TRAFF TC FLOW AND RoaDWay CAPACITY 54 TRAFFIC FLOW AND ROADWAY CAPACITY 5.4.1 General 219 Different classes of vehicles with wid i lely varying characteris roadway with different speeds. The characteristics attitude cate pape a the drivers who drive these vehicles also vary w; need for overtaking the slower vehicles hh carpe and ane changes. Traffic stream generally has flow and counterilow Goes ama ane carriageway, unless the stream is separated into pair of cS ea toa ; propriate design (such as the divided carriageway) or regulation (such as one-way roads ete: ). ts along a particular roadway, there are 'y diverging out to side roads on left or right Of vehicles from the side roads entering the also situations when the rondway is crossed by side; similarly there are requirements roadway under consideration; there are other roads. Due to the above variable factors, re a the traffic flow characteristics along the roadway are quite complex that it is rather difficult to be represented by analytical expressions. 5.4.2 Traffic Flow Characteristics General traffic flow regulations In India, the United Kingdom (UK), Australia and several other countries, ‘keep-to- lef’ regulation is being followed and the vehicles are designed with the steering wheel placed on the right side (ie., right hand drive vehicles) and the driver is seated on the Tight side of the vehicle. Therefore the vehicles are generally expected to move along the left lane of the carriageway; in multilane carriageway, the left extreme lane is meant for the slow moving vehicles and the right lane for fast vehicles. All overtaking manoeuvres are to be from the right side or the right lane only. In other words overtaking from the left side is a violation of the general flow regulation. In the USA, UAE and other countries ‘keep-to-right’ regulation is being followed with left hand drive vehicles. In this chapter explanations pertaining to,traffic flow and manoeuvres have been Presented for ‘keep-to-left’ regulation only. Basic traffic manoeuvres The basic traffic manoeuvres in a traffic stream may be represented by: (a) diverging, (b) merging and (c) crossing manoeuvres, as shown in Fig. 5.11. Diverging When a vehicle travelling along the main traffic stream opts to diverge or move out of this stream to an adjacent traffic lane or to a side road, this operation is called “diverging manoeuvre". The vehicle can either diverge to the left or to the right side of the main traffic stream. Diverging to the left from the left side lane is the easiest movement as this does not cause any problem of traffic conflict with other vehicles of the main stream, But diverging manoeuvre to the right creates conflicts as there os hazard to the traffic moving along the straight path and also conflicts with the te Coming vehicles in the case of two-way traffic flow; therefore a vehicle divergin& the right has to wait for adequate gap in the counter flow of the main stream. Scanned with CamScannerTRAFFIC ENGINEERING 220 rich ut DIVERGING RIGHT nent MERGING. re RIGHT CROSSING ert RIGHT WEAVING Fig. 5.11 Basic traffic manoeuvres Merging ‘When a vehicle travelling along an adjoining lane or roadway desires to enter the maia \taffic stream by looking for an opportunity of sufficient gap between the vehicles of te ‘main stream, this operation is called ‘merging manoeuvre’. ‘The vehicle can either merge ‘fom the left or from the tight of the main traffic stream. ‘Merging manoeuvre’ fiom he from the type of conflict mentioned above, in two-way traff there could b: additional conflict with the on-coming vehicles, bee aegis vats Therefore merging vehicles have to wal for adequate gap before entering the main traffic stream. Transfer of a vehicle from om ttaffic Lane to the adjacent traffic lane is called ‘lane change’ and this involves (i) a simple diverging manoeuvre from one lane and (i) a merging manoeuvre into the adjoining lane. Crossing manoeuvre When a vehi : “vets moves obliquely aco the Path of another vehicle moving ia ™ Scanned with CamScannerTRAFFIC FLOW AND ROADWAY CAPACITY 221 same direction at relatively small angle of crossin; , : ae zi 0 1g the manoeuvre is termed as ate bast sarin (see Fig. 5.11) may also be considered to consist of g lanes making ‘lane changes’ i ivergit operations along a short stretch, nges’ or merging and diverging Traffic stream flow characteristics Factors affecting stream flow ‘The traffic stream flow characteristics are affected by the wide range of factors such as, (0 vehicles traveling at different speeds of their choice (i) diferent types and classes of vehicles travelling along the same stream (iii) presence of pedestrians and other road users (iv) geometric feature of the road including different types of intersections (v) various types of regulatory and control measures and (vi) environmental and weather conditions. The traffic stream