ACADEMY OF MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING Diploma in Maritime Studies ( Marine Power Plant } First Year ENGINEERING KNOWLEDGE (MOTOR) Volume 1Table of Contents LEARNING OBJECTIVES LIST OF REFERENCE BOOKS VOLUME 1 1. Introduction to Diesel Engines - 2, Engine Cycles and Timing Diagrams 3. Parts of the Marine Diesel Engine 4, Engine Structure: Bedplates and Framing . 5. Cylinder Liners 6. Pistons 7. Piston Rings 8. Piston Rod Gland/Diaphragm 9. Crossheads 10. Connecting Rod 11. Crankshafts 12. Fuel Injection System |. 13. Combustion of Fuels and Fuel Injectors 14, Valves 15. Scavenging, Charging and Supercharging 16. Systems 17. Starting and Reyersing 18. Safety and Operation 19. Compressed Air System. 20. Air Compressors _ ad MPA:VOLUME 2 21. Lubrication and Fuel Oil Purification 22. Lubricating Oil 23. Lubrication Principles 24. Selection of Lubricants 25. Boilers 26. Boilers and Waste Heat Plants 27. Boiler Combustion 28. Boiler Mountings 29. Feed Systems 30. Feed and Boiler Water Treatment 31, Fuel TechnologyENGINEERING KNOWLEDGE (MOTOR) Learning Objectives At the end of this course, the student should be able to 4) Diesel Engines 1.1 Engine Performance 1) 2) 3) 10) sketch graphs showing how brake thermal efficiency, fuel consumption and specific fuel consumption vary as engine power increases from zero to approximately 10% above the rated power indicate on the graphs in objective 1.1.1 the normal working power of: — main propulsion engines -— electrical generation engines draw up a heat balance showing: — an analysis of cooling losses — loss to radiation —heat in the exhaust and possible recovery of waste heat —- brake power, propeller losses and usefull output state typical specific fuel consumntions and the type of engine to which they apply state typical brake thermal efficiencies sketch an ideal P-V diagram for a diesel engine and imposes on it an actual cycle 1.1 explain why, when compared to the ideal diagram, in the actual cycle: — the compression curve may be lower — the “corners” are rounded explain the possible reasons why, if the compression curve is normal: — the maximum pressure is lower — the maximum pressure is higher — the expansion curve is lower — the expansion curve is higher describe how the faults in objective 1.1.7 are rectified state that errors are inevitable when calculating indicated powersLeaming Objectives i) 12) decribes the usefull information which canbe obtais _—light-spring indicator diagrams +. out-of-phase indicator diagrams : explain how cylinder powers are balanced 1.2 Engine Components ) 2) ) 4) state the materials from which engine bedplates might be made describe the basic construction of an engine bedplate explain the possible causes of cracking in a bedplate state where cracks in bedplates sometimes occur explain the function of tie bolts describe the possible defects which might be caused by a broken or an insufficiently stressed tie bolt describe the methods of fitting tie bolts state the material from which cylinder liners are made explain how the necessary heat transfer can be obtained while méfntaining the strength of cylinder liners explain how jélnts are made in cylinder liners explain how expansion is accommodated in a cylinder liner imum, explain how wear of cylinder liners can be kept to a ini describe the possible consequences of excessive cylinder wear state the range of wear rates which can be expected in cylinder liners describe how wear rates of cylinders are’ measured explain the objects of lubrication of cylinders describe how excessive lubrication may be detected explain why, with a new engine, cylinder lubrication rate is increased describe the factors which influence the positioning of cylinder lubricators explain the factors which Bdvern piston speed explain how pistons are cooled describe how the cooling medium is conveyed to and from pistons describe the effect of variations in both cylinder pressure and metal tempera- ture on a piston- . 4 - (ours — Year 1 EX (Motor) ~E4 Leaming Objocives — 2) 5) 26) 27) 28) 29) 30) 31) 32) 33) 34) 35) 36) 37) 38) 39) 40) 42) explain why pistons in medium- and high-speed engines might be manufac- tured from aluminium alloys describe the danger associated with aluminium alloy pistons if, when abnor- mally dry, they are rubbing at high speed in a cylinder describe a typical arrangement of compression and scraper rings for a trunk piston describe the requirements of piston rings state the materials from which piston rings are manufactured describe in general terms how piston rings are manufactured describe the cause of: — piston rings that are too tight in the piston grooves — piston rings that are too slack in the piston grooves — fouling of piston rings — corrosion of piston rings — bearing surfaces that are in poor condition — piston grooves that are worn — piston ring butts catching liner ports describe the effect of each of the faults listed in objective 1.2.30 describe the remedial action for each of the faults listed in objective 1.2.30 list the factors of pistons ch influence the frequency of inspection and maintenance state the range of running hours between inspections describe how to determine the best interval between inspections describe how, on some large two-stroke engines, pistons and rings can be examined without removing the piston explain the possible causes of, and remedies for, common problems with poppet exhaust valves describe the effect of fuels containing sodium and vanadium on exhaust valves explain why cooling of valves and seats is important describe the material which may be fused on the valve seats in order to withstand erosion and corrosion describe the conditions when corrosion might occur in exhaust valves due to the presence of sulphur in the fuel describe the principle of a device designed to jotate an exhaust valve1.3 Engine Lubrication + y) sa ex (oto) explain the principal differences between fully built, semi built and one-piece crankshafts list the types of engine in which the crankshafts in objective 1.2.43 are likely to be found state an approximate analysis of crankshaft steel state the approximate shrink allowance of webs on to journals explain the purpose of reference marks at the interface of the shrink fits explain the attention which must be given to oil holes and fillets list the factors which could cause overstressing of a