FOUNDATIONAL ASSUMPTIONS

FOR SUCCESSFUL TRANSITION:

EXAMINING ALTERNATIVELY
CERTIFIED SPECIAL EDUCATOR
PERCEPTIONS
John William McKenna, Frederick J. Brigham,
Melissa Parenti and Brittany Hott

ABSTRACT
Transition can be seen as the capstone of many if not most efforts of special
educators on behalf of students with disabilities. Transition programs must
build upon the foundation set by general and special education teachers to
promote accomplishments that will support engagement in adult life. The
assumption underlying transition policy is that classroom personnel are ade-
quately trained and supported to promote such outcomes. We investigated
that assumption through research on the perceptions of 17 graduate students
or recent completers of an alternative certification program serving a large
urban district in the northeast. Study participants were interviewed regarding
the provision of special education services at their assigned schools, the man-
ner in which they were utilized, the degree to which they felt prepared and
supported to teach students with disabilities, and recommendations for
improving special education services, teacher training, and support. All parti-
cipants taught special education students in secondary settings and were
assigned to different schools. Several themes were identified including stress
due to professional demands, concerns with collaboration and the quality of

Special Education Transition Services for Students with Disabilities

Advances in Special Education, Volume 35, 185
204
Copyright r 2020 Emerald Publishing Limited
All rights of reproduction in any form reserved
ISSN: 0270-4013/doi:10.1108/S0270-401320190000035019
185
186 JOHN WILLIAM McKENNA ET AL.

special education services, and a need for additional special education train-
ing. Implications for transition are discussed.
Keywords: Transition; teacher preparation; alternative certification; special
education; FAPE; inclusion

Education legislation and policy have long recognized the necessity of providing
meaningful learning opportunities to all students and the role of highly qualified
teachers in the fulfillment of this responsibility. The Every Student Succeeds Act
(ESSA, 2015) addressed concerns with No Child Left Behind while maintaining
an emphasis on improving the achievement of student populations who have his-
torically struggled in school. According to ESSA (2015), all students are to be
taught according to high academic standards based on essential skills for college
and career readiness. The college and career readiness theme is also present in
the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 2004). The IDEA
requires students with disabilities to engage in transition activities by the time
that she or he reaches the age of 16, if not sooner.
In addition to the insistence on teaching to high standards, the ESSA recog-
nizes the necessity of student access to highly qualified teachers and instruction
that is based on research-based practices. The emphasis on student access to
high quality, research-based instruction is also present in IDEA (2004). IDEA
requires that districts provide students with disabilities a free appropriate public
education (FAPE) that prepares them for success in areas such as independent
living, community engagement, employment, and postsecondary training and
education. Despite the good intentions of these aforementioned initiatives,
schools may have difficulty fulfilling this responsibility (see Flower, McKenna,
Haring, & Pazey, 2015; Mason-Williams, Bettini, & Gagnon, 2017).
In the Endrew F. v. Douglas County decision, the Supreme Court of the
United States (SCOTUS) affirmed the notion that individualized education pro-
grams (IEPs) are outcome based and services must confer benefit that is “more
than de minimis” (Yell & Bateman, 2017). Although SCOTUS did not mandate
the use of research-based practices, special education services are more likely to
achieve FAPE mandates when they are used (Couvillon, Yell, & Katsiyannis,
2018; Kauffman, Wiley, Travers, Badar, & Anastasiou, 2019). FAPE mandates
are also more likely to be achieved when services are provided by highly quali-
fied special education teachers who teach in manageable working conditions (see
Bettini, Crockett, Brownell, & Merrill, 2016; Bettini et al., in revision; Bettini,
Cumming, Merrill, Brunsting, & Liaupsin, 2017).
Beyond the immediate benefits of having highly qualified and effective tea-
chers is laying the foundation for all transition planning and subsequent activi-
ties. For example, the impact of a failure to learn to read, particularly in the
presence of the ability to do so with adequate support and intensity, has increas-
ingly become the focus of advocacy for individuals with dyslexia (Seidenberg,
2017; Stark, 2019). To quote a parent who recently spoke with one of us,
“If you don’t learn to read, it’s pretty much game over.” In an increasingly tech-
nical age where jobs demand high levels of technical ability, it seems likely
Examining Alternatively Certified Special Educator Perceptions 187

that mathematics and sciences can be added to reading proficiency. The contri-
butions of social sciences and the arts should also be acknowledged as they form
the basis for citizenship and rational thinking in ambiguity (see Garwood,
McKenna, Roberts, Ciullo, & Shin, 2019; Shuler, Norgaard, & Blakeslee, 2014).
All of these elements and others that we have not named underlie successful
transition efforts. Success in each of these areas, particularly for students with
disabilities, is predicated upon having effective teachers as well as other issues
related to school climate, funding, and community support.

