ranges from simple observation to more complex methods
of multivariate analysis and experimentations.

Experts believed that psychology greatly contributes to an individual’s understanding of

the self because it focuses on various forms of behaviors: overt or covert, simple or complex,
direct or indirect, rational or irrational, and so on. These different behaviors form part of the
self. The goals of psychology (Teh, L.A. & Macapagal, M.E.J. (2007) can be summarized as
follows:

1. To describe human behavior;

2. To identify factors that help predict behavior
3. To understand or explain behavior by identifying causes that bring about certain
effects; and
4. To control or changes behavior.

Many experts who focused on the investigation of human behavior have come up with
their respective conceptualization of the self:

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Sigmund Freud’s Construction Theory of Self

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) is an Austrian neurologist who was known as the founder
of Psychoanalysis, a set of theories and therapeutic techniques related to the study of the
unconscious mind. Freud stressed the importance of early childhood experiences in the
development of the self. As he popularly noted, “The child is the father of the man.”

Freud believed that there are 3 structures of the self:

1. ID – the biological component of self which is based on the pleasure principle. This
concerns the need to satisfy basic urges and desires. Freud believes that the id is
pleasure-seeking, impulsive, child-like and demanding of instant gratification.
2. EGO – refers to the I or the self which serves as mediator between the Id and
Superego. It is the objective component of personality and is based on Reality
Principle.
3. SUPEREGO – consists of the conscience and ego ideals. It serves as the moral arm
of personality.

Freud used the term “ego strength” to refer to the ego’s ability to resolve the conflict
between the structures. If constant conflicts happen and remain unresolved, problems and
internal conflicts may arise within oneself.

In Freud’s view, the id, ego and superego develop in a series of stages. He proposed
that psychological development in childhood takes place during the five psychosexual stages:
oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital. These are called psychosexual stages because each
stage represents the fixation of libido (roughly translated as sexual drives or instincts) on a
different area of the body. As a person grows physically certain areas of their body become
important as sources of potential frustration (erogenous zones), pleasure or both.

Freud (1905) believed that life was built around tension and pleasure. Accordingly,
tension was due to the build-up of libido (sexual energy) and that all pleasure came from its
discharge. In describing human personality as psychosexual Freud meant to convey that what
develops ins the way in which sexual energy of the id accumulates and is discharged as we
mature biologically (Freud used the term “sexual” in a very general way to mean all pleasurable
actions and thoughts.).

Freud stressed that the first five years of life are crucial to the formation of adult self.
The id must be controlled in order to satisfy social demands; this sets up a conflict between
frustrated wishes and social norms. The ego and superego develop in order to exercise this
control and direct the need for gratification into socially acceptable channels. Gratification
centers in different areas of the body at different stages of growth, making the conflict at each
stage psychosexual.

Out of his practice, Freud came up with his theory on the psychosexual stages of self-
development (Fisher, S. & Greenberg, R. P., 1996) which is presented in Table 1.

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Table 1

Psychosexual Stages of Self-Development

STAGES AGE SOURCE OF Characteristics & MANIFESTATIONS

RANGE GRATIFICATION
Oral Birth to Mouth Self gets much satisfaction from all sort of things in its mouth to
1 year satisfy the libido and its id demands. Self is oral, or mouth
oriented, such as sucking, biting and breastfeeding
Adults: smokers, nail-biters, finer chewers and thumb suckers,
particularly when under stress.
Anal 1 to 3 Anus Self derives great pleasure from defecating. Self is now fully
years aware that he is a person in his own right and that his wishes
can bring him into conflict with the demands of the outside
world. Freud believed that this type of conflict tends to come to
a head in toilet training, in which adults impose restrictions on
when and where the child can defecate. The nature of this first
conflict with authority can determine the child's future
relationship with all forms of authority.
Adult manifestations: Early or harsh toilet training can lead to
the child becoming an anal-retentive personality who hates
mess, is obsessively tidy, punctual and respectful of
authority. They can be stubborn and tight-fisted with their cash
and possessions. On the other hand, the anal expulsive is the
person who wants to share things with you. They like giving
things away. An anal-expulsive personality is also messy,
disorganized and rebellious. The anal expulsive, on the other
hand, underwent a liberal toilet-training regime during the anal
stage.
Phallic 3 to 6 Genitals Sensitivity now becomes concentrated in the genitals and
years masturbation (in both sexes) becomes a new source of pleasure.
The child becomes aware of anatomical sex differences, which
sets in motion the conflict between erotic attraction,
resentment, rivalry, jealousy and fear which Freud called
the Oedipus complex (in boys) and the Electra complex (in
girls). This is resolved through the process of identification,
which involves the child adopting the characteristics of the
same sex parent.
Latency 6 years Libido is Freud’s theory thought that most sexual impulses are repressed
to dormant during the latent stage, and sexual energy can be sublimated
Puberty (defense mechanism) towards school work, hobbies, and
friendships. Much of the child's energy is channeled into
developing new skills and acquiring new knowledge, and play
becomes largely confined to other children of the same gender.
Genital Puberty Heterosexual Self is settling down in a loving one-to-one relationship with
to Adult relationship another person in our 20's. Sexual instinct is directed to