crankshaft list the factors which might cause misalignment of a crankshaft list the possible causes of vibration in a crankshaft explain the possible causes of a slipped shrink explain the reasons for, and the effect of, corrosion inrcrankshafts and bearings describe how bearing clearances are checked describe the procedure for checking crankshaft alignment by tion gauge between the crank webs 2 a deflec- list the parts of the engine which would be checked if crankshaft misalignment is found to be excessive explain the source of transverse forces which cause lateral movement and tend to rock the engine explain the purpose of holding-down bolts and side chocking describe the attention necessary for holding-down bolts and chocks describe the precautions necessary during the early running of an engine which is new or has had a major overhaul describe the different lubrication systems used in diesel engines and the demands each puts on the oil explain the possible causes of oxidation of lubricating oilputs - Year 1- EX. (Motor) ~ E14 Leamning Objectives 10) i) 12) 13) 14) describe how to detect and possibly to remedy the presence of: - rust particles —heavy oxidation —loss of ciliness — abrasive particles — water describe means of recognizing deterioration of the lubricating oil state the frequency with which oil samples should be taken for analysis describe the conditions which may vary the sampling frequency describe how lubricating oil is conveyed to top end, bottom end and main bearings in large-bore slow-speed diesel engines describe the lubrication oil film produced in top end explain how engine builders attempt to improve the lubrication of top end bearings describe the conditions which may lead to an explosion in a crankcase describe the means by which crankcase explosions can be avoided describe the means by which early warning of a potential explosion can be obtained describe the procedure to follow if 2 dangerous oil mist is indicated in a crankcase describe the means of relieving the pressure in a crankcase and in scavenge trunking should aii explosion occur 14 Fuel Injection » explain why atomization and penetration of fuel and the turbulence of air are essential to good combustion explain the effect of excessive penetration describe the effect of the length and diameter and of the condition of the internal surface of sprayer holes in fuel-valve tips explain the purpose of pilot injection and illustrates its effect on a sketch of an out-of-phase indicator diagram describe how pilot injection can be achieved state the range of fuel viscosity normally acceptable at a fuel valve state typical temperatures to which viscous fuels have to be raised in order to reach the viscosities stated in objective 1.4.6ening Objactives EK (oto) 8) describe the modifications which might be necessary to a fuel pump and fuel valve if the fuel is to be changed from diesel fuel to fuels of high viscosity 9) state typical fuel pressures necessary to operate a hydraulic fuel valve 10) state that a fuel valve may be cooled by using either oil or water 11) describe the means by which the quantity of fuel delivered can be varied in a fuel pump 12) sketch diagrams to show how needle lift, fuel pressure and cam lift vary as the crank angle passes through top dead centre 13) describe the principle of operation of typical jerk fuel pumps 14) explain the importance of maintaining adequate pressure in the fuel supply lines 15) explain the care and attention required when overhauling and testing fuel injectors and pumps 5 Scavenging and Supercharging 1) compare the scavenging process of four-stroke and two-stroke engines 2) explain why cylinders are pressure charged Four-stroke Engines 3) explain why air inlet and exhaust valves open before and close after the piston has reached the end of its stroke sketch valve timing diagrams for (a) anaturally aspirated and (b) apressure-charged engine 5) , explain the reasons for the difference of valve timing of (a) and (b) in objective 15.4 - 6) explain the purpose of a large valve overlap Two-stroke Engines 7) state the approximate crank angle available to scavenge and to pressure charge the cylinder 8) describe the following three phases of the gas-exchange process: — blowdown scavenge — post-scavengeis ~ Year t= EX (Motor) ~E-414 Leaming Oojetoves 9) sketch typical timing diagrams for slow-speed engines, showing the angles when air inlet and exhaust commence and end nk 10) explain the advantage of allowing some transfer of charge ait immediately into the exhaust 11) explain the effect of increased cylinder pressures on the timing of exhaust opening and the advantage this can be to the turbocharger 12) sketch diagrammatically pressure-charge systems with assisted scavenge 13) explain why charge air sometimes needs to be cooled after compression 14) describe the possible effects of an ineffective air cooler 15) explain why assisted scavenge is necessary 16) state the effect of a change of temperature of charge air on exhaust terpera~ ture 17) explain why water collects in the air cooler 18) explain why it is important to drain air spaces 19) explain why scavenge spaces must be kept cleai 20) describe the causes of deposits in scavenge spaces and explains how these might be reduced 21) describe the procedure if a fire occurs in a scavenge space which is: — local and small — extensive 22) explain the purpose of pressure-relief de} the attention they require ces fitted to scavenge trunks and Exhaust Systems 23) describe the principles of a pulse exhaust system 24) describe the principles of 2 constant-pressure exhaust system 25) compare the need for scavenge assistance for pulse and constant pressure exhaust systems Turbochargers 26) state the basic principles of a turbocharger 27) name the parts of a turbocharger ==Leaming Objectives EK (Motor) 28) 29) 30) 31) 32) 33) 34) 35) 36) 37) 38) 39) 40) 42) 43) 44) describe the function of the: —air filter — inducer — impeller — diffuser — volute casing — nozzles — turbine wheel and blading — protective grating — labyrinth glands — gland sealing air — impeller seal —anti corrosion plugs state the materials from which the components listed in objective 1.5.28 are manufactured describe the measures taken to reduce vibration compare the merits of plain and ball/roller bearings describe the measures taken to ensure adequate lubrication of the bearings