Оглавление

1. Subjunctive 1.......................................................................................................................................2
2. Subjunctive 2.......................................................................................................................................2
3. The suppositional mood.....................................................................................................................2
4. Levels of the conditional sentences....................................................................................................3
5. Ways of the expressing the subject....................................................................................................4
6. “It” as the subject of the sentence.....................................................................................................5
7. The simple predicate..........................................................................................................................6
8. The compound predicate....................................................................................................................6
9. The compound nominal predicate.....................................................................................................6
10. The predicative expressed by phraseological unit.........................................................................7
11. The predicative...............................................................................................................................7
12. The compound verbal predicate.....................................................................................................9
13. The compound verbal modal predicate.........................................................................................9
14. The compound verbal aspect predicate..............................................................................................10
15. The compound verbal modal predicate...............................................................................................10
16.Ways of expressing the object..............................................................................................................11
17. Kinds of object.....................................................................................................................................12
18. Definition of object.............................................................................................................................12
19. Direct object........................................................................................................................................13
20. Indirect object.....................................................................................................................................13
21. Ways of expressing the attribute.........................................................................................................14
22. Defining and classification attributes.................................................................................................15
23. Ways of expressing adverbial modifiers..............................................................................................15
24. Complex Sentences............................................................................................................................16
25. Compound Sentences.........................................................................................................................17
 1. Subjunctive 1
The Subjunctive 1 is used to express urgency, importance, desirability, demand, order,
suggestion, request. The Sub.1 has only one form, which formally coincides with the bare
infinitive. It is used in affirmative and negative sentences. The negative particle “not” stands
before the verb.

Ex: I insist he not come.

The form of Subjunctive 1 in BE is mostly used in official documents. In AE it’s colloquial.

Also, S1 occurs in some set expressions:

 Long live … our country!

 God save the Queen!
 Success attend you!
 Devil take it!
 Happen what may = come what will

2. Subjunctive 2
Subjunctive 2 has two forms: Present and Past.

Present form coincides with Past Simple in the indicative mood. The verb “to be” has the form
“were” for all persons. The other we use with the ending “-ed” or V2. The indicators are: today,
now.

Past form coincides with Past Perfect. (had + V3) / (had + been + V3). The indicators are:
yesterday, recently, last, ago, before, yet, just, never, ever.

Indicators Sentences
Oh, that… Oh, that winter become spring.
(вот, если бы) Oh, that Christmas were tomorrow.
It is time/ hightime It is time we prepared winter clothes.
(пора/давно пора) It is hightime that you got met with
our neighbor.
As if/ as though Your face looks as if you had watched
(как будто бы) a melodrama.
Wish I wish that l were an actrice.
(как жаль) I wish that students had the holidays
in November.
So, that She moved to another town so, that
 (что бы) Jack might not find her there.

3. The suppositional mood

The S.m. has 2 forms: the present and the past. Both forms are analytical.

 Present = should + bare infinitive.

 Past = should + V3/ed
The suppositional mood represents an action as problematic, but not necessary contradictory
reality. The realization of the action is not excluded, though it depends on certain
circumstances. In BE the S.m. is used in colloquial speech and in AE it is used in official
documents.

The S.m. is used only in complex sentences.

Indicators
It is necessary / It is strange / It is
desirable
It is essential / It is important / It is
natural
Исключения: It is possible / it is
probably / it is likely (только для
утвердительных, …+ may + inf)
Though, although (хотя)(уступка)
Suggest / suppose / recommend /
order / command / insist / offer
Whoever / whatever / wherever /
whenever
Lest
Fear/ be afraid / be scared
Sentences
It is necessary that she should do this
task.
It is necessary that she do this task.
It is important that you be here at 6
p.m.
It is possible that she may come to
our place tomorrow.
Although it rain tomorrow we will go
fishing.
Although I should have periods today,
I am planning to walk with my
friends.
I demand that you (should) answer
me.
She suggested that we (should) go
this café.
Whatever she (should) say everyone
always was happy.
Whoever your friend be, I don`t like
her.
However strong he be, he always lost.
The girl was afraid lest her friends
know her secret.
We closed the door lest we catch a
cold.