flow along various routes may be compared and studied by analysing the traffic flow characteristics with respect to: (i) longitudinal distribution of vehicles and (ii) transverse distribution of vehicles Longitudinal distribution of vehicles The traffic flow along a traffic lane or one way traffic stream will consist of vehicles travelling at different speeds, allowing different space gaps between them. The gaps ahead of each vehicle determine the longitudinal distribution of vehicles in one-way stream. The time interval between the passage of successive vehicles moving in the same lane and measured from head to head as they pass a point on the road is known as the ‘time headway’ and may be measured in seconds. The distance between successive vehicles moving in the same line measured from head to head at any instance is called the ‘space headway’ or the spacing of the vehicles in the stream and may be measured in metres. The space headway between two successive vehicles depends on the clear gap between them and the vehicle length. The variations in the headway between the successive vehicles indicate the longitudinal distibution of the stream. The total number of time headways per unit time represents the umber of vehicles per unit time and is therefore a direct measure of trafic volume. Minimum space headways Consider that each vehicle follows the lead veliicle (or the vehicle moving ahead) as closely as possible, allowing the minimum possible space gap. The clear gap between two successive vehicles and the space headway depends on the speed. When the vehicles are stopped (as during the red phase of a traffic signal) the vehicles will have the closest space gap between them. As the speed of the vehicle stream increases, the minimum gap as well as the minimum space headway between successive vehicles increases as illustrated in Fig. 5.12. This is because the driver of the following vehicle allows a safe gap depending on the speed, so as to avoid collision in case the lead vehicle suddenly slows down or stops. Minimum time headways ‘Assume that a stream of vehicles flows at close intervals one behind the other. At very Jow speeds, the time headway is high and the number of vehicles crossing @ point or the flow mate ig also low. As the speed of the stream gradually increases, the minimum time headway decreases up to a lowest value at a certain speed. The speed at which the value of time headway is the lowest represents the optinum speed corresponding to maximum flow or “capacity flow’. If the speed of the traffic stream is further increased, the minimum time headway starts increasing resulting in decrease in flow rate, This is illustrated in Fig. 5.12. Scanned with CamScannerTRAFFIC ENGINEERING 222 eit. 129, 777 Tywo - LANE HIGHWAY — é h HEADWAY, Ht} "| 3 i £ w +I = g = 2 pee 5 = SPACING, Hs a & vs z 0 7 3 z 2 Zz z2 2 = denned § 2 20 100 ° 20 0 60 OBSERVED SPEED OF PAIRS OF VEHICLES, kmph Fig. 5.12 Variation of minimum space and time headways with speed Lane change and overtaking manoeuvre In a traffic stream if a vehicle moves at low speed, the gap between this slow vehicle and another fast vehicle following the slow vehicle decreases, necessitating a lane change and overtaking manoeuvre. Therefore, the driver of the overtking vehicle starts overtaking manoeuvre when there is opportunity to overtake the slow vehicle safely. ‘The overtaking vehicles makes a lane change to the right lane, accelerates, overtakes from the right side and then returns to the left lane. When the gap or headway of the lane changing vehicle rapidly decreases to a low value, the lane change is termed ‘forced lane change’; in all other cases the lane change may be optional. The frequency of demand for lane change will be high when the speed range of vehicles in the traffic stream is high. The lane change manoeuvres and characteristics would very much depend on the nuniber of lanes and whether itis one-way or two-way traffic movement. The larte changes for overtaking manocuire consist of diverging, merging or weaving operations. Longitudinal and transverse distribution studies Study of longitudinal and transverse distribution of vehicles in the traffic streams Useful to assess the flow pattern, utilisation of different traffic lanes and for planning the geometric design features. The requirements such as number of lanes and widthof carriageway can be decided using the data. The study is also needed to decide trafle Fegulatory measures. like one-way movements and for the design of traffic contol measures. Traffic flow patterns and distribution studies are particularly essential anni id desi, in i i i caries nt {sign of lasge intersections including grade separators and interchngt 5.4.3 Speed - Flow - Density Relations Speed and travel time As the travel speed increa: " inal, very eee the travel time to cover unit distance decreas 7 travel