Turbocharger Operation explain how corrosion can occur on the gas side of a turbocharger casing describe the effect on blower efficiency of a thin film of deposit on the air si describe the process and safeguards necessary when water washing the air side describe the process of water washing the gas side explain the possible disadvantage of water washing the gas side list the possible reasons for inadequate pressure of discharge air when running at service speed without undue noise or vibration list the factors which can cause surging describe the immediate action necessary if surging occurs describe the means of reducing the possibility of surge describe the indications of malfunction describe typical precautions to be taken if a turbocharger is to be immobilized describe the precautions necessary when running an engine with an immo- bilized turbochargerEK. (Motor) - E44 Leaming Objectives pus - Year t= S16 Starling and Reversing 1) sketch a diagram showing crank angles related to the top and the bottom dead centre for the period of admission of starting air and opening of the exhaust 2) explain how starting is ensured at any crank angle 3) describe the principal features and operation of a typical air operated start ing-air valve 4) state typical materials from which the principal components of the starting-air system are manufactured name the safety features fitted in the pipes etc. supplying air to the cylinders describe the principles of operation of a starting-air distributor 7) sketch the ahead and astern positions of the cams for a jerk fuel pump relative to the crank when on top dead centre, indicating the angular displacement necessary when fitted with a lost-motion clutch 8) sketch the profile of the flank of a cam for a jerk pump, showing the crai angles relative to pumping and injection before and after top dead centre 9) describe the principle of operation of a lost-motion clutch 10) describe the principles of starting systems for typical marine di engin 11) lists the safety interlocks normally fitted in the manoeuvring system of a propulsion diesel engine 12) describe the purpose of the interlocks listed in objective 1.6.11 13) explain how a typical interlock opera 1.7 Cooling Systems Coolants 1) name the media commonly used for cooling —fuel valves — diesel engine cylinders — exhaust valves — turbochargers — pistons — combustion air 2) describe the care necessary when fresh water is used as a coolant 3) describe a means by whicti scale deposits from fresh water can be removed 4) describe the care necessary when using distilled water as a coolantLeaming Objectives EX (Motor) 5) 6) 7) 8) 8) 10) 11) 12) Additives describe the action of an anti-corrosion oil as an additive in cooling water describé the action of an inorganic ink itor as an additive in cooling water explain how additivs,used in jacket cooling water might contaminate drink ing water state the additives which must not be used if there is a possibility of contami- nation as in objective 1.7.7 state the additives which may be used and the appropriate material for cooling-water pipes if there is a possibility of contamination of drinking water describe a cooling system in which lubricating oil is the coolant explain the effect of high temperature on cooling oil state that lubricating oil used as a coolant requires no chemical treatment 1.8 Diesel Engine Controt 1) 10) 11) 12) 13) 14) 15) explain the difference between an engine governor and an overspeed trip explain what is meant by speed droop describe the two functions performed by a governor describe, with the aid of a simple diagram, how the two functions in objective 1.8.3 can be separated describe the action of a proportional governor with linear speed measurement explain the purpose of a flywheel state that a flywheel of high inertia may be replaced by a governor with proportional and reset action describe the action of a governor with proportional and reset action = state that the governor in objective 1.8.8 is often called an isochronous governor explain the principle of an electric governor explain the purpose of a load-sensing governor state the usual application of load sensing governors explain why the governors of a pair of geared diesel engines require large speed droops list the checks built into the bridge control of a direct-drive diesel engine list the safety Jocks and protective devices. fitted when bridge control is employedDUS - Year 1 - EX. (Motor) E-14 Leaming Objectives 16) describe the sequence of operations when controlling engine movements from the bridge 17) describe the Cascade control system for piston cooling and lubricating oil 18) describe the essential requirements if machinery spaces are to run unat- tended 1.9 Compressed Air Principles 1) describe by means o compressor cylinder a sketch of a P-V diagram the cycle of events in a 2) explain how the suction and delivery valves are opened and closed 3) state that indicator diagrams are not normally taken from air compres: board ship son 4) sketch a diagrammatic arrangement of a two- or three stage air compressor, indicating the position of pressure-relief valves and bursting discs 5) explain why air is cooled after being compressed: — in intermediate stages of a multi-stage compress — after the final stage of compression 6) explain why the clearance volume should be kept as small as possible 7) state typical air pressures and temperatures for each stage of — a two-stage air compressor —a three-stage air compressor Operation explain why, where and when drains are fitted and operated explain why the inlet air filter needs to be maintained in good working order describe the conditions which influence the choice of lubricating oil for the cylinder of an air compressor 11) describe in general terms the type of lubricating oil normally used in an air compressor 12) describe the effects of leaking suction and delivery valves in an air compres- sor 13) describe the effect of a dirty air filter in a multi-stage compressor 14) state the materials from which the valves, seats and valve springs of an air - compressor are manufactured =parniog Objectives EK (Moto) 15) describe the basic principles of start-stop control 16) describe the method of control used when a compressor is running continu- ously 17) describe the principle of operation of automatic drains fitted to air compres- sors and air reservoirs 18) state that air reservoirs are made from high-quality low-carbon steel, requiring expert welding techniques and subsequent hi supervision and a high level of quality control treatment, all with close 19) explain the purpose of all of the reservoir mountings 20) describe the means of preventing excessive pressure in the reservoir 21) describe the emptying, inspection, maintenance and recommissioning of an air receiver -10 Multi-engine Propulsion Arrangements. 