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 heterosexual pleasure, rather than self-pleasure like during the
phallic stage. For Freud, the proper outlet of the sexual instinct
in adults was through heterosexual intercourse. Fixation and
conflict may prevent this with the consequence that sexual
perversions may develop.

Erik Erickson’s Theory of Self-Development

Erik H. Erikson (1902-1994) formulated the Psychosocial Theory of Development which

pointed out that development of self proceeds by stages – eight in all. The first four stages
occur during infancy and childhood, the fifth stage during adolescence, and the last three
stages during the adult years up to and including old age. In each stage, there are conflicts that
need to be resolved and those are critical in the development of the self. Accordingly, each
stage is not passed through and then left behind. Instead, each stage contributes to the
formation of the self. Table 2 presents the summary of the conflicts, important events and
outcomes of those important events in each stage of development of an individual. The
succeeding elaboration of the theory is based on the discussions by Schultz, D.P. & Schultz, E.S.
(2017).

Table 2

Psychosocial Stage of Self-Development

Age Conflict Important Events Outcome

Infancy (birth to 18 months) Trust vs. Mistrust Feeding Hope
Early Childhood (2 to 3 years) Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Toilet Training Will
Preschool (3 to 5 years) Initiative vs. Guilt Exploration Purpose
School Age (6 to 11 years) Industry vs. Inferiority School Confidence
Adolescence (12 to 18 years) Identity vs. Role Confusion Social Fidelity
Relationships
Young Adulthood (19 to 40 years) Intimacy vs. Isolation Relationships Love
Middle Adulthood (40 to 65 years) Generativity vs. Stagnation Work and Care
Parenthood
Maturity (65 to death) Ego Integrity vs. Despair Reflection on Life Wisdom
Source: Verywell mind, for illustration purposes only

Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust

The first stage of Erickson’s theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth
and 1 year of age and is the most fundamental stage in life. Because an infant is utterly
dependent, developing trust is based on the dependability and quality of the child’s care givers.
At this point in development, the child is utterly dependent upon adult caregivers for everything
they need to survive including food, love, warmth, safety and nurturing. If a caregiver fails to
provide adequate care and love, the self will come to feel that he cannot trust or depend upon
the adults in their life. If a child successfully develops trust, the self will feel safe and secure in
the world. Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to

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feelings of mistrust in the children under their care. Failure to develop trust will result in fear
and a belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable. During the first stage of
psychosocial development, children develop a sense of trust when caregivers provide reliability,
care and affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust. No child is going to develop a sense of
100% trust or 100% doubt. Erick son believed that successful development was all about
striking a balance between the two opposing sides. When this happens, children acquire hope,
which Erickson described as an openness to experience tempered by some wariness that
danger may be present.

Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

The second stage of Erickson’s theory of psychosocial development takes place during
early childhood and is focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control. At
this point in development, children are just starting to gain a little independence. They are
starting to perform basic actions on their own and making simple decisions about what they
prefer. By allowing kids to make choices and gain control, parents and care givers can help
children develop a sense of autonomy. The essential theme of this stage is that children need to
develop a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence. Potty
training plays an important role in helping children develop this sense of autonomy. Like Freud,
Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process. However, Erickson’s
reasoning was quite different than that of Freud’s. Erikson believed that learning to control
one’s bodily functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of independence. Other
important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy preferences, and clothing
selection. Children who struggle and who are ashamed for their accidents may be left without a
sense of personal control. Success during this stage of psychosocial development leads to
feelings of autonomy; failure results in feelings of shame and doubt. Children who successfully
complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who do not are left with a sense of
inadequacy and self-doubt. Erikson believed that achieving a balance between autonomy and
shame and doubt would lead to will, which is the belief that children can act with intention,
within reason and limits.

Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt

The third stage of psychosocial development takes place during preschool years. At this point in
psychosocial development, children begin to assert their power and control over the world
through directing play and other social interactions. Children who are successful at this stage
feel capable and able to lead others. Those who fail to acquire these skills are left with a sense
of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative. The major theme of the third stage of psychosocial
development is that children need to begin asserting control and power over the environment.
Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose. Children who try to exert too much power
experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt. When an ideal balance of individual
initiative and a willingness to work with others is achieved, the ego quality known as purpose
emerges.