time t be i ‘Speed incr 7 ‘ to cover unit di id aS: cing inten DE iy dees as sown in ig. Se Te . int as the travel speed increases further. ses further. Scanned with CamScannerTRAFFIC FLOW AND ROADWAY CAPACITY 223 pe travel time per unit length of road i ea per kmandh Vis the peed fake Porton th speed. ALT is T= Whim= © mi 3 a Sz miavken = 2502 sem (Eq. 5.22) TRAVEL TIME , T min! km, cies 1s ° 20 40 6 30 700 SPEED, Vkmph Fig. 5.13 Variation in travel time with speed Speed and Density Density is the number of vehicles per unit length of the road at that instant. The vehicle density of a road is expressed as the number of vehicles per Iane-km of the Toad. With increase in speed of a stream of vehicles on a roadway, the average density per unit length decreases. This is because the gap or spacing between the vehicles ereases with increase in speed, as discussed in Art. 5.4.2 and shown in Fig, 5.12. ty made simultaneously have indicated that ween speed and density could be obtained for a good range of speeds, particularly when the speed is not high. As the speed approaches zero ie., towards stand-still condition, maximum density is obtained. Fig. 5.14 illustrates a hypothetical case based on the simple model of straight line relationship between speed, V and density, K. The dash = Jing shows the actual trend of observations at higher speeds and the extension by the dotted lines is the hypothetical case. Field observations of speed and densi approximately straight line relationship bet 70 sf 8 SE SPEED. Vikmph 8 3 o 30 100 v 20 30 ‘60 DENSITY , kvehicles / km Fig, 5:14 Variation in density with speed Scanned with CamScanner224 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING It is difficult to measure density directly, in practice. Hence the relation, between volume, density and speed is often used. The value of density, K may gt obtained by re-arranging this equation: F vehicles/ hr) K (vehicles/km) = any (Eq. 523 Speed and volume It is obvious that at very low speeds, the traffic flow or volume would also be zero speed indicates zero flow or zero volume. With increasing speeds, trafic volun. also increases up to a certain limit; this trend is similar to reduction in time headvay, H, with initial increase in speed (see Fig 5.12). But as the speed further increases, tig spacing between the vehicles becomes so large that the time headway between thy vehicles also increases and thus the volume decreases. The relationship between speed and volume of traffic for « hypothetical case is represented as a parabolic curve shovm in Fig. 5.15. It may be scen that there is an optimum speed at which the flow o¢ volume is maximum and at higher speeds flow starts decreasing. Thus at each value of volume there are two speed values. The dashed line indicates the wend based on observation. Extension by the dotted line is based on the simplified hypothesis of parabolic shape. low, 80 70| ~ pK 60 i -| | & 50 & > 4 i ) # 3 20 10 = ae oLt+-—4—~| 0 7200 “400 600 800 71000 ‘VOLUME .q vehicles / hr Fig. 5.15 Variation in volume with speed Variation of ‘density with volume When the speed of the traffic flow decreases and becomes zero, the density atts 7 2 ye the ein vile whereas the volume becomes zero. With increase in speed values. volume ii Y values decrease (see Fig. 5.14); however with increase in speed values, the how nresses up to a certain limit and then decreases (see Fig. 5.15). Fig. 516 stows the relationship between volume, q and density, K. In a hypothetical she vets approaches zero a Very high speeds, the density also approaches ze"0 } . lus at the optir it . eee taas ame ate ptimum values of speed and density, the {ow Scanned with CamScanner“ TRAFFIC FLOW AND ROADWAY CAPACITY 225) 1000, HEHE \ 400 VOLUME .q vehicles / hout ° 20 40 60 e000 DENSITY , k vehicles hour Fig. 5.16 Relationship between volume and density Relationship between speed, density and volume The variables related to traffic stream flow characteristics are the speed V, traffic flow or volume q and traffic density K. The fundamental relationship between traffic speed, volume and density may be represented by: Vs = qK (Eq. 5.24) Rewriting the above, the general equation of traffic flow is given by: q= KV; (Eq. 5.25) Here, Vs. = space-mean speed of vehicles in a unit roadway length, (kmph) 4 = the average volume of vehicles passing a point during a specified period of time, (vehicles/hour) K = the average density or number of vehicles occupying a unit length of roadway at a given instant, (vehicles/km) Thus, in Eq, 5.24 or Eq. 4.25, if any two of the three stream variables ie., volume 4 speed V and density K are known, the third variable may be determined. The ‘rffic volume and speed may be measured easily in the field, whereas it is difficult to Teasure the density. Hence by measuring the values of traffic volume and speed, it is Possible to compute the