1) using labelled blocks and single line sketches, describe common arrange- ments of diesel engines coupled by gears for main propulsion, pumping and generation of electrical power describe the principle of operation of a fluid coupling describe the principles of a reverse reduction gear explain the purpose of a flexible coupling describe the principle of operation of a flexible coupling Auxiliary Steam Boilers 2.1 Waste Heat Utilization 1) state the normal minimum difference between the temperature of exhaust gas and that of the water or steam being heated 2) state the minimum acceptable temperature of the metal of a waste heat exchanger in order to avoid the formation of sulphur trioxide 3) state the normal range of steam pressures produced by waste-heat systems 2.2 Types of Boiler 1) describe, by means of asingle line sketch, the construction of an alternatively fired waste-heat boiler2) describe, by means of a single line sketch, the construction of a composite waste-heat boiler 3) explain why a composite boiler’ might be preferred to an al boiler 4) describe in general terms the safeguards necessary with alternatively fired eat boil and composite waste s 5) describe a multi-boiler waste-heat system with natural circulation e225 6) explain the disadvantage of the system described by obje: 7) describe the principles of a typical multi-boiler w. circu -heat system with f 8) describe the principles of a typical dual-pressure forced-circulation multi- heat system 9) explain the principal features of a packaged boiler 10) describe the safety features fitted to a packaged boiler 2.3 Safety Valves state the number of safety valves which must be fitted to a boiler re and the essential requir explain what is meant by accumulation of pres: ments to prevent it occurring 3) ona given valve, or ona drawing of an improved valve, explain the function of — the valve and valve seat — the waste-steam piston — the floating cylinder — the pin through the valve and spindle — the hood — the hexagon head on the hood — the key through the spindle and the hood — the compression ring — the easing gear — the non-closing drain in the base of the wa steam-pipe branch 4) state the materials from which components of safety valves are made 5) describe the maintenance required for a safety valve 6) describe the adjustment and setting of a safety valvegaming Objectives EK (Motor) 7) explain, with specific reference to the valve wings, the waste-steam piston and the floating ring, the principal differences between the following safety valves: — ordinary —high-lift — improved high-lift 8) state the working pressures and the type of boiler on which the valves in objective 2.3.7 are fitted 9) describe the principle of operation of a full-bore safety valve 2.4 Boiler Water Level procedure to ensure that the water level gauge in a boiler is functioning correctly 2) describe the principles of construction of a plate-type water gauge 3) explain the essential difference in construction of plate-type water gauges for working pressures in excess of approximately 20 bar describe the principles of a remote water level indicator 5) explain why feed-check valves are non-return valves and are fitted with a double shut-off facility 2.8 Boiler Defects 1) explain the possible causes of deformation of heating surface 2) explain the possibl causes of wastage ina fur near stays, tubes and riveted seams — in shell and end plates ce 3) describe the places in a boiler where cracks are likely to occur 4) explain the possible causes of cracks occurring 5) explain what criterion is used to determine whether the pressure in a boiler has to be reduced or it has to be taken out of service if cracks occur 6) explain the limitations of ships' staf er defects in repairing boi 7) state that any defect in the pressur reported to the appropriate authority d components of a boiler should be lain briefly the hydraulic testing of a boilerpitS ~ Year 1 EK. (Motor) ~E-14 Leaming Objectives 9) describe the preferred method of taking a boiler out of service for examina- tion 10) describe the procedure for blowing down a boiler 2.6 Corrosion in Boilers ) describe the process of electrochemical corrosion 2) explain the effect of dissolved oxygen in boiler water explain the effect of excessive acidity of boiler water describe the effect of infiltration of animal and vegetable oils into boiler wate: 5) describe the effect of mechanicai straining in a boiler 6) explain how fire-tube boilers might be protected by sacrificial anodes 7) explain how copper deposits occur on boiler tubes and their effect on boiler corrosion 8) describe caustic embrittlement, stating where and why it is most likely to occur explain the initial treatment given to fresh water and to seawater before being supplied to a feedwater system describe how seawater could enter a boiler 2.7 Use of Seawater in Boilers 1) lists the dissolved solids in average seawater, indicating their appropriate parts per million 2) state that chlorides would normally remain in solution in a boiler in a boller 3) explain the effect of heavy concentrations of sodium chlorid 4} describe the outcome of the combination of sodium chloride and magnesiu sulphate in a boiler describe the outcome of the akdown of magnesium chloride in a boiler 6) explain the effect of magnesium sulphate in a boiler 7) describe the effect of calcium sulphate in a boiler 8) describe the effect of calcium bicarbonate in a boiler 2.8 Use of Fresh Water in Boilers explain how water is classified as salt o:Leaming Objectives EK. (Moto) 2) list the dissolved solids in a sample of fresh water, giving their approximate parts per million 3)_ state that the chemical composition of fresh water varies very cons according to its source serably 4) explain what is meant by the total hardness of water 5) state the sources of silica found in a boiler 6) describe the effect of silica: — in low-pressure boilers sure