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Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority

The fourth psychosocial stage takes place during the early school years from
approximately ages 5 to 11. Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of
pride in their accomplishments and abilities. Children need to cope with new social and
academic demands. Success leads to a sense of competence, while failure results in feelings of
inferiority. Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a
feeling of competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no encouragement
from parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their abilities to be successful. Successfully finding a
balance at this stage of psychosocial development leads to the strength known as
competence, in which children develop a belief in their abilities to handle the tasks set before
them.

Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion

The fifth psychosocial stage takes place during the often turbulent teenage years. This
stage plays an essential role in developing a sense of personal identity which will continue to
influence behavior and development for the rest of a person’s life. Teens need to develop a
sense of self and personal identity. Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while
failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self. During adolescence, individuals explore
their independence and develop a sense of self. Those who receive proper encouragement and
reinforcement through personal exploration will emerge from this stage with a strong sense of
self and feelings of independence and control. Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and
desires will feel insecure and confused about themselves and the future.

What is Identity?

When psychologists talk about identity, they are referring to all of the beliefs, ideals, and
values that help shape and guide a person’s behavior. Completing this stage successfully leads
to fidelity, which Erikson described as an ability to live by society’s standards and expectations.
While Erickson believed that each stage of psychosocial development was important, he placed
a particular emphasis on the development of ego identity. Ego identity is the conscious sense of
self that we develop through social interaction and becomes a central focus during the identity
versus confusion stage of psychosocial development. According to Erikson, our ego identity
constantly changes due to new experiences and information we acquire in our daily interactions
with others. As we have new experiences, we also take on challenges that can help or hinder
the development of identity. Our personal identity gives each of us an integrated and cohesive
sense of self that endures through our lives. Our sense of personal identity is shaped by our
experiences and interactions with others, and it is this identity that helps guide our actions,
beliefs and behaviors as we age.

Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation

Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success
leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation. This stage covers
the period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal relationships. Erikson believed
it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with other people. Those who
are successful at this step will form relationships that are enduring and secure. Remember that

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each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson believed that a strong sense of
personal identity was important for developing intimate relationships. Studies have
demonstrated that those with a poor sense of self tend to have less committed relationships
and are more likely to struggle with emotional isolation, loneliness, and depression. Successful
resolution of this stage results in the virtue known as love. It is marked by the ability to form
lasting, meaningful relationships with other people.

Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation

Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children
or creating a positive change that benefits other people. Success leads to feelings of usefulness
and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world. During
adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and family. Those who are
successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the world by being active in
their home and community. Those who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive and
uninvolved in the world. Care is the virtue achieved when this stage is handled successfully.
Being proud of your accomplishments, watching your children grow into adults, and developing
a sense of unity with your life partner are important accomplishments of this stage.

Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair

The final psychosocial stage occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on
life. At this point in development, people look back on the events of their lives and determine if
they are happy with the life that they lived or if they regret the things they did or didn’t do.
Erikson’s theory differed from many others because it addressed development throughout the
entire lifespan, including old age. Older adults need to look back on life and feel a sense of
fulfillment. Success at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure results in regret,
bitterness, and despair. At this stage, people reflect back on the events of their lives and take
stock. Those who look back on a life they feel was well-lived will feel satisfied and ready to face
the end of their lives with a sense of peace. Those who look back and only feel regret will
instead feel fearful that their lives will end without accomplishing the things they feel they
should have. Those who are unsuccessful during this stage will feel that their life has been
wasted and may experience many regrets. The person will be left with feelings of bitterness and
despair. Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity.
Successfully completing this phase means looking back with few regrets and a general feeling of
satisfaction. These individuals will attain wisdom, even when confronting death.

Alfred Adler’s Theory of Creative Self

Alfred Adler (1870-1937) is a Viennese psychiatrist who became known for his Individual
Psychology. He discovered the creative power of the self, that is, the ability of the individual to
create and re-create himself and set his own directions to take. Adler believed that individuals
are the masters of their own life, and not victims, of their fate (Teh, L.A. & Macapagal, M.E.J.
2007). For him, the creative self is the prime mover, the philosopher’s stone, the elixir of life,
the first cause of everything human. In essence, the doctrine of a creative self asserts that

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humans make their own self and personality. They construct them out of the raw materials of
heredity and experience (Schultz, D.P. & Schultz, E.S., 2017). As he put it,

“Heredity only endows man with certain abilities.

Environment only gives him certain impressions. These
abilities and impressions, and the manner in which he
experiences them – that is to say, the interpretation he
makes of these experiences – are the bricks, or in other
words his attitude towards life, which determines this
relationship to the outside world (Adler, 1935, p.5).”