ACCESS TO HIGHLY QUALIFIED SPECIAL EDUCATORS

Special education teacher recruitment and attrition continue to be a national
concern (see Hagaman & Casey, 2018), with as many as 98% of districts report-
ing shortages (Billingsley, 2004), with the gap between the number of available
special educators and unfilled positions increasing over time (Tyler & Brunner,
2015). Contributing to these shortages, research suggests that approximately
50% of special educators will leave the field within five years (Edgar & Pair,
2005; Plash & Piotrowski, 2006). Teacher attrition and shortages have signifi-
cant implications for the provision of FAPE and the achievement of IDEA man-
dates related to transition. For example, students with disabilities may receive
services from providers that are unqualified or fail to receive mandated services
due to the absence of a sufficient number of highly qualified special educators
(Mason-Williams et al., 2017; Tyler & Brunner, 2015). This concern is particu-
larly salient to the provision of special education and transition services in urban
schools. Transition services may be of particular importance in both urban and
rural environments because these are the areas in which families with less experi-
ence with higher education and advanced training tend to cluster (Bishop &
Cushing, 2008).
Research suggests that students who attend urban or low socioeconomic sta-
tus schools may have insufficient access to high-quality instruction (Darling-
Hammond, 2007; Hanushek & Rivkin, 2010; Mason-Williams, 2015). Urban
schools tend to have fewer highly effective teachers and greater percentages of
provisionally certified teachers (Darling-Hammond, 2007; Hanushek & Rivkin,
2010). Research also suggests that fewer special educators employed in high pov-
erty schools have highly qualified status (Mason-Williams, 2015). Yet teacher
quality may be the strongest predictor of student success (National Research
Council & The Institute of Medicine, 2004), highlighting the necessity of student
access to teachers who are fluent in research-based practices and who teach in
conditions that permit them to be effective (see Bettini et al., 2016; Ciullo, Ely,
McKenna, Alves, & Kennedy, 2019; McKenna & Ciullo, 2016).

ALTERNATIVE CERTIFICATION PROGRAMS IN

URBAN DISTRICTS
Alternative teacher certification programs have been created to address teacher
shortages and improve the quality of instruction in urban schools. Enrollees
188 JOHN WILLIAM McKENNA ET AL.

take on in-service teaching responsibilities while completing certification and

master’s degree requirements. At this time, researchers have not specifically
investigated the unique experience of being a preservice special education
teacher with in-service responsibilities (i.e., completing certification and master’s
degree requirements while serving as a teacher of record) in urban schools. One
early study of teachers completing alternative versus traditional teacher-
education programs found that traditionally trained teachers were rated higher
on every aspect of teaching except their confidence in their own competence
(Nougaret, Scruggs, & Mastropieri, 2005). This finding is essentially the same as
the Duning
Kruger Effect (Kruger & Dunning, 1999), in which the less an indi-
vidual knows about the domain in which they are performing, the less likely
they are to know that they don’t know.
Nevertheless, in the more than ten years since Nougaret et al. (2005) con-
ducted their study, schools have continued to experience a shortage of trained
teachers and continue to find ways of addressing the shortage. Therefore,
research focusing on the perspectives of teachers completing alternative licensure
programs while working in their professional roles is timely. Additionally, such
research could reveal the degree to which alternative licensure teachers believe
that they are adequately trained and supported to meet FAPE mandates related
to student benefit and transition preparation.
In this investigation, we were interested in the perceived barriers and facilita-
tors of special education teacher effectiveness and the manner in which provi-
sionally or alternatively certified teachers were utilized in urban schools as these
teachers worked to provide FAPE and support student transition to adult life.
As school-based researchers and former K-12 educators, we have a long-held
belief that all students with disabilities should have a school experience that cre-
ates, develops, and sustains opportunities. Our interests and previous experi-
ences with equity, access, and excellence in education influenced our research
questions, participant sampling procedures, and interview questions.

METHOD
Qualitative methods were used to gain insight into experiences related to the
provision of special education services, teacher support, and professional devel-
opment in urban schools. Participant interviews, which are commonly used to
gain an understanding of how individuals experience a particular phenomenon
(Brantlinger, Jimenez, Klingner, Pugach, & Richardson, 2005), were completed
during the 2014
2015 academic year. Qualitative research that relies on inter-
views typically involves fewer overall participants than studies that employ
quantitative studies (Ritchie, Lewis, & Elam, 2003), with the value of recruiting
additional participants diminishing as data saturation occurs (Glaser & Strauss,
1967). In the current study, participants provided similar responses as we pro-
gressed through recruitment, data collection, and data analysis. This study
employed phenomenography (Booth, 1997) as a theoretical framework due to
(a) our interest in gaining insight into participant perceptions of teaching in
urban schools, the provision of special education services, and supports such as
Examining Alternatively Certified Special Educator Perceptions 189

professional development, mentoring, and coaching experiences; and (b) our use
of interview data from a small number of participants to gain an understanding
of this experience (Marton, 1986).