boilers — in high-pr explain the presence of carbon dioxide in boller wate 8) describe the effect of carbon dioxide in boiler water 9) explain the presenGé 6f hydrogen in boiler water 10) describe the effect of hydrogen in boiler water 2.9 Water Treatment 1) state the purpose of treatment of feed 2) ne objective in 2.9.1 is achieved ) explain in principle how ater with cium hydroxide and sodium explain the effect of treating feed carbonate 4) state that treatment with caustic soda can be used in place of that described in objective 2.9.3 5) state that the treatments described in objectives 2.9.3 and 2.9.4 have in general been superseded 8) state that phosphate can be used to combine with the calcium and magnesium compounds in boiler water to form a precipitate of sludge and porous s: 7) explain the advantage of using phosphates instead of sodium carbonate 8) state that the type of phosphate used depends upon the required alk and whether the injection is into the feed system or direct into the boiler 9) explain why coagulants are used in boiler water 10) name chemicals which are used as coagulants 11) describe colloidal suspensions as produced by coagulat 12) name the chemicals used to remove dissolved oxygen from boiler water 13) explain the effect of using the chemicals listed in objective 2.9.12 14) describe the precautions to be en if storing and handling hydrazineEK, (Motor) ~ E14 Leaming Oojectve ous ~ Year 1 - 15) explain the effect of the pH value of boiler water on the reaction of sodium sulphite 16) explain the purpose of anti-foams and how they are usually applied 17) explain how caustic embrittlement can be avoided 2.10 Steam and Condensate Lines 1) explain why corrosion occurs in wet steam lines and in the condensate system 2) describe in general terms how the corrosion described in objective 2.10.1 can be reduced 2.11 Water Testing 1) state that, for low-pressure fire-tube boilers, a salinometer and litmus papers may provide sufficient crude information on the condition of the water 2) relate a salinometer scale to the relative density and to the solids, measured in parts per millon, in distilled water and in seawater 3) explain the procedure for regulating density should seaw as the feed to low-pressure boilers 4) state that seawater feed is to be avoided except in extreme emergency 5) describe the use of litmus paper butis 6) state that more accurate information is desirable for low-output boil essential for higher-performance boilers 7) describe briefly the principle of, or carries out, he following tests: — alkalinity to phenolphthalein — total alkalinity — caustic alkalinity — chloride — sulphite — phosphate — hardness — pH value — dissolved oxygen — total dissolved solids — hydrazine 8) state the approxi to the type of boiler likely to be encountered acceptable results of the tests in objective 2.11.7 relatedaxing Objectives 3) List of Reference Books Motor Engineering Knowledge (Reed's Marine Engr series vol 12) Thomas D. Morton Thomas Reed Publications Ltd Marine Engineering Systems A. J. Weddle Heinemann : London Steam Engineering Knowledge (Reed's Marine Engr series vol 9) Thomas D. Morton ‘Thomas Reed Publications Ltd Marine Steam Boilers LHD Newnes-Buttery Marine Combustion Practice J. Flack & R. Strong Pergamon Marine Diesel Lubrication G. H, Clark Burmah-CastrolENGINEERING KNOWLEDGE (moTor) Introduction to Diesel Engines 144 What is a Diesel Engine? ‘A diesel engine 1s a machine which produces power by burning oil in a body of air which hes been so™ezed to a high pressure by’ tvioving pisian. Since it is 4 inachife that produces power, it is called an engine, and since the burning or cOfibustion takes place within the engine itself, it is called an internal. combustién @ugiste. A steam engine uses steam made by burning fuel outside the + engine. That is external combiisti6n. 42 Basic,Parts of a Diesel Engine To cbiftipress the air, put in the oil, and produce power, every diesel engine musthave certain basic parts (see Fig. 1) It must have a round sieevé or cylinder, in the bore of which a close-fitting plug or eae gn slidiin and out to Hiak8 Strokes, The piston must be connected to a in Vifich controls its sliding. For this pure ordinary engit suse a crank vhich can turn pr rey 5 bearings and which has an\ofjetior crank (which turns m a a als when th the shaft revolves), and, second, a connectinig rod which connects the crank to the piston The connecting rod is 4 a straight rod with a bearing at each end. The ceank toting motion of the crankshaft, The een byth thé cranshatt. f the piston = erigie is taken off Other basic parts are necessary 1) Valves dr ports are needed to let the air into the cylinder, and also to let out the burned or snent eases after thev have done their wrt 2) Also a Spy nozzle, of fuel injéetor, is needed to agliver the oil for burning in the form of d finely divided spray. To do this the oil must be put under pressure. This is accomplished by a pump which is called a fuel injection pump. Of course, even the simg st diesel engine has otherparts then thos: st mentioned, and these will be discussed in further chapters.Inoducton 1 Diese! Engines FUEL, INJECTOR: CYLINDER FUEL, HEAD INJECTION PUMP 4 CYLINDER BORE PORTS ——— CYLINDER if Gib" PISTON CONNECTING ROD CRANKSHAFT BASIC PARTS OF A DIESEL ENGINE Fig nef: Iniroduetion to Diese! Engines oni Year EK otor)- E44 ee 43 «What happens inside the Engine ‘Tobegin learning how a diesel engine works, let's see whathappens inside the engine step by step. Basic Actions 1) First, air must be entered into the cylinder, because no fuel will without air. Burning or combustionis the process of combining a fuel or combustible with the oxygen in the air. The process is a chemical one, which means that the fuel and oxygen, in combining, change into new substances. 