Carl Rogers’ Self Theory

Carl Rogers (1902-1987) is an American psychologist who formulated the Person-

centered Theory which was also referred to as Self-Theory. The self is one of the central
constructs in Roger’s Theory and he has given an interesting account of how this came about.

“Speaking personally, I began my work with the settled

notion that the self was a vague, ambiguous, scientifically
meaningless term which had gone out of the psychologist’s
vocabulary with the departure of the introspectionists.
Consequently, I was slow in recognizing that when clients
were given the opportunity to express their problems and
their attitudes in their own terms, without any guidance or
interpretation, they tended to talk in terms of the self… It
seemed clear… that the self was an important element in the
experience of the client, that in some odd sense his goal was
to become his real self (1959, pp.200-201).”

Rogers came up with the concept of the ideal self which is what the person would like
to be. Accordingly, when the symbolized experiences that constitute the self faithfully mirror the
experiences of the organism, the person is said to be adjusted, mature and fully functioning.
Such a person accepts the entire range of experience without threat or anxiety. He is able to
think realistically. Incongruence between self and organism makes individuals feel threatened
and anxious. They behave defensively and their thinking becomes constricted and rigid. If the
discrepancy between self and ideal self is large, the person is dissatisfied and maladjusted and

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thus, incongruence is present (Go-Monilla, M.J.A. & Ramirez, N.C., 2018). It is important then,
that individuals have realistic goals for the self.

Figure 1

The Incongruent Self

Ideal Real
Self Real Ideal
Self Self Self

Figure 1

The Congruent Self

Real Self
Ideal Self

William James’ Concept of the Self: The Me-Self and the I-Self

William James (1842-1910) was a philosopher who first offered a psychology course in
the United States, earning him the title 'Father of American Psychology.’ He then, became a
psychologist and a leading thinker of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. After completing
medical school, James focused on the human psyche, writing a masterwork on the subject,
entitled The Principles of Psychology. He later became known for the literary piece The Will to
Believe and Other Essays in Popular Philosophy, which was published in 1897.

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 William James looks at the self in two divided categories: the I-Self and the Me-Self. The
I-Self refers to the self that knows who he or she is which is also called the thinking self. The I-
Self reflect the soul of a person or the mind which is also called the pure ego. The Me-Self, on
the other hand, is the empirical self which refers to the person’s personal experiences and is
further divided into subcategories: the material self, social self and spirituals elf. The material
self is attributed to an individual’s physical attributes and material possessions that contribute to
one’s self-image. The social self refers to who a person is and how he or she acts in social
situations. James believes that people have different social selves depending on the context of
a social situation. For example, a student may act differently in school and at home with his or
her family. The spiritual self refers to the most intimate and important part of the self that
includes the person’s purpose, core values, conscience, and moral behavior. James believes that
the path to understanding the spiritual self requires introspection (Go-Monilla, M.J.A. & Ramirez,
N.C., 2018).

“One must know what one wants and that one wants.” – Nietzc

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EVALUATION:

Answer the following questions:

1. In what situations do you find the conflict between the Id and the Superego becoming
real in your life? How do you resolve the conflict between the two?
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2. In Erikson’s theory of self-development, if a child developed mistrust early in life, how
can guardians help change his direction towards integrity instead of despair?

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3. Explain important factors that may have impact in creating the self.

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4. What is the importance of congruent real and ideal self?

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5. How does the field of psychology help in the understanding of the self?

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ASSIGNMENT

Instruction: In the two boxes below, draw symbols that represent you real self and ideal self
respectively. Symbols may be in the form of actual objects or anything that may symbolize your
perception of who you are (real) and those that portray the things that you would like to
become.

My Real Self My Ideal Self

Questions for Reflection:

1. What did you feel while you were doing the activity?

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 2. Compare your drawings of your real self and ideal self. Are the two the same? If
so, why do you think those are the same? If the drawings in the real self-box
and ideal self-box are not the same, why do you think?

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3. What are your insights from this activity?

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REFERENCES

Atkinson, H.E.R. & Atkinson, R. & Atkinson, R.C. (2015) Introduction to Psychology. New
York: oxford & IBH Publishing Co.

Fisher, S. & Greenberg, R. P. (1996). Freud scientifically reappraised: Testing the theories and
therapy. New York: Wiley.
Freud, S. (1905). Three essays on the theory of sexuality. Standard Edition 7: 123- 246.
Go-Monilla, M.J.A. & Ramirez, N.C. (2018) Understanding the Self Quezon City: E & E.
Publishing, Inc.

Schultz, D.P. & Schultz, E.S. (2017) Theories of Personality 11th Edition Australia: Cengage
Learning.

Teh, L.A. & Macapagal, M.E.J. (2007) General Psychology for Filipino College Students
Quezon City: Ateneo De Manila University Press.

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