4. Levels of the conditional sentences

A conditional mood is the form of a verb which is used to make requests or expression of under
what condition something would happen.

 Present = would + V
 Past = would have + V3/ed
There are 4 levels of conditional sentences:

 1 level – real condition (если)

I’ll water these flowers, if the ground is dry.

I’ll open the window, if the water is good.

 If I find her address, I’ll send her an invitation.

 2 level – unreal condition (actions in present or future)

(Subjunctive 2 present + Conditional present)

If I spoke French, I would go to Paris.

If I had the dictionary I would learn all the words by the alphabet from it.

If your friends don’t arrive by five, we will leave without them.

 3 level – unreal condition past:

(If + Subj. 2 past + conditional past)

If he had told me about it then, I wouldn’t have made that mistake.

If I got the job, I’d move to London.

 4 level – mixed (когда в первой части предложения Present, а во второй Past). They
can change. It’s also used when we talk about character.
If you were kind, you would have helped that old man yesterday.
If you had not gone to bed yesterday, you would know the plot of the novel now.
If he had called me, l would have helped him.

5. Ways of the expressing the subject

The subject is the principal part of a two-member sentence which is grammatically independent
of the other parts, of the second and on which the second principal part (the predicate) is
grammatically dependent. The subject can also denote a living being, a lifeless thing or an idea.

The subject can be expressed by a single word or a grouping of words. Thus it can be expressed
by:

1) a noun in the common case.

 Ann is cooking the dishes.
  Dad puts a lot of garlic in his food.
Sometimes the subject may be expressed by a noun in the possessive case

 Ours looked very shabby.

 The Greens’ looked like a palace.
2) A pronoun – personal(I,he), demonstrative(this, these), defining(which that, whose),
indefinite(any,anybody), negative(no one, nobody), possessive(mine, his),
interrogative(whatever, whoever), reflexive(myself, yourself).

 Everyone was clad in the same soft, and yet strong silky material.
 Nothing was said on either side for a minute or two afterwards.
 Theirs is not a very comfortable lodging.

3) A substantivized adjective or participle

 The young were dancing crazily.
 The injured was moaning.
 The wounded were taken good care of.
4) A numeral: cardinal, ordinal
 The three lived in the same street.
 The second was handsome.

5) An infinitive phrase/construction
 To love is important
 For him to come was impossible
 To live is to work
6) A gerund, gerundial phrase/construction
 Being loved is important
 Lying doesn’t go well with me.
7) A quotation
 “Hello” is a formula of politeness.
 Perhaps this “what’s his name” will provide the cocoa.
8) A group of words
 The needle and thread is lost.

6. “It” as the subject of the sentence

When “it” is used as the subject of the sentence it may be notional or formal.

1) Notional: when “it” represent a living being or thing.

 Personal (express definite thing or abstract idea)
The door opened. It was opened by a young girl.
If this a liberty, it isn’t going to mean a thing.
 Demonstrative (point out some person or thing expressed by a predicative
noun, or it refers to the thought contained in a preceding statement)
 It is John.
It was a large room with a great window.
2) Formal: when “it” doesn’t represent any person or thing.
 Impersonal (used to denote natural phenomena, such as the state of the
weather, or the environment and time)
It often rains in autumn.
It is cold in winter.
It is stuffy in here.
It is late.
 Introductory (introduce the real subject)
It’s no use disgusting facts.
It was curious to observe that child.
 Emphatic (used for emphasis)
It was Winfred who went up to him.
It was he who had brought this bag.

7. The simple predicate

The predicate is the second principal part of the sentence which expresses an action, state, or
quality of the person or thing denoted by the subject.

The simple predicate is expressed by a finite verb in a simple or a compound tense form. It
generally denotes a state which is represented as an action.

 He arrived at the lab next morning full of suppressed excitement.

 I have been looking for you everywhere.
 Mary was opening the window very slowly.

8. The compound predicate

As can be seen from the term itself the compound predicate consist of two parts: a finite verb
and some other part of speech (noun, pronoun, adjective, participle, gerund, infinitive). The
second component is the significant part of the predicate.