2) Second, the air must be squeezed or compressed to a high pressure ‘There are two reasons for compressing the air. One reason is that if the combustible mixture has been compressed to a high pressure before it starts to bur, it will produce more power than if ithad not been compressed. The other reason is that when air is compressed, its temperature goes up — the higher the pressure, the higher the temperature. In a diesel engine, the air is compressed so much that it becomes as hot as red-hot iron, in fact, so hot that it will ignite oil that is spr: ved into it This is a fyndamental difference between a diesel engine and a gasoli engine such as the one in a car In a gasoline engine, a spark is used to igni the combustible mixture, while in a diesel engine the fuel (gnites by itself from contact with air — air that is very hot because ithas been highiy compressed 3) Third, the fuel must-be-squirted into the cylinderin the form of a fine _ spray. The oil is squirted in affér the air has been compressed and thus heated to a high temperature, It must be in the form of a fine spray so that a cloud of oil droplets will spread throughout all of the air. This produces a thoroug or “homogeneous” mixture of oil and air, which is for quick and complete combustion, (it all must happen so fast in an engine that there’s no time to waste. Fourth, combustion takes place immediately after the oil is sprayed into the cylinder; this generates a large amount of heat. The gaseous mixture gets hotter and tries. to. grow larger or expand. It pushes on the piston, which in turn transmits the force through the connecting rod to the crank on the crankshaft This makes the crankshaft revolve and thus deliver power to whatever machine the engine is driving14 15 Fifth and last, when the piston has finished its preceding power stroke, and the gases in the cyliader have lost their pressure, the spent gases must be gotten rid of or exhausted Meaning of a “Cycle” When the cylinder is rid of the spent gases, it is ready to receive a fresh charge of air and start the cycle all over again. A cycle, in other words, is a full series of the separate steps or events which follow each other, This is a good place to learn what is meant by the common terms of two-cycle engines and-four-cycle engines. Tnese terms are really abbreviations for two- stroke cycle and four-stroke cycle, which make more sense, but almost everyone now uses the shorter terms. In a two-cycle engine, it takes two strokes of the piston (that is, one up-stroke and one down-stroke) to go through one complete cycle of events Ina fourscycle engine, a complete cycle requires four strokes of the piston (one up, one down, one up and one down). These terms apply to all kinds of internal-com- bustion engines, not merely to diesels. How a Diesel Engine works: ve seen in the previous sectign each of the actions that must take place inside engine as it goes through one cycle of evenié.’Now we want to learn how the engine makes these actions come about. In other words, we want to study how a typical diesel esrine works, a dies: Fig 2 is an elementary pwcture or diagram which shows the basic moving parts of a simple four-cycle diesel engine with only one cylinder. (Most diesel engines have more than one cylinder, but all the cylinders work alike.) The picture is divided into several views, each view showing the same engine, but with its moving parts in a different position. By studying the different positions in order, we will léarn how the engine works, The Intake Stroke Starting at (a) of Fig 2, we find the engine with its piston at the top or at top centre, and ready to draw in a charge of air. The inlet Walve is open; the other valves are closed. The crankshaft is turning. As the shaft urbs to the night and downward, it pull ‘he cylinder, down on th€ donnecting rod, and the rod in turn pulls down on he piston. Thus the piston descends in the cylinder, drawing in behind it a charge of fresh air through the inlet valvé. When the piston has descended to the bott its stroke (bottom centre), the inlet valve closes. The cylinder is now full of fres! ‘This event is known as the intake or suction stroke‘pus - Year " Vawe VALVE 70R eyguctin. (oexnaust The Compression Stroke AAs the crank turns to the left and upward, the connecting rod likewise pushes the piston upward, as shown at (b). Since all the valves are closed, the air charge cannot escape; the air is therefore forced into a smaller space. This increases the pressure of the air and also its temperature, so that when the piston has reached the its stroke (top centre), the air déclibies only about r at lower rotational speeds than trunk-piston type engines, because the space available for the crosshead bearings is greater than the space within the piston for the gudgeon bearing assembly Contamination of crankcase lubricating oil by combustion products is much less in crosshead engine than trunk-piston engines due to the installation the diaphragm. Cheaper quality fuels may be used in crosshead engines as it is possible isolate the cylinder space from the crankcase thus preventing acidic residues entering the crankcase. The total cost for lubric: nts is less with crosshead engin ton engines of equivalent power, Advantages of Trunk-piston Engines ‘Trunk-piston engines have the advantage of requiring less head room than crosshead engines. + ‘Trunk-piston engines have fewer working parts than crosshead type engines Trunk-piston engines are much less costly to produce because their design lends itself to mass production methods. 115 Scavenging All diesel engines must take in air{or combustion, Whether it is a two-stroke or four-stroke cycle engine, combustion air must be pumped in and the engine must use power to get the air into the cylinder. _ For further details, see chapter on scavenging/pressure charging, —s116 stedueton 19 Diese! Engh Terms Scavenging - Is the process.of removing the exhaust gas by blowing in fresh air Charging Is the process by which the engine cylinders fil with airat the comprezsivn stroke Supercharging Is a process or combination of processes whereby the density of the cha-7n air is, increased to provide a greater mass of air in the cylinder in which a corresponding larger arnount of fuel can be burnt, so increasing the power output of the engine The high pressure air is previded by engine-driven pump or blower or by an exhaust-driven turbocharger, Turbo-charged When the high pressure air is provided by a turbocharger the “turbg-charged’ gine is termed Power Measurement There are two possible measurements of engine power — the indicated pow th 1e shaft power, ‘The indicated power is th be measui e power developed within the engine cylinder d by an engine indicator ‘The shaft power is the power available at the output shaft of the engirie and can be measured using a torsionmeter or with a brake The Engine Indicator ' An engine indicetor is shown in Fig, 7. It is