Recruitment of Study Participants

We used purposive sampling (Miles & Huberman, 1994) to identify participants
that met the following criteria: (1) participants were currently enrolled in the
alternative certification program (described in subsequent sections) for at least
six months or completed the program within two months; (2) participants cur-
rently taught special education students in an urban school; and (3) taught at
least one academic subject area. The alternative certification program used a
highly selective admissions process that included an interview, a demonstration
lesson, and observations while practicing instructional techniques. Applicants
tend to be recent college graduates and/or changing careers.
After receiving institutional review board approval, the first author contacted
students from two private university cohorts (n ¼ 44) to inform them of the
study and provide his contact information. Those cohort members with interest
in participating contacted the first author to schedule a meeting or phone call to
discuss possible participation and to obtain consent. Prior to obtaining consent,
the first author provided information on the study’s purpose and procedures as
well as answered any questions regarding the study. All participants were
informed that they could decline to answer any question. However, no partici-
pants exercised this option. After obtaining consent, the first author scheduled a
time that was convenient to the participant to conduct a phone interview. All
interviews were conducted outside of normal school hours and not at a time
when participants were expected to complete professional responsibilities.

Participant Characteristics
Nineteen cohort members (43% of the two cohorts) consented to participate.
Interviews could not be conducted with two cohort members due to schedule
conflicts, resulting in a total of 17 participants. Table 1 provides demographic
information for each participant. Participants had a mean age of 26.2 years
(range 23
47) with the majority recently completing the program (n ¼ 12; 71%)
and female (n ¼ 14; 82%). Seventy-one percent (n ¼ 12) were Caucasian, 23%
(n ¼ 4) were African American, and 6% (n ¼ 1) were Asian. All participants
taught students with disabilities, with 82% (n ¼ 14) serving as special educators.
Participants primarily taught at the middle school level (n ¼ 11; 65%) and spe-
cial education mathematics (n ¼ 9; 53%), with 24% of all participants (n ¼ 4)
teaching more than one content area. The majority of participants (n ¼ 13;
76%) taught in a particular service-delivery model (e.g., inclusive, self-contained,
or resource room), with 88% (n ¼ 15) in inclusive settings, 35% (n ¼ 6) in self-
contained classes, and 5.8% (n ¼ 1) assigned to a resource room setting. All but
one participant reported working with a co-teacher for at least part of the school
day, all of whom were certified general education teachers. All participants
190 JOHN WILLIAM McKENNA ET AL.

Table 1. Participant Characteristics.

Participant Gender Months Highest Degree Grade Teaching Position Setting
in Earned Level
Program

1 F 18 BFA Theater High 9th-grade Global History; 10th- I, CT

grade Special Education ELA,
10th-grade Global History
2 F 18 BA Middle Special Education ELA CT,
Anthropology & SC
History
3 M 18 BA Middle Gen Ed & Special Education I, CT
Communications Math, grades 6 & 7
4 F 18 BA Journalism High Special Education ELA grades SC
9
12
5 F 18 MA Psychology High Special Education Science I, CT
6 F 18 JD Law Middle 7th-grade Math I, CT
7 M 18 BS Sociology Middle Special Education Math, I, CT,
grades 7 and 8; 7th-grade SC
Health; 8th grade Science
8 F 18 BA Economics High Special Education I, CT
BA English

9 F 18 BA English and Middle Special Education Math, ELA, I, CT

Adolescent and Global Studies
Education
10 M 18 BA Business Middle Special Education Social I, CT
Management Studies grades 6
8
11 F 18 BA Sociology High 9th grade Special Education I, CT
and Spanish ELA
12 F 10 BA Mathematics High General Education Algebra & I, CT
Geometry, grades 9 and 10
13 F 18 BA Sociology Middle Special Education Math I, CT
14 F 12 BS Finance Middle Special Education Math, I, CT,
grades 7 and 8 SC
15 F 12 BS Actuarial Middle Special Education Math, I, CT,
Science; BA grades 6 and 7 SC
Economics
16 F 12 BA Sociology Middle Special Education Math, I, CT,
and Business grades 6
8 SC, R
17 F 12 BS Business Middle Special Education Math, I, CT
Administration grades 6
8

Notes: F ¼ female; M ¼ male; BFA ¼ Bachelor of Fine Arts; I ¼ Inclusion; CT ¼ co-taught; BA ¼

Bachelor of Arts; SC ¼ self-contained; MA ¼ Master of Arts; JD ¼ Juris Doctor; BS ¼ Bachelor of
Science; ELA ¼ English Language Arts; R ¼ resource.
Examining Alternatively Certified Special Educator Perceptions 191

Table 2. Interview Questions.

• What is it like teaching at your school?
• Describe a typical day at your school/in your classroom.
• What are the biggest challenges of teaching at your school?
• What things work really well at your school?
• What things could work better at your school?
• What sources of support are available at your school? How accessible are these sources of support?
Do you feel supported?
• If you could change educational practice at your school, what would you change and why?
• Is there anything else you would like to tell me about teaching at your school that you have not
already said?
• What is it like being in the alternative certification program?
• What parts of the program do you think are most beneficial? Why?
• What parts of the program do you think are least beneficial? Why?
• If you could make changes to your program, what would they be?
• Is there anything else about being in the alternative certification program/a recent graduate of the
alternative certification program that you have not told me that you would like to?

taught in a different school within the district, which consisted of approximately

1700 schools serving students in grades K-12. At the time of this investigation,
more than 9000 teachers in the district were enrolled or had completed the alter-
native certification program.