The first part expresses the verbal categories of person, number, tense, aspect, mood and
voice. Besides it has a certain lexical meaning of it’s own. The compound predicate may be
nominal or verbal.

 He was the hero of the day.

 She lay sick in the hospital.
 He was the best doctor in our city.

9. The compound nominal predicate

The compound nominal predicate denotes:

 the state or quality of the person or thing expressed by the subject.

He is tired / The book is interesting
 the class of persons or things to which this person or thing belongs.
She is a student

The compound predicate consist of a link verb and a predicative. The predicative is the
significant part of the compound nominal predicate. It can be expressed by: noun, adjective,
pronoun, numeral, adverb, gerund, infinitive, prepositional phrase.

The link verb express the verbal categories of person, number, tense, aspect, mood and voice.
Most link verbs to some extent preserve their meaning. The most common link verbs: to
appear, to get, to grow, to continue, to feel, to keep, to look …

 The boat seemed stuffy.

 His wife sighed and remained silent.
 At my age I get nervous.
According to their meaning link verbs can be divided into 2 groups:

1) The first group include such words: to be, to remain, to keep, to continue, to look, to
smell, to stand, to sit, to lie, to shine, to seem, to prove, to appear.
 Cotman was a nice-looking fellow, of thirty perhaps.
 That sounds not unsatisfactory.
2) The second group include such words: to become, to get, to grow, to come, to go, to
leave, to run, to turn, to make…
 The great day dawned misty and overcast.
 This becomes uninteresting after time.

10. The predicative expressed by phraseological unit

There is a special kind of predicate expressed by a phraseological unit. The characteristic
feature of this predicate is that the first component, (the finite verb), has lost its concrete
meaning and forms one unit with the noun. That’s why the noun can’t be treated as an object
to the verb.

There are two types of them:

1) Word combinations like: to have a smoke, to have a swim, to have a run, to give a push,
to take a look, to make a move. They denote a momentaneous action. This type of
phraseological predicate is characteristic of colloquial speech.
 She gave an unkind throaty laugh.
 He started made a short run and stopped and looked over his shoulders.
2) Word combinations like: to get rid, to get hold, to make use, to take care, to make fun,
to pay attention…
The second component of these combinations is an abstract noun used without any
article.
  You were making fun of mother just now.
 Then he caught his breath, suddenly reminded of something else.

11. The predicative

The predicative is the significant part of the compound nominal predicate. It can be expressed
in different ways:

1) By a noun in the common case, occasionally by a noun in the possessive case.

 She is a pretty child. 

 The book is my sister's.

2) By an adjective.

 He's awfully dear and unselfish. 
Very often the predicative expressed by an adjective in English does not correspond to an
adjective in Ukrainian. It often corresponds to an adverb.

 The dinner smells delicious. Обід пахне смачно.

 Не feels bad. Він почуває себе погано.

3) By a pronoun —personal, possessive, negative, interrogative, reflexive, indefinite,

defining.

 It was he.

 The guns were his. 

 You are nobody. 

4) By a word of the category of state.

 But I'm afraid I can't keep the man.

 He was aware all the time.

5) By a numeral, cardinal or ordinal.

 I'm only 46.

 Mr. Snodgrass was the first to break the astonished silence.

6) By a prepositional phrase.
  The things were outside her experience. 

 After all, the little chap was on the side of the Capital. 

7) By an infinitive, infinitive phrase, or an infinitive con struction.

 June's first thought was to go away.

 His first act was to bolt the door on the inside.
 The best thing is for you to move in with me.

8) By a gerund, gerundial phrase, or gerundial construction.

 My favourite sport is swimming.

 The topic of their conversation was their going on an expedition.

9) By Participle II or very seldom Participle I

 He was surprised at the sound of his own voice.

 It is very distressing to me, sir, to give this information.

10) By an adverb.

 That was all. It was enough the way she said it. 

12. The compound verbal predicate.

The compound verbal predicate can be divided into two types according to the meaning of the
finite verb:

1. the compound verbal modal predicate shows whether the action of a non-finite form of
the verb is possible, impossible, obligatory, necessary, desirable, etc. These meanings
are expressed by the first component of the predicate.