made up of a small piston of known size ibrated spring A magnifying linkage transfers the piston movement to a drum on which is mounted a piece of paper or card, The drum oscillates (moves backwards and forwards).under the pull of a cord. The cord is moved by a reciprocating (up and down) mechanism which is proportional to the engine piston movement in the cylinder. The stylus draws out an indicator diagram which represents the gas pressure on the engine piston at different points of the stroke, and the area of the indicator diagram produced represents the power develo} which operates in a cylinder against a specially ed in the particular cylinder, The power can be measured knowing the scaling factors, spring calibration and some basic engine details.F1 EK (Motor) E14 3d 1: Introduction to Diaset Engines oe Aa eel piston rod calforated spring rum Finke to provide straight piston Fine movement of sofas suide pulley Indicator piston q coupling nue India , to fasten onto cord indiatar cock Engine Indicator Fig.7 Mean Effective Pressure (indicated) ‘The mean effective pressure, expressed in N/m? or kgf/era? is the average or mean pressure effectively pushing the piston downward and tréfisfnitting useful energy to its crank during one cycle. The mean effective pressure is obtained from an indicator diagram. Peak or, Maximum Pressure ‘The peak or maximum pressure is the highest pressure obtained in the cylinder during the combustion period. This can be measured by an engine indicator. See Chapter 2 for details, Torsionmeter ‘The crankshaft of an engine is forced to turn by the pushes given to it by the cranks to which the pistons are attached. This turning or twisting force is called the engine torque. After torque has been applied to a crankshaft by its cranks, the shaft can, in tum, apply torque to whatever the engine drives, such as a propeller shaft or an electric generator. If the torque transmitted by a shaft is known, together with the arigular velocity, then ». the power can be measured, ic. shaft power = to#{ue x angular velocity ‘Whe torque on a shaft can be found by measuring the shear stress or angle of twist {with a torsionmeter. SS peeENGINEERING KNOWLEDGE (MOTOR) Engine Cycles and Timing Diagrams Introduction Internal combustion engines are so named because combustion of the fuel takes place inside the engine, When the fuel burs inside the engine cylinder, it gives out heat which is absorbed by the air previously taken into the cylinder, the temperature of the air is therefore increased with a consequent increase in pressure and/or volume, thus energy is imparted to the piston. The reciprocating motion of the piston is converted into a rotary motion at the crankshaft by connecting rod and crank ‘The method of igniting the fuel varies. In diesel engines the compressed to a high pressure so that it attains a high temperature, and when oi fuel is injected into this high temperature air the fuel immediately ignites. When the ignition of the fuel is caused solely by the heat of compression, the engine is classed as a compression-ignition engine. In petrol and paraffin engines the fuel is usually taken in with the charge of air, compressed and then ignited by an electric spark Various Stages of a Diesel Cycle 1) Airis introduced into the cylinder because no fuel will burn without air, Burning or combustion is a process of uniting fuel or combustible with the oxygen in air. The process is chemical which means that fuel, & oxygen, in uniting, change into new substances. 2) The air must be squeezed or compressed to a high pressure. ‘There are two reasons for compressing the air: more power and high temper are. In a diesel engine the air is compressed so much that it becomes as hot as red hot iron. In fact, it will be hot enough to ignite oil that is sprayed into if 3) The fuel is injected into the cylinder in the form of fine spray after the air has been compressed and thus heated to a high temperature It must be in the form of fine spray so that a cloud of oil droplets will spread through all the air in the cylinder. 4) Combustion takes place after the oil is sprayed in the cylinder. ‘This will generate a large amount of heat. The gaseous mixture gets hotter and grows larger or expand. It pushes on the piston, which in turn transmits the force through the connecting rod to the crank of the crankshaft. This will make the crankshaft revolve.Volurma:4 2: Engine Oyeles and Timing 5) The spent gases must’be exhausted, when the piston has finished its “preceding power stroke, and the gases in the cylinder have lost their pressure. Theoretical Diesel Cycle The theoretical basis for the operation of the diesel engine is shown in Fig, 1 Pressure (Nm#) Stroke Cylinder Compression Expansion ee. eodcantte eeadeenie ‘Theoretical pressure-volume diagram for a diesel engine Air being compressed within an engine cylinder by a piston. As the volui ed, the pressure and temperature of the aira eased. Approa ing point2, the air temperat Wve the ignition temperature of th fuel oil so that, when fuel oil is injected into the cylinder, it ignites on making contact with the hot air within the cylinder. edu 2-3 Heat energy is being rapidly added to the working fluid, due to the combustion of fuel, 3-4 The piston is rapidly accelerating downwards. The pressure acting on the receding piston is kept constant by a suitably designed fuel injection system.ig vear 1-0 ous= Yee EX (Motor) ~ E18 2: Engine Cyeles and Timing Diagrams 4-5 The hot air resulting from the heat addition is expanding, losing pressure and temperature, and forcing the piston downwards 5-1 Heat energy is being rejected from the wor that the cycle may be repeated. ng cycle. to the atmosphere, so Considering Fig. 1, it can be seen that the area of the diagram represents the amount of energy theoretically available from the engine during one cycle Area " Height x Length (or px V) a N. [mean effective pressure) = m? [volume] mi = Nm = J (oules) An engine indicator (see section 2.4) is used to record such diagrams off engines, the areas representing the work done per cycle. The Four-stroke Diesel Engine In this type of engine it takes four strokes of the piston (i.e. two revolutions of the crank) to complete one working cycle of operatious, Fig, 2 shows an outline sketch of a four-stroke medium speed diesel engi nce the name four-stroke cyele. Fig. 3 illustrates each