density. ‘When the three relations given in Fig, 5.14, 5.15 and 5.16 are combined and plotted pnthree mutually perpendicular axes, the surface obtained may be visualized as the Ne traffic stream equation as illustrated in Fig. 5.17. In w® above flow relationships have been established for homogeneous traffic flow. ity Case of mixed waffic flow with heterogeneous traffic, these relationships are i nod ‘9 be quite complex. In the operation and planning of traffic facilities the “Stonship between the fundamental stream flow variables is important. Scanned with CamScannerTRAFFIC ENGINEERING 226 Fig. 5.17 Volume - speed - density surface Capacity flow The maximum speed value Ver and the maxirmum density at zero ve ‘occurs when the speed is a and density is 7 shown in Figs. 5.14 and 5.15 is called ‘free mean speed speed is called jam density, Kj, The maximum flow qmax oF the capacity flow 4. and therefore from Eq. 5.24, (see Fig. 5.18). Vit K Grex = St i (Eq. 5.26) 2800 [- ‘TWO - LANE HIGHWAY 2000 A 3 3 < MAXIMUM CAPACITY OF ONE LANE, vehicles / hour 30 70 66 3 700 SPEED, kmph Fig. 5.18 Speed and capacity flow Example 5.12 The free mean speed on a roadway is found to be 80 mph. Under stopp condition the average spacing between vehicles is 6.9 m. Determine the capaci Gs Solution Given: Free mean speed Vsr = 80 kmph, Sjam= 6.9 m Jam density, Ki = we = 145 vehicle (92 Scanned with CamScannerBe f | TRAFFIC FLOW AND ROADWAY CAPACITY 227 — flow qmax OF capacity flow, qo = Vet Kj _ 80x14s Maximum a 7 Ts = 2900 vehicles/hour/per k qa Passenger Car Units Re uned ae flow and related issues pifferent classes of vehicles such as cars, vans, buses, trucks, auto rickshaws, - Diels, pedal cycles, bullock carts, etc. are found to use the common roadway amis witout Segregation on most of the roads in developing comties like Indi. faiMjow of traffic with unrestricted mixing of different vehicle clases on the jways forms the heterogeneous traffic flow or the ‘mixed traffic flow’. The Torpent vehicle classes have a wide range of static characterises such as length, aif. ete. and dynamic characteristics such as speed, acceleration, braking wicterises, ec. Apart from these, the driver behaviour ofthe different vehicle Sipses is also found tO vary considerably. Therefore the mixed traffic flow Grectestics are very much complex when compared to homogeneous trafic comistng of passenger cars only. | objects of equivalency factors to represent mixed traffic volume itis rather difficult to estimate the traffic volume of roadway facilities under mixed traffic flow, unless the different vehicle classes are converted to one common standard vehicle unit. ‘Therefore it is necessary to determine or to assign equivalency factors for tifferent classes of vehicles. It is a common practice to consider the passenger car as the standard vehicle unit to convert the other vehicle classes and this unit is called ‘Passenger Car Unit’ or ‘PCU*. The total traffic volume of the mixed traffic flow prevalent on the roads in India is generally expressed in terms of PCU per hour or PCUlane/hour and the traffic density as PCU per kilometre length of lane. ‘ferent types of roadway facilities with mixed traffic flow reas and roads in urban areas are expressed in er hour for the entire roadway. Similarly the capacity of di suchas different types of highways in rural a teams of PCU per hour per lane width or PCU ps Concept of PCU value ‘The PCU may be considered as a meastu velicle class compared to that of a passenger car under a specified set of roadway, tnffc and other conditions, If the addition of one vehicle of a particular class in the tnfic stream produces the same effect as that due to the addition of one passenge’ Ti then tat vehitle clace is considered equivalent to the passenger car with a PCL) value equal fo 1.0. ‘Tie PCU value of a particular vehicle class may be considered as the ‘lo ofthe capacity of a roadway when there are passenger cars only 0 the capacity of same roadway when there are vehicles of that class only. re of the relative space requirement of a Faciors affecting PCU values ‘ The PCU values of different vehicle tse factors are listed below: (@) Dimensions of vehicles such as width and length ©) Dynamic characteristics of vehicles such as, power, speed, acceleration and classes depend upon several factors. Some of Scanned with CamScanner228 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (©) Transverse and: longitudinal gaps or clearances between moving ye, which depends upon the speeds, driver characteristics and the vehicle cla at the adjoining spaces (@) Traffic stream characteristics such as composition of different vehicle gl mean speed and speed distribution ofthe mixed traffic steam and volune's capacity ratio Roadway characteristics such as road geometrics including yradien, curves, access controls, rural or urban road, presence of iritersections Nd th type of intersections, (S (8) Regulation and control of traffic such as speed limit, one way traffic, presen of different traffic control devices, etc. (g) Environmental and climatic conditionse Recommended PCU values for different conditions PCU values for roads in rural areas recommended by the IRC ‘The Indian Roads Congress has recommended a set of PCU values for differen types of fast and slow moving vehicles generally found on roads in India passi through rural areas. These PCU factors have been suggested by the IRC while providing the guidelines for capacity of roads in rural areas, as given in Table 5. 