The compound verbal modal predicate consist of:

 the modal verb or a verb with a modal meaning (have to, be to, ought to, should
to, allow to, can, must, may / insist, demand, want, try, help, be going to, to
hope, to wish, to desire, to be able to…)
 bare infinitive
 ex: You can prove everything and nothing.
 I have to work for my living.
 I am going to leave Paris.

2. the compound verbal aspect predicate expresses the beginning, repetition, duration of
the action expressed by the non-finite form of the verb.
 It consists of

 such verbs as (to begin, to start, to commence, to fall, to set about, to go on,
to keep on, to proceed, to continue, to stop, to give up, to finish, to cease,
to come)
 an infinitive or a gerund
 His bones ceased to ache. 
 She had stopped asking him about the time.

13. The compound verbal modal predicate.

The compound verbal modal predicate shows whether the action of a non-finite form of
the verb is possible, impossible, obligatory, necessary, desirable, etc. These meanings are
expressed by the first component of the predicate.

 It consist of: the modal verb or a verb with a modal meaning + bare infinitive

A modal verb and an infinitive.  You can prove everything and

Here belong the combinations of such
verbs as can, may, must, should,
would, ought, dare, need with an
infinitive.
Modal expressions: to be, to have.
nothing. 
 His aunt would not give him the
photograph.
 I have to work for my living.
 You are to do it for me.

A verb with a modal meaning. Here  He wanted to throw himself

belong such verbs as to hope, to
expect, to intend, to attempt, to try,
to endeavour, to long, to wish, to
want, to desire, etc.
Modal expressions and an infinitive
Here belong such expressions as to be
able, to be obliged, to be bound, to be
willing, to be anxious, to be capable,
to be going with an infinitive.
Verbs and expressions used in the
predicate of sentences containing the
Subjective Infinitive Construction
into the whirlpool of Paris.
 I don't mean to take advantage
of my position.
 I am going to leave  Paris. 
 We are most anxious to
cooperate.
 About 4,000 port workers are
believed to be on strike.

14. The compound verbal aspect predicate

The compound verbal aspect predicate expresses the beginning, repetition, duration, or
cessation of the action expressed by the non-finite form of the verb. It consists of such verbs as
to begin, to start, to commence, to fall, to set about, to go on, to keep on, to proceed, to
continue, to stop, to give up, to finish, to cease, to come and an infinitive or a gerund.

F.ex.  
1.His bones ceased to ache.
2. We would  often go to the river being small children.
3. The rain began to descend heavily.
4. He continued blinking his eyes and trying to smile...
5.She began to write about her life.

15. The compound verbal modal predicate

Besides the compound nominal predicate, the compound verbal modal predicate and the
compound verbal aspect predicate, there is a type of predicate in which we have elements of
two types of predicates. Such predicates contain three components.

1. The compound modal nominal predicate.

You should be more attentive while crossing the street.
She couldn’t be happy.
He tried to be firm and friendly.
2. The compound aspect nominal predicate.
He stopped being a man and became a minister.
The grey house had ceased to be the house for the family.
He stopped to be persistent.
3. The compound modal aspect predicate

He ought to stop doing nothing and criticizing everybody.

I must start working again.
He had to begin writing

16.Ways of expressing the object

The object is expressed by the following parts of speech:

1.A noun in the common case

We ought to give him a present, too.

I saw the boys two hours ago.
I saw your friend yesterday.

2. A pronoun (personal in the objective case, possessive, defining, reflexive, demonstrative,

indefinite)

It struck me unpleasantly. You ought to know all about statues and things.

I had her key but I lost mine.
I hated herself.
Do you see that?
I saw someone near our house.

Here we must mention the peculiar use of the pronoun it in the function of an object,
similar to its use in the function of the subject. Sometimes the pronoun it is used as a
real (notional) object.

She pulled out a cigarette and let it  dangle between her lips unlighted.
I heard it clearly.
He said that rule. I hear it clearly.

Formal (impersonal) it ( we don’t translate it into Russian)

To think, to find, to consider, to make + it+ adjective
F.ex. I thought it wonderful to go to Spain.
He found it impossible to utter the next word. 
Не made it a point to save so much every week.

4. A substantivized adjective or participle.

I respect the old.
He treated the injured.

5. An infinitive, an infinitive phrase, or an infinitive construction.

She was glad to be walking with him.
Every day I had to learn how to spell pages of words.
He said to read this book.
6. A gerund, a gerundial phrase, or a gerundial construction

He insists on coming.
A man hates being run after.
I remember writing to you.

7. Quotation

He said “Hello”.

8. A group of words 

Give me a piece of paper.

I saw a crowd of people in the street.

17. Kinds of object

There are three kinds of objects in English: the direct object, the indirect object, and the
cognate object.
 Direct object (A direct object helps complete the meaning of a sentence by receiving the
action of the verb. Direct objects answer the questions “What?” or “Whom?” F.ex. Louis
closed the door. (Louis closed “what?”) The boy lost his mother. (The boy lost “whom?”))

 Indirect object (An indirect object receives the action that the verb makes on the direct
object. The indirect object usually answers the question «To whom is this action being
 directed?» F.ex. Rafael gave Thomas the candy bar. (The candy bar was given by Rafael
to Thomas.)Lacy sold Andrew her car. (The car was sold to Andrew by Lacy.)

 The cognate object (The cognate object is generally used in such combinations as: to
smile a sad smile, to laugh a bitter laugh, to die a violent death, etc. F.ex. 1) But she died
a dreadful death,poor soul...2) For the next four days he lived a simple and blameless
life on thin captain’s biscuits.)

18. Definition of object

An object is the word affected by the verb or preposition in a sentence. Objects are usually
nouns or pronouns that answer questions like “who,” “what,” “where,” and “when?” Overall,
they add more details to a sentence, which makes it more interesting and informative.
There are three types of objects: the direct object, indirect object, and object of the
preposition.
Here are a few basic examples of how objects work in sentences:

 The dog bought a present. This sentence uses a direct object to tell what
the subject bought; a “present.”
 The dog bought a present for the cat. This sentence adds an indirect object to also tell
whom the subject bought the present for; the “cat.”
 The dog gave a present to the cat at the This sentence adds an object of the
preposition to tell where this is all happening; the “party.”

19. Direct object

A direct object is a noun or pronoun that receives the verb’s action. An easy trick is to know
that the direct object answers the questions “what?” or “whom?”

Louis closed the door. (Louis closed “what?”)

The boy lost his mother. (The boy lost “whom?”

I saw you on TV last night.

I am looking for a job
The father showed his son how to make a paper airplane.
I sent a postcard to my parents. / I sent my parents a postcard. 

There are a few English verbs which can have two direct objects.

I asked him his name.

Forgive me this question.
She taught them French.

20. Indirect object

An indirect object is a noun or pronoun to whom/what or for whom/what an action is

completed. The indirect object receives the direct object of the sentence.
To find an indirect object, ask “to whom/what?” or “for whom/what” the direct object is
intended.
Direct object Indirect object
They sent a telegram. They sent us (ind.obj.) a telegram
(direct obj.)
Tom sold his bicycle. Tom sold John(ind.obj.) his
bicycle(dir.obj.)
There are three types of indirect objects, just as there are three ways to create them:

 Using one word (a noun or pronoun) F.ex. They bought Jim the gift he always wanted.
“Jim” receives the “gift” (direct object), which is why he is the indirect object.

 Using two or more words (article + noun, adjective + noun) Article + Noun F.ex. The
doctor wrote the patient a prescription. → the = article
→ patient = noun
 Adjective + Noun F.ex. She taught her English students. indirect objects:
→ her = adjective (possessive)
→ English = adjective
→ students = noun
The phrase “Her English students” is the indirect object of the sentence because it describes
the receivers of the direct object “indirect objects”

 Using a prepositional phrase F.ex. They ordered a pizza for Amy.

→ for = preposition
→ Amy = noun
“Amy” is the indirect object in the form of a prepositional phrase, beginning with “for.” In this
case, “Amy” gets the direct object “a pizza”.

21. Ways of expressing the attribute

An attribute may be expressed by different parts of speech:

1. By (a) adjectives or (b) adjectival phrases, which characterize the person or non-
person qualitatively or express the speaker’s attitude.

The sand glittered like fine white sugar in the sun.

I’ve never seen a better  place.
There is nothing unusual  about the letter.
2. By pronouns or pronominal phrases, which help to identify or define persons or non-
persons.

Here’s some money for you.

Can you see those  children of mine anywhere?
3. By numerals, ordinal or cardinal, which state the number or order, or serve to identify
persons or non-persons, as in:

He arrived just three weeks ago.

He knew four languages.
The first question was easy.

4. By (a) nouns in the common case singular or (b) prepositional nominal phrases:

It happened on a December  evening.

The garden wall was almost ruined.
She was wearing a silk dress.
His sister’s behavior surprised him.

5. By statives, although these are rarely used as attributes. They usually postmodify
the headword, though may occur as premodifying.

No man alive  would ever think of such cruelty.

She gazed at us with an  aloof air.

6.  By (a) participles I and II and (b) participial phrases

He made his way down the creaking stairs.

There was a tiny smile playing about the corners of his mouth.
Beside her stood a straw basket stuffed with many towels and a pair of beach shoes.

7. By (a) gerunds, (b) gerundial phrases, or (c) gerundial complexes.  

Her walking  shoes were elegant.

I didn’t like his idea of going there.

8. By (a) infinitives, (b) infinitivel phrases

He made up a decision not to talk to her.
You are the one to blame.

9. By (an) adverbs
The room downstairs was emply.

10. By sentences used as a whole (the so-called “quotation nouns”).

He didn’t like her “ Don’t kiss me”.

22. Defining and classification attributes

The Attribute is a secondary part of the sentence which refers to a noun or another
word of nominal nature (pronouns, substitute words), thus forming a nominal phrase
with its headword.
  какой? (what?), какого рода? (what kind of?), чей? (whose?), который? (which?),
сколько? (how much?, how many?).

Like any part of the sentence, from the point of view of its structure the attribute can be
expressed by:
a) a single word-form (synthetic and analytical):
She is a more beautiful girl.
b) a phrase:
It was a letter from his devoted friend.
с) a predicative complex. There are two predicative complexes that can function as
an attribute ― the For-to-Infinitive Construction and the Gerundial Predicative Complex:
This is a lesson for you to remember for the rest of your life.
There were no signs of his supporting us.
c) a clause
He is the man I am particularly fond of.

23. Ways of expressing adverbial modifiers

An adverbial modifier may be expressed by an adverb, an adverbial phrase, noun, pronoun or

numeral, a gerund or a gerundial phrase, an infinitive or an infinitive phrase etc.

Semantically adverbials denote place, time, manner, cause, purpose, result, condition,

concession, attendant circumstances, comparison, degree, measure, exception, thus forming
semantic classes, such as adverbials of place, time, etc.

1. …of time
I saw him yesterday.
Yesterday all my troubles seemed so far away.
2. … of place
John was born in Australia, but lives in England.
This animal lived in the forst.
3. … of direction
He moved to Australia in 1975.
He came from Spain.
4. … of manner
She spoke in a loud voice. 
She is sitting silently.
5. … of attendant circumstances
You went out without telling me anything.
If I hadn’t got a cold, I’d be working instead of lying here in bed.
6. …of degree and measure
It’s rather  good.
You are absolutely  right.
7. … of cause
Because of the snow we couldn’t continue our trip.
 Educated in the best universities of Britain, these young people easily find prestigious
jobs in London. 
8. … of result, consequence
She is too fond of a child to leave it.
He is clever enough to solve such problems himself.
9. …of comparison
She was taller than me.
She looked at him as if in pain.
10. … of concession

Though frightened, he carried it off very well.

Despite the mistakes her work is good.
11. … of purpose
I’ve come here to tell you the truth.
They opened the way for her to come to him.