Data Collection Procedures

Interview questions were field-tested with two students enrolled in the alternative
license cohort program who did not participate in the study. Interview questions
were also reviewed by two researchers with previous experience in qualitative
research, alternative certification programs, and special education teacher train-
ing. Unclear questions were revised and those that were redundant were
removed, resulting in a final set of thirteen questions (see Table 2). Questions
were designed to obtain information on provision of services to students with
disabilities, the degree to which they felt prepared and supported to perform
their professional responsibilities, and suggestions for improving school practice
and teacher support. The first author asked clarifying questions during each
interview for the purpose of conducting member checks, which were 49 minutes
in duration on average, audio recorded, and transcribed for coding purposes.

Data Analysis
Two researchers independently read all interview transcripts to become familiar
with the data (Braun & Clarke, 2006) and each created an initial set of codes
with operational definitions. Both researchers then met to discuss each set of
codes to create a master list. Upon creating the master set of codes, two
researchers independently coded each interview transcript and then met to dis-
cuss areas of coding agreement and disagreement within each transcript. We
used triangulation (Brantlinger et al., 2005) to ensure the reliability of our data
analysis. Specifically, both researchers analyzed the final set of interview coding
192 JOHN WILLIAM McKENNA ET AL.

and compared and contrasted coding across transcripts to identify themes.

Themes that emerged from each code were named and reviewed (Braun &
Clarke, 2006). Both researchers then analyzed all participant responses for state-
ments that were representative of the identified themes. Throughout data analy-
sis, the researchers worked collaboratively to address any potential concerns
regarding bias (Brantlinger et al., 2005) and to establish the trustworthiness of
the data (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Specifically, we addressed potential concerns
with bias by discussing our beliefs and values when designing the study, double
coding of interview transcripts, and the use of consensus to identify themes.

RESULTS
The following major themes emerged: (1) teacher stress, (2) availability of
resources, (3) concerns regarding the quality of special education services,
(4) support from cohort, (5) administrative support, and (6) mentoring and
coaching experiences. It is interesting to note that although the majority of the
participants were teachers in middle and secondary settings, the topic of transi-
tion did not emerge as a distinct topic of discussion.

Teacher Stress
All participants (n ¼ 17; 100%) spoke of experiencing high levels of stress during
their on-the-job training. That is, being a preservice teacher trainee with sub-
stantial in-service responsibilities. All participants spoke of a relationship
between their experience of stress and their professional responsibilities. For
example: “You are basically thrown into the fire from the start. It is intensive. It
is overwhelming.” At least one participant regretted joining the program due to
job-related stress: “I had health conditions as a result of stress from the Program
Name. I wish I never joined.” Specifically, participants commonly spoke of diffi-
culties managing and fulfilling responsibilities related to planning and providing
instruction to students with disabilities. For example, one participant stated: “It
really feels like I am stretched too thin.” Another participant stated: “My sched-
ule is set up so that I am co-teaching all day so, if I am not actually in the class,
I am meeting with one of my co-teachers because I have two other co-teachers.
So it can be really challenging because I don’t feel like I have any time to sort of
reflect personally on what is happening in the classroom and then move on to
plan the next class.”

Availability of Resources
Fifteen of seventeen participants (88%) spoke of insufficient resources at their
schools to meet the needs of students with disabilities. The high stakes nature of
instruction coupled with insufficient access to veteran teachers was a common
concern: “It’s kind of like jumping into the deep end of a pool. There are a lot
of motivated people but there is also increased responsibility and accountability
and sometimes it can get spread too thin when you don’t have a lot of
Examining Alternatively Certified Special Educator Perceptions 193

experienced, veteran teachers.” Participants frequently made connections

between insufficient resources and teacher stress from unmanageable workloads:

She (e.g., participant’s co-teacher) also has this whole other teaching load and it feels as
though everyone here is covering more than is really reasonable and certainly more than what
we are being compensated for. But that is a much bigger issue than something that is just at
my school.

Teachers commonly spoke of unmanageable workloads adversely affected

special education students:

If there was some way of ensuring that everyone just had what they were contractually obli-
gated to do, that would work better because teachers would be able to put even more thought
and energy into everything that they did as opposed to really spreading themselves thin and
stretching themselves to make sure they are doing everything.

Participants tended to view inclusive instruction (e.g., providing instruction to

special education students in general education classrooms) as a response to
inadequate school resources rather than as the appropriate least restrictive envi-
ronment for providing students with disabilities specialized services and sup-
ports. For example: “Another challenge would be students with disabilities.
I guess this goes back to a lack of funding because it is difficult to have them in
the best setting.”

Concerns Regarding Special Education Services

Thirteen of seventeen (76%) participants stated that special education students
were not receiving appropriate services. Inclusive instruction, poor communica-
tion, insufficient planning, and a lack of staff coordination were common
concerns:

There seems to be students who are placed wrong and nobody seems to know anything about
them. It is hard to advocate for students when no one knows, when there is no communication
with each other.

Another participant stated:

My co-teacher who is the English licensed teacher, the gen ed teacher, she was programmed
out of the room for the first half of three out of 10 blocks per week so I felt like I had to take
on more of what a general ed teacher or an English teacher would have to do. I have had to
kind of neglect, not neglect in regard to my duties in special ed planning and differentiation,
but I felt like they have been back burnered because I had to concern myself with general
planning for ELA class with regard to the text we are working with, the key features we go
over.

Participants also frequently spoke of a desire for students with disabilities to

have access to tiered systems of support. For example:

I would strengthen the special education program and specific things like RtI (response to
intervention) and ensure that related services are provided in a way that really does monitor
student progress and is prescriptive in addressing student needs.
194 JOHN WILLIAM McKENNA ET AL.

All participants with concerns regarding school delivery of special education

services (n ¼ 13; 76%) talked of inadequate preparation and training in special
education. For example:
I would say ½ the kids have IEPs, so I think the most challenging thing is keeping track of every-
body’s different educational needs and making sure that we are adequately supporting all of the
different kids, especially since I am a special ed teacher and I have had as a Program Name very
little training in special education. I think the biggest challenge is finding out how to effectively
work with the different kids based on their different IEPs since there are so many of them.

The challenge of differentiating instruction was expressed by all participants

with concerns with the provision of special education services. For example:
I am basically teaching two grades in one period and nobody is getting the direct attention
they need for the full period. I feel like I am split and those kids are really not receiving the
education that they deserve. I am not the only teacher in this class and in this school that is
dealing with this and we are all just kind of frustrated.

A need for concrete strategies that are effective was commonly expressed:
“Over the summer I felt like we could have had much more training on being
special educators. Things like completing an IEP. What really goes into an IEP?
How do you write an effective IEP? Also more techniques in actually conveying
information and teaching special ed kids.” Another participant stated: “We are
going into inner city schools supposedly knowing how to work with kids with
special needs but there really is little training in that over the summer, almost
none. We take one course that kind of gives us the gambit of what all this spe-
cial needs could be but not really how to work with kids or what’s effective. We
need practices for students with special needs.” Participant responses suggested
that school-based professional development did not address this need for effec-
tive strategies. For example:
I think they try to provide supports in the form of professional development but they tend to
lack concrete things we can use. So I feel like people are there to support but they don’t really
know how to give it.

Support from Cohort

All participants spoke of their cohort as their primary source of support for
managing stress and engaging in problem solving regarding problems of teach-
ing practice. For example:
It is the camaraderie among the Program Name and how we support each other and are
sounding boards for each other. The best part of the program is seeing them every week in
grad school and being able to, when you feel you can’t go on anymore you realize it is not just
me. Everybody else is feeling that too and hearing what is going on at their schools and how
they are dealing with it.

Participants viewed their cohort as sources of information on effective practices

as well as someone safe to vent to:
The best part was just sharing the experiences with people and having the same group of
people in all of your classes. We were able to use each other as an amazing resource. We could
Examining Alternatively Certified Special Educator Perceptions 195

talk about what our different schools were like and different teaching practices that people use
and just vent in a way that you knew could not be held against you. It was a much safer place
to talk about what we were going through because sometimes schools can be very political
and you can’t do that at your job.

Administrative Support
Sixteen participants (94%) spoke of the perceived level of support they received
from school administrators, with half expressing positive perceptions. For exam-
ple, one participant stated:
I can honestly say that everybody in my building from administrators down to janitors, I feel,
care about kids. All our conversations are focused on how do we do this better?

Participants with a positive perception of school administration frequently

spoke of distributed leadership and decision-making: “She (e.g., the school prin-
cipal) encourages all the staff to have a part in trying to figure out what works
best for our school and to help our students.”
Participants with a negative perception of administrative support spoke of
stress adversely affecting the degree to which they were supported:
My principal is a new principal so he is kind of new at what he is doing and that can be challeng-
ing. We have a lot of exciting high expectations but learning how to implement them, how to
achieve them […] for instance today he was very stressed out and he can be kind of short with
me. More importantly, he can be short with the students, so that can be very challenging.

Participants with negative perceptions also frequently spoke of new and/or

changing school initiatives that lacked clarity and structures in place to support
implementation. For example:
Things change around and it causes some problems. You have to change too, and if you have
to do too many new things and have to do them with fidelity, you can’t see them through.