of these four strokes in one cylinder. On the cylinder head is shown the fuel valve which lifts to admit oil fuel (under pressure) into the cylinder, the air-induction or air inlet valve through which air is drawn in, and the exhaust valve through which the exhaust gases are expelled from the cylinder. There are two more valves which are not shown here because they do not operate during the ing cycle; one is the relief valve which opens against the compression of its spring when the pressure in the cylinder rises too high, the other is the air-starting valve which is cam-operated and opens to admit high pressure the cylinder to move the piston and start the engine. normal wor! into Cycle of operations SKETCH (i). This illustrates the induction (or intake) stroke, The piston is moving down, the air inlet valve is open and air is being drawn into the cylinder from the atmosphere by the suction effect of the piston. At the end of this stroke the cylinder is full of air and the air inlet valve closes. SKETCH (ii), This shows the compression stroke. The piston is moving up, all valves are closed and therefore the air in the cylinder is being compressed. When air is compressed its temperature rises and the reason for compressing the air in a diesel engine is to obtain a sufficiently high temperature to cause the fuel oil to ignite and ~eVowume 1 Exhaust ons Gas turbine Rotary air Rocker acm Air cooler _Crlinger head Exhaustvalve—} Inlet valve Pushrod — Water cooling Piston ———T] Piston tings Exhaust 5 . Sa Or} inmaiecan oo Connecting rod ankease_[F) m I Crank LU Bottom end Bearing Crasashalt ig. 2 Four-strake mediumspeed di burn rapidly when itis injected into the cylinder at the end of this stroke. The pressure of the air at the end of compression is usually in the region of 35 bar gi temperature of about 540°C. (il), This is the power stroke and the piston is moving down. The fuel is injected into the cylinder in the form of a fine spray through the fuel valve, it mixes with the hot air and burns rapidly. The fuel is admitted a few degrees before top dead centre of the crank to give it time to reach full combustion for the beginning of the stroke and the valve remains open for about one-tenth of the downward stroke, As the oil burns it heats the air which would cause a rise in pressure or increase in volume; in the pure diesel cycle the rate of admission of the oil is controlled so that =sear - EK (Wotor) ~ Ed 2 Engine Cycles and Timing Diagrams Beem Sie L ennoen COMPRESSION STROKE , Pow! STROKE ) FOUR-STROKE DIESEL ENGINE Fig.3 the heat evolved maintains the pressure constant while the piston is moving down during the combustion period. For this reason it is called the constant pressure cycle (in actual practice the pressure rises a little during combustion). When the fuel is shut off, the gases continue to push the piston down and the pressure consequently falls as the piston moves towards the end of this stroke, this is the expansion periéd of the power stroke. At the end of fuel combustion (and beginning of expansion) the temperature of the gases has probably risen to about 1650°C. Near the end of this stroke, when the pressure has fallen to be of little furtheruse, the exhaust valve opensgine Oyetes and Timing Disgrams SKETCH (iv). This illustrates the exhaust stroke, The exhaust valve is open, piston moving up, and the gases are being expelled from the cylinder. At the end of this stroke the exhaust valve closes and the air inlet valve opens to bégin the cycle of, operations over again. The valves and ports of an internal combustion engine do not open and close when the crank is exactly on top or bottom centre (i.e. when the piston is at the top or bottom of its stroke). For instance, the air inlet valve must begin to open well before the crank is on top centre so that it is fully open when the piston begins to move down on its intake stroke. As the fast-moving piston moves down, the air rushes into the cylinder at a high velocity and the momentum gained causes it to continue to “pour” into the cylinder after the piston completes its downward stroke. Thus the air inlet valve is kept open until the crank has passed bottom centre and the momentum of the inrush of air is reduced-to practically nil, At the end of compression the temperature of the air is sufficiently high to ignite the fuel when it is injected into the cylinder and cause itto burn rapidly. However, since it takes a fraction of a second to get the full burning effect, the oil is injected before top dead centre of the crank, and it follows that the faster the speed of the engine the earlier the beginning of the fuel injection. The fuel valve t open for, ficient oil to be injected to produce the required power during the power stroke, and to allow for a reasonable drop in pressure before exhaust begins. The exhaust valve opens a little before the piston reaches the end of the power stroke, to allow any remaining pressure after expansion to fall to about atmospheric NOIsNWaxA BDC TIMING DIAGRAM FORA FOUR-STROKE DIESEL ENGINE —pressure, before the piston begins to move up again, and it remains open for a short while after the piston completes its upward exhoust stroke because exhaust continues for a brief period due to the momentum of the gasés being entrained towards the exhaust opening. “ay us Year 1 EX. (ator) = E44 Timing Diagram for Four-stroke Cycle Top dead centre ae a Fuel Fuel injection ‘=> injection begins ceases « oS vO Exhaust valve opens | Bottom dead centre ‘Timing of a fourstroke diesel engine Fig.2 Engine Oycies and Timing Diagrams A diagram representing two revolutions of the crank (four strokes of the piston) showing the timing of the opening and closing of the valves with respect to the position of the crank is shown in-Figs. 4 and 5. This is called a timing diagram. Note the exhaust-intake OVERLAP, that is the short period when exhaust_and air intake valves are open together. The sweep of the exhaust gases towards and through the exhaust valve has the effect of pulling in fresh-air through the air intake valve and so assists in savenging the combustion space at the beginning of the intake stroke 2 Hs Rockerarm tobailer es | ef = he gt \ a O-feansa SS} waterjacket 1 sea fenge ports Tr (Cylinder tiner 1 seavengebet | crankease sealing gland bs mi / 7 + rankease Crannshatt ‘Typical slow-speed crosshead diesel engine Fig. 6