24. Complex Sentences

A complex sentence is a sentence with an independent clause and a dependent clause. It is one
of the four main types of sentence structures. In a complex sentence, the
independent clause shares the main information, and the dependent clause(s) provide details.

Subject clauses perform the function of the subject to the predicate of the main clause (who,
whose, what, which, when, where, how, why) E.g.: 

What I want to do is to save us both. / What I need to do is to tell you the truth.

Predicative clauses perform the function of a predicate. In the main clause we find only part of
the predicate(whether, who, why, what, where, how, when) E.g.: But the chief reason is that
he will never come here again.

Her only trouble is when her son will give her a definite answer.

Object clauses perform the function of an object to the predicate-verb of the main

clause( that, if, whether, who, whoever, what, which, whichever, when, where, why, how) E.g.: I
don’t know what you are talking about. / He didn’t know when she would come back)

Attributive clauses serve as an attribute to a noun (pronoun) in the main clause. ( who, whom,

whose, which, that, when, where, why) E.g.: My brother, who is fifteen, cannot drive. / I know
the girl who has won the first prize.

Adverbial clauses perform the function of an adverbial modifier. They can modify a verb, an
adjective or an adverb in the main clause. We distinguish different types of adverbial clauses/
They are the following:
1) Adverbial clause of time shows the time of the action expressed in the main clause. E.g.:
You can stay here as long as you want.
2). Adverbial clause of place shows the place of the action expressed in the main clause.
E.g.: I looked where she pointed.
 3). Adverbial clause of cause (reason) shows the cause of the action expressed in the main
clause. E.g.: She didn’t go to see the film yesterday because she had seen it before.
4). Adverbial clause of purpose states the purpose of the action expressed in the main
clause. E.g.: He was speaking very slowly so that everybody could understand.
5). Adverbial clause of condition states the condition which is necessary for the realization
of the action expressed in the main clause. E.g.: I will do anything if it is in my power.
6). Adverbial clause of concession denotes the presence of some obstacle which
nevertheless does not hinder the action expressed in the main clause. E.g.: I enjoyed that
day though it was cold.
7). Adverbial clause of result denotes the result of the action expressed in the main clause.
E.g.: He is so weak physically that he can hardly move.
8). Adverbial clause of manner characterizes in a general way the action expressed in the
main clause. In adverbial clause of manner the idea of comparison is often implied. E.g.: She
did exactly as he told her.
9). Adverbial clause of comparison denotes an action with which the action of the main
clause is compared. E.g.: We were going up the road as fast as we could.
25. Compound Sentences
The compound sentence consists of two or more clauses of equal rank which form one
syntactical whole in meaning and intonation. Clauses that are parts of a compound sentence
are called coordinate, as they are joined by coordination.
Coordinate clauses may be linked together with or without a connector, in the first case they
are joined syndetically, in the second case ― asyndetically.
From the point of view of the relationship between coordinate clauses, we distinguish four
kinds of coordinate connection: copulative, adversative, disjunctive and causative-
consecutive. 
The copulative connectors are: the conjunctions and, nor, neither ... nor, not only ... but also,
as well as, both, and the conjunctive adverbs then, moreover, likewise, besides, again, further,
thus and conjunctive particles also, too, even.
I never called on Mr. Burton, nor did I invite him to call on me.
She was familiar with the petty social problems, and they bored her.
Disjunctive connection denotes choice, usually between two mutually exclusive alternatives.
The disjunctive conjunctions are or, either ... or, the conjunctive adverbs else (or else),
otherwise
Either listen to me, or I shall stop reading to you.
Causative-consecutive coordination joins clauses connected in such a way that one of them
contains a reason and the other ― a consequence. The second clause may contain either the
reason or the result of the event conveyed by the previous clause ( for, so, therefore,
accordingly, consequently, nonce) The days became longer, for it was now springtime.
Adversative coordination joins clauses containing opposition, contradiction or contrast.
Adversative connectors are: the conjunctions but, while, whereas, the conjunctive adverbs yet,
still, nevertheless, nonetheless, and the conjunctive particle only. The story was
amusing, but nobody laughed.