Coaching and Mentoring Experiences

Eleven participants (65%) spoke of coaching, five of which expressed a positive
experience. Participants with a positive perception of coaching viewed coaches
as a reliable resource: “We have coaches that come in once a week to work with
us so that has been pretty helpful in terms of developing the curriculum.” It
should be noted that participants with positive perceptions of school-based
coaching also expressed concerns regarding workloads and the quality of special
education services. Some participants spoke of difficulties accessing support
from their coaches due to competing demands on teacher time:
I have a ton of support. I have a math coach that works with our math team. I think there are
7 or 8 of us because we are only two grades this year. So for the 7 or 8 math teachers there is
a math coach that kind of like comes into the classroom and observes and gives us feedback.
He doesn’t do anything teacher evaluation so anything he says is very confidential and useful.
Unfortunately, I don’t feel like I have any (e.g., support) because the schedule is so tight and
they just micromanage and put all this PD and all these meetings and we don’t have time to
meet that much.
196 JOHN WILLIAM McKENNA ET AL.

All participants with a negative perception of coaching expressed concerns

with the quality of special education services at their school as well as a desire
for additional training in special education methods. It should also be noted that
no participants spoke of having access to coaching in special education methods
by a special educator.
Ten participants (59%) spoke of school-based mentoring experiences, five of
which had a positive perception. One participant spoke of mentoring duties
being split between two professionals: “We have mentoring for first year tea-
chers so I have two: One is more curriculum specific and the other is more
classroom management specific.” Participants with a positive perception of
school-based mentors viewed them as knowledgeable and accessible despite their
numerous other responsibilities. Participants with a negative perception of men-
toring experiences spoke of being mentored by inexperienced teachers and diffi-
culty accessing their mentor. All participants who had a negative perception of
mentoring experiences also expressed concerns regarding the provision of special
education services at their schools and a need for more concrete strategies. Of
the ten participants who spoke of school-based mentoring experiences, only one
specifically spoke of having a special educator as a mentor. Mentors were pri-
marily general education teachers.

DISCUSSION
The quality of educational services provided in urban schools has historically
been a concern (see Dunn, 1968). Alternative teacher certification programs
have been developed to address the gap between available teaching positions
and the number of highly qualified teachers available to fill them (Tyler &
Brunner, 2015). As a result, many students with disabilities, particularly those
who attend urban schools, receive instruction from provisionally certified tea-
chers. It is, therefore, essential to gain an understanding of the manner in which
these teachers are trained, supported, and utilized to achieve IDEA mandates
related to FAPE and preparation for transition from high school.

Teacher Stress and Implications for Transition Planning

The unanimous expression of participants’ experience of significant stress is a
serious concern because research suggests that teacher burnout has a negative
effect on student outcomes (Brunsting, Sreckovic, & Lane, 2014; Grayson &
Alvarz, 2008). Kane, Rockoff, and Staiger (2006) also noted that conflicts
between the time necessary to complete graduate course work and time neces-
sary to prepare instruction may hinder teacher effectiveness. Furthermore, nov-
ice teachers may leave the profession due to unmanageable professional
demands (Schernoff, Mehta, Atkins, Torf, & Spencer, 2011) such as expressed
by participants in this investigation. Findings from this investigation suggest a
need to consider the manner in which at least some alternatively certified tea-
chers are trained and supported as well as the professional and ethical
Examining Alternatively Certified Special Educator Perceptions 197

responsibilities they are asked to assume during the time that they are less than
adequately trained for the full responsibilities of their positions.
The demands of everyday survival as a beginning teacher are frequently diffi-
cult for a fully trained novice teacher (Hale, 2015). The demands facing an
unqualified teacher attempting to acquire professional training while simulta-
neously managing the workload of a beginning teacher are exponentially greater
than those faced by their fully trained peers. These teachers report what
amounts to a day-to-day challenge to meet the needs of their students, respond
to the expectations of school administrators and to keep up with their studies. It
is then likely that these teachers have little focus upon transition. Transition is a
forward-looking enterprise, and educators who are barely able to meet the day-
to-day expectations of lesson planning, classroom management, communicating
with parents, and completing the paperwork required of special education
service-delivery are seldom focused on the long view of where their efforts for
and with their students are leading. Teachers and students working in a survival
mode as described by the educators in this present study are unlikely to have the
emotional or temporal resources to engage in the kind substantive and meaning-
ful long-range planning required for transition.

Access to Effective Instruction and Supports

Although the current sample of teachers is not representative of all schools
within the district, reports regarding the provision of special education service
are concerning. Teachers expressed concerns with student placement, differentia-
tion of instruction, professional communication and collaboration, and having
insufficient skills in general to be effective with students with disabilities.
Students with disabilities must be provided effective instruction and supports to
achieve FAPE mandates related to student progress and preparation for life
beyond K-12 schools (see Flower et al., 2015; Kauffman et al., 2019). Findings
from this investigation suggest that participants were placed in schools that
experienced challenges supporting novice teachers and, in at least some
instances, and providing effective instruction and special education services.
These aforementioned concerns highlight the necessity of identifying the most
effective methods for training and supporting provisionally certified teachers,
particularly, in urban schools. Such an endeavor would also require the identifi-
cation of the prerequisite resources and structures necessary to improve school
capacity to support teachers and the students they serve.

Administrative Support and Special Education Mentor Teachers

Administrative support may minimize teacher stress and maximize their instruc-
tional effectiveness (Gigante & Firestone, 2008; Santoli, Sachs, Romey, &
McClurg, 2008). Although approximately half of the participants reported
having supportive administrators, positive perceptions of school administrators
did not insulate participants from experiencing high levels of stress. Additionally,
positive perceptions of administrative support were not associated with positive
198 JOHN WILLIAM McKENNA ET AL.

perceptions of special education services, nor were they associated with feel-
ing prepared and supported to teach students with disabilities. Furthermore,
some participants who spoke of strong administrative support also spoke of
changing schools after their first year of teaching due to concerns with school
leadership, school climate, and their experience of stress. Poor administrative
support is associated with teacher burnout (Skaalivk & Skaalvik, 2007) and
attrition (Tyler & Brunner, 2015). Therefore, it is imperative that principals
have an appropriate level of resources to allocate and adequate training
and support to manage their schools (Bettini et al., in revision; Gardiner,
Canfield-Davis, & Anderson, 2009).
Expert teachers should be assigned as mentors and coaches to preservice tea-
chers with in-service responsibilities, and have sufficient time to fulfill this
incredible responsibility. Mentoring should be provided to preservice or novice
special education teachers by highly qualified special educators. Access to a
strong special education mentor teacher may help alleviate feelings of stress,
improve instruction and support for students with disabilities, and permit novice
teachers to focus more on transition planning and preparation than day-to-day
survival. However, principals play a critical role in making certain that the needs
of new teachers are met by scheduling time for mentor-mentee discussions and
for creating a school environment that promotes teacher development and col-
laboration (New Teacher Center, 2016).
Creating and maintaining structures that permit mentors to observe and pro-
vide performance feedback to novice special education teachers is one potential
method to improve teacher effectiveness (see Israel, Kamman, McCray, &
Sindelair, 2014), particularly in regard to providing instruction in concrete strat-
egies for working with students who have disabilities. Participants in this investi-
gation commonly expressed a need for additional training in special education
practices and strategies for effectively teaching and supporting students with dis-
abilities. However, research suggests that special education teachers may be less
likely to be relieved of other professional responsibilities to provide this type of
support (Washburn-Moses, 2010). In this investigation, only one participant
spoke of having access to a mentor or coach who was a special educator despite
teaching students with disabilities. This is a significant concern because access to
a highly qualified special educator could potentially help address concerns
related to insufficient training in special education and effective practices.
The majority of participants expressed a need for additional support and
training. Factors such as having an experienced, accessible mentor appeared to
contribute to positive views of the experience. Participants cited ineffective men-
tors and lack of access to their mentor as adversely affecting their ability to
provide high-quality instruction to students with disabilities. High quality
mentoring and induction programs are necessary to transform new teachers into
effective teachers (Goldrick, 2016). Recommendations for providing quality
mentoring experiences include allocating 1.25 to 2.5 hours per week for mentor-
mentee discussions, using data to inform mentoring activities, providing training
in effective mentoring methods, and release time for mentors (Goldrick, 2016;
New Teacher Center, 2016). These types of structures and supports may be
Examining Alternatively Certified Special Educator Perceptions 199

particularly critical for novice teachers who serve students with disabilities. IEPs
are outcome rather than placement based, with services selected and implemen-
ted to confer benefit that is more than de minimis (Yell & Bateman, 2017). For
secondary grade students with disabilities, special education services and their
intended outcomes may focus on a variety of competencies related to areas such
as employment and postsecondary training and education. Considering the indi-
vidualized nature of transition plans and services as well as the limited time
remaining for secondary grade students in K-12 settings, novice teachers such as
those in this investigation are likely to need substantial support to prepare their
students for college and career readiness.

Implications for Practice

To meet the needs of students with disabilities, it is necessary for teachers to
have sufficient training upon job entry, access to quality materials, manageable
professional responsibilities, and meaningful opportunities to continue to refine
their developing repertoire of skills. The results of the present study suggest that
filling available special education positions with students enrolled in an alterna-
tive certification program is insufficient for addressing what appears to be a very
complex problem in at least some schools. Despite the hard work and substan-
tial commitment of study participants, findings suggest a gap between student
needs and school capacity to (1) provide specialized services that achieve FAPE
mandates and promote a successful transition from high school and (2) support
the special education teachers facing this important responsibility. One finding
that is simultaneously reassuring and troubling is that unlike the educators pre-
viously described by Nougaret, Scruggs, and Mastropieri (2005) who did not
know that they did not know, the participants in this study appear to be criti-
cally aware that they are inadequately prepared for the responsibilities to which
they are assigned. Such a dissonant awareness of one’s ability and the job
demands can only exacerbate the stresses felt by beginning special educators.
Study findings (e.g., teacher stress, concerns regarding special education ser-
vices, desire for additional training relevant practices) suggest a need to consider
contingencies for providing additional support to teachers with provisional certi-
fication who are assigned to schools that currently lack this capacity. It may be
advantageous to use a response to intervention (RtI) model of teacher profes-
sional development and support (e.g., coaching, mentoring) to improve the qual-
ity of instruction and services provided to students with disabilities who are in
the secondary grades. In this model, all teachers are provided high-quality core
professional development (Tier 1) that targets necessary special education skills
and competencies. Using fidelity data that is collected systematically through
classroom observations, analysis of permanent products, and teacher self-reports
(see McKenna & Parenti, 2017), teachers in need of more targeted support are
identified and provided additional explicit modeling and more frequent perfor-
mance feedback. Teachers identified as in need of targeted support also experi-
ence more frequent progress monitoring to determine the degree to which these
supports result in changes in teacher behavior (e.g., effective use of instructed
200 JOHN WILLIAM McKENNA ET AL.

methods). Targeted support can be provided to small groups of teachers (Tier 2)

or can be more individualized (Tier 3) for teachers in need of more intensive
support such as when teachers are working with students with complex needs
and require highly specialized supports and services. This approach could be
applied to any skill or competency that was identified as an area for professional
growth such as explicitness of instruction, differentiation, or the implementation
of individualized supports such as function-based interventions. However, it is
likely that those responsible for providing tiered teacher support would need to
be freed from at least some professional responsibilities to implement them with
sufficient consistency, duration, and intensity (e.g., fidelity). Study findings sug-
gest participants tended to teach in schools with insufficient resources and orga-
nizational structures to support teacher development, teacher effectiveness, and
student learning. In sum, a system that relies on classroom observations and
data-based discussions (see New Teacher Center, 2016) for the sole purpose of
improving teacher instruction and the quality of special education services
should be developed.

Limitations
Five limitations are associated with this study. First, data analysis was based on
only seventeen participants. Although findings from this study may not be repre-
sentative of the majority of provisional or alternatively certified special educa-
tors, this sample size is sufficient for qualitative research. However, all students
with disabilities require high quality instruction to meet FAPE mandates and to
prepare students for transition from high school (Brigham, Ahn, Stride, &
McKenna, 2016; Flower et al., 2015; Yell & Bateman, 2017), including students
who attend urban schools and receive instruction from novice special educators.
A second limitation is that participants were primarily math special education
teachers. Having special education teachers with other professional responsibili-
ties may have revealed different themes, as would interviewing veteran teachers.
However, the purpose of this study was to investigate the perceptions of special
education teachers who were enrolled in or recently completed the program. The
program was designed to address special education teacher shortages such as in
the secondary grades and in mathematics. Third, this study did not include class-
room observations or student academic performance data, which would have
given context to the interviews. This study also did not compare teacher reports
to information in student IEPs. As a result, this study only reports teacher per-
ceptions and concerns and not the actual quality of special education services
students received and the degree to which they align with FAPE mandates and
prepare students for postsecondary life. However, participant perceptions are
based on their own observations and professional experiences. Reports of
teacher stress and concerns with special education training, special education ser-
vices, and insufficient resources across participants calls into question the manner
in which study participants were trained, supported, and utilized. Fourth, we did
not interview other stakeholders such as secondary grade students with disabilities,
parents/guardians, co-teachers, mentors, and administrators. Interviewing these
Examining Alternatively Certified Special Educator Perceptions 201

stakeholders would have provided a more holistic view of special education ser-
vices and teacher support, training, and preparation. Lastly, we did not ask ques-
tions that were specific to transition planning and transition services. However,
participant responses to interview questions did provide insight into aspects of
their experience that are salient to transition including high levels of stress, insuffi-
cient resources and training in special education methods, and concerns with the
manner in which students with disabilities were placed and served at their schools.

Future Research
This investigation points to three areas for future research. First, it is necessary
to identify effective methods for training and supporting urban preservice tea-
chers with in-servicing responsibilities and novice special education teachers in
general. The field must determine what structures and supports are absolutely
critical to the effectiveness of provisionally certified special education teachers.
Stakeholders must then commit to ensure that schools are able to implement
them with fidelity. This means making certain that school administrators have
sufficient resources to implement recommended practices for special education
teacher training and support. Findings from this investigation suggest that cur-
rent methods to train and support these novice teachers are inadequate, as indi-
cated by statements related to the experience of stress and concerns regarding
the provision of special education services. Consistent access to a highly quali-
fied mentor teacher, ongoing coaching in effective methods for teaching students
with disabilities, and more manageable workloads are critical to improving the
manner in which these teachers are trained and supported. Second, research
should continue to investigate the implications of having urban students with
disabilities instructed by teachers with minimal qualifications and experience. Is
the use of alternative certification programs to address teacher shortages neces-
sary and sufficient to meet the FAPE mandate of special education law? What
are the short and long term implications of this reliance? Is this necessary and
sufficient to meet the needs of a protected class of citizens? Lastly, future mixed-
methods investigations should be conducted to describe transition planning and
services for secondary grade students with disabilities. Studies that include
observations of instructional practices, observations of transition planning meet-
ings, and interviews of various stakeholders (e.g., students, parents/guardians,
teachers, admins) should be conducted to better understand current practices
and challenges as well as the potential implications of relying on novice teachers
to achieve FAPE mandates and positive transition outcomes.

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