6 Table 5.6 PCU Values recommended by the IRC for different types of vehicles on roads in rural areas Sino. Vehicle class Equivalency Fast vehicles factors 1 [Motor cycles and scooter 05 2 [Passenger car, pick-up van and auto-rickshaw 1.0 3 [Agricultural tractor and light commercial vehicles 15 4 |Single unit Truck and Bus 3.0 5__|Truck-trailer and agricultural tractor - trailer 45 Slow vehicles 6 [Pedal cycle 05 7 |Cycle rickshaw 2.0 8 [Hand cart 3.00 9 |Horse drawn vehicle 40 10 (a) [Bullock cart ~ small 60 (6) [Bullock cart 80 J PCU values for roads in urban areas recommended by the IRC The Indian Roads Congress has recommended a set of PCU values for diffe ‘ypes of fast and slow moving vehicles generally found on urban roads in India. Th PCU values have been suggested by the IRC while providing the guidelines capacity of roads in urban areas, as given in Table 5.7 In practice, the equivalency factors will vary according to terrain. However: a has recommended the same equivalency factors for rolling/hilly sections, sift °', effect of terrain has been accounted f sil ‘or in a consolidated manner in the desig volumes recommended for the traffic in different terrains, subsequently. Scanned with CamScannerTRAFFIC FLOW AND ROADWAY CAPACITY 22 able 5.7 PCU values recommended by the IRC for different types of vehicles on urban roads [Equivalent PCU factors sl. Vehicle type Percentage composition| no. lof vehicle type in traffic stream Fast vehicles 5% | 10% and above 1 [Two wheelers - motor cycle, scooter, etc. | 0.50 0.75 72 [Passenger car, pick-up van 1.0 1.0 3 [Auto-rickshaw. 12 2.0 4 [Light Commercial vehicle 1.4 2.0 5 [Truck or Bus 22 37 6 |Agricultural Tractor - trailer 4.0 5.0 Slow vehicles 7 [Pedal cycle 04 05 8 [Cycle rickshaw 15 2.0 9 [Tonga (Horse drawn vehicle) 15 2.0 10 [Hand cart 2.0 3.0 PCU Values for different locations of urban roads based on research studies by Authors ‘The PCU values of urban roads are found to vary depending on the location’ such 4s, (i) mid-block stretches (ii) intersections. Different set of PCU values have been assigned for various vehicle types at mid-block stretches, signalized ‘intersections’ and rotary intersections by the TRRL, UK. Based on research studies carried out in India the authors have artived at a set of. PCU values for urban roads at (i) mid-block stretches (ii) signalized intersections and (ii) kerb parking (for parallel and right angle parking). These were published in the | Joumal of the IRC (vidle Ref. 21) | ‘The important factors taken into account in the above study for the analysis of PCU values of different vehicle classes are: (2) average speed of the vehicle class on urban road stretches under the prevailing roadway and traffic conditions within the desired speed range (0) average length and width of the vehicle class (©) average transverse gap and longitudinal gap allowed between the vehicles of the same class in the speed range under consideration, during compact stream flow on ‘on the above factors, three different sets of PCU values have been worked for: () whan roads, mid block stretches (ii) signalized intersections and (ii) kerb parking (parallel and right angle) These are presented in Table 5.8 below. Scanned with CamScanner230 ‘TRAFFIC ENGINEERING Table 5.8 Suggested PCU values of vehicles for urban roads (Ref. 2) PCU values of vehicle classes at: s Vehicles class | a ads (ii) Signatisea |) Keb alg siretclies intersection s ae el ang 1. |Car 1.0 1.0 2. [Bus and truck 2.2 2.8 3._|Auto rickshaw 0.5 0.4 4, [Two wheeler automobile 0.4 0.3 3. [Pedal cycle 07 04 | 6. [Bullock cart 4.6 | 3.2 7. _|Hand cart 46 3.2 Concept of variable PCU values The PCU value of a particular vehicle class may not remain a constant value as generally assumed. The PCU value of a vehicle class is found to vary depending o several factors such as the proportion of different vehicle classes in the steam, roadway geometrics, stream speed, etc. The PCU value of the vehicle class is found to be different on mid-block stretches, signalized intersections and other types of intersections. Therefore the PCU of a particular vehicle class is a dynamic variable value and seldom remains constant value. 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