Kabul Polytechnic University

Water Supply And Environmental Engineering Department

Water Quality (‫)کیفیت آب‬

Ground Water Treatment

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 INTRODUCTION

microbial problems

Dam
reservoirs
preferred source, often and lakes
Groundwater
ferric and manganese, Running
in karstic
“natural” or frequently rivers
areas
no treatment
necessary

Groundwater
Brackish and
in porous Raw water
sea waters
aquifer
desalination

Adapted treatment design and combinations is required!

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OCCURRENCE OF GROUNDWATER
Aquifer: geologic unit that can store and transmit water at rates fast enough to supply reasonable
amounts to wells

Confining layer: Geologic unit that has low or no hydraulic conductivity

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OCCURRENCE OF GROUNDWATER

Unconfined (phreatic) aquifer

 Part of the layer with high hydraulic
conductivity which is saturated with
water
 Extending from the water table to
the base of the aquifer
 No confining layer between the land
surface and water table
 Water table = potentiometric surface

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OCCURRENCE OF GROUNDWATER

Confined aquifer
 Layer fully saturated with water
 Overlain by a confining bed with a
significantly lower hydraulic
conductivity than the aquifer
 Water in aquifer is under pressure ->
water table in the well will rise up to
potentiometric surface.

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OCCURRENCE OF GROUNDWATER

Artesian aquifer
 Confined aquifer in which the
potentiometric surface of the aquifer is
above the land surface
 Pressurized water -> water flows from
the well casing without a need for pump

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OCCURRENCE OF GROUNDWATER
Perched aquifer
 Local occurrence
 Flow often only shortly after rainfall (ephemeral spring)

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PROCESS SCHEME OF GROUND WATER CONDITIONING
Typical example - groundwater

Aeration
Filtration
Water abstraction (O2 input –
Iron & Mn removal
Deacidification)

Disinfection

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FROM THE SOURCE TO THE TAP (GROUNDWATER ABSTRACTION):
Typical set up in Germany
(source: Berlin Water Works)

Germany mostly uses ground water from wells as raw

water for the drinking water production.

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FROM THE SOURCE TO THE TAP (GROUNDWATER ABSTRACTION)

Treatment of groundwater with double aeration/filtration

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TYPES OF GROUNDWATER the level of oxygen (aerobic,
 Groundwater has a near-constant quality. anoxic or anaerobic) is very
 Large differences in water composition location wise. important.

anoxic anaerobic

aerobic
riverbank
(phreatic)

Groundwater

Determination of concentrations of
oxygen, iron, and methane important
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AEROBIC GROUNDWATER (PHREATIC)
Unconfined (phreatic) groundwater has an open groundwater table and is, therefore, connected
to the atmosphere.

Important parameters:
pH, Ca, SI (saturation index) & HCO3−
Aggressive (soft)
water
 Usually meets the requirements for
Conditions
drinking water.
Hard water
 Some treatment is usually necessary
or desired.

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AEROBIC GROUNDWATER (PHREATIC)
Aggressive (soft) water Total carbonic acid

Sandy soils (no

Chemically bound carbonic Free (gaseous dissolved) calcium in the
acid carbonic acid underground)

Hydrogen Related free Surplus free

Carbonate (CO2−
3 )
carbonate (HCO2−
3 ) carbonic acid carbonic acid

Completely Half bounded

Not aggressive, Aggressive,
bounded CO2 CO2
necessary to keep affects metals,
the calcium lime scale,
hydrogen concrete...
Not aggressive Not aggressive
carbonate in
solution

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AEROBIC GROUNDWATER (PHREATIC)
Aggressive (soft) water
Saturation index SI = deviation of the measured pH in the water from the saturation-pH

SI = pHobserved − pHeq

SI = saturation index
pHobserved = pH of raw water measured
pHeq = pH-value at calcite saturation

Each water has its own pH - value for the calcium saturation

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AEROBIC GROUNDWATER (PHREATIC)
Aggressive (soft) water
The saturation index (SI) needs to be determined
Ca2+ CO2−3
SI = log
LCaCO3
LCaCO3 = solubility product = K s = Ca2+ × CO2−
3

The Solubility product L of a hardly soluble salt is the product of the ion concentrations in the saturated
solution.

temperature dependent
SI > 0 Water is precipitating chalk / lime
 Exceeding of the Solubility Product → Precipitation of SI = 0 Water in equilibrium (eq)
chalk / lime
SI < 0 Water aggressive to lime
 Undercut of the Solubility Product → water is
aggressive to lime

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AEROBIC GROUNDWATER (PHREATIC)
Temperature dependency of the equilibrium constant
Temperature 00 C 50 C 100 C 150 C 200 C 250 C 300 C
𝐊 𝟏 . 𝟏𝟎𝟕 2.639 3.046 3.441 3.812 4.151 4.448 4.697
𝐊 𝟐 . 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 2.352 2.790 3.252 3.729 4.211 4.690 5.154
𝐊 𝐬 . 𝟏𝟎𝟗 4.155 4.034 3.886 3.714 3.521 3.313 3.092
𝐩𝐊 𝟏 6.579 6.516 6.463 6.419 6.382 6.352 6.328
𝐩𝐊 𝟐 10.629 10.554 10.488 10.428 10.376 10.329 10.288
𝐩𝐊 𝐬 8.381 8.394 8.410 8.430 8.453 8.468 8.510
𝐊𝟐
𝐊𝐓 = 𝐊𝟏. 𝐊𝐬 21449 22705 24319 26336 28814 31830 35483
𝐊 𝐋 = 𝐩𝐊 𝟐 − 𝐩𝐊 𝟏 2.247 2.160 2.077 1.998 1.922 1.849 1.778
𝟎
𝐊 𝟏𝟎
𝐓
0.882 0.934 1.000 1.083 1.185 1.306 1.459
𝟎 0.170 0.083 0.000 -0.079 -0.155 -0.228 -0.299
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐊 𝟏𝟎
𝐋

K1, K2… Dissociation constants according to mass action law: [mol/l]

Ks… Solubility product [mol²/l²] ( a.k.a „L“ on next slides)
KT… Tillman-constant
KL… Langelier-constant
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 used for water with a low bicarbonate
AEROBIC GROUNDWATER (PHREATIC)
content and, therefore, a low buffering
Aggressive (soft) water capacity.
done if the HCO2− CaCO3+ CO2 + H2O → Ca2+ + 2 HCO3−
3
concentration is
already high enough. limestone
filtration

aeration/gas dosing of a base

transfer/gas NaOH, Ca(OH)2,
exchange Na2CO3

only used when a small

If the hardness of the water is high, the Deacidification pH increase is desired.
oxidation might result in a concentration
of CO2 that is lower than in equilibrium. NaOH + CO2 → HCO2− 3 + Na
+

This may lead to limestone deposits in the

aeration system and in the postfiltration.

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AEROBIC GROUNDWATER (PHREATIC)
Aeration (gas transfer/gas exchange)
 Target
o Increasing O2 content
o Degassing of CO2
 Groundwater contains no free oxygen
 Two ways to bring it in contact with the oxygen in the
air:
o Fine droplets (Spraying through nozzles)
o Thin layers (tower aerators, cascades)
o Blowing bubbles of air (deep well aerators, plate
aerators, compressor aerators)
Step after well!

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AEROBIC GROUNDWATER (PHREATIC)
Dimensioning aeration
1. Determination CO2 that needs to be removed (difference of free CO2 to CO2 in
equilibrium) K2
pHeq = − log × Ca2+ × HCO3− = pHraw − SI
L
K2
CO2eq = × Ca2+ × HCO3− 2
L × K1

2. Choice of an aeration
CO2 + H2 O = HCO−
3 + H3 O
+
3. Defining the surface load + required surfaces
HCO3− + H2 O = CO2−
3 + H3 O
+

HCO3− H3 O+ CO2−
3 H3 O +
K1 = K2 =
CO2 HCO3−

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AEROBIC GROUNDWATER (PHREATIC)
Surface load app. Energy demand CO2-Removal
Equipment for gas exchange
[m³/(m²*h)] app.[Wh/m³] app.[%]
Atomization from down up 10 75 70
Atomization from top down 30 25 65
Choice of an aeration

Spray nozzle atomizer 40 80 65

Atomizer diagonal to one another 2-7 40 67
Tower atomizer 45 130 80
Steel gadget Only for mixing of waters with different CO2-contents
Dispergators 50 30 80
Intensive aerators according to Erben 225 25-75 80
Flat-aerators with perforated base (Inka-aeration) 15-30 100 80-95
Flat-aerators with spargers /ceramic pipes 20 10-35 70-95
Cascade aeration 50-250 10-30 60-80
Corrugated path aeration in co-current 300-700 10 50-90
Corrugated path aeration in counter-current 100/400 26/40 98/95
Multistage corrugated path aeration in cross-current 600 8 per stage 90
Support-media-column (closed plant) 40-100 25-55 70-95

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AEROBIC GROUNDWATER (PHREATIC)

Cascades with hollow steps that improve aeration and the precipitation of iron particles. © BRGM

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AEROBIC GROUNDWATER (PHREATIC)

Spray nozzle distributor

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AEROBIC GROUNDWATER (PHREATIC)
Quality data of the raw and treated water at the Hoenderloo pumping station (Gelderland)
Parameter Unit Raw water Clear water
Temperature °C 9.6 10
pH - 6.1 7.8
EC mS/m 9.3 14.3
SI - -3.4 -0.3
Ca2+ mg/l 8.6 22.5
HCO−
3 mg/l 21 63
O2 mg/l 4.2 8
CO2 mg/l 31 2
Fe2+ mg/l 0.06 0.03

Mg2+ mg/l 1.6 1.6

E−Coli n/100 ml 0 0
The treatment system consists of aeration/gas transfer followed by limestone filtration.

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AEROBIC GROUNDWATER (PHREATIC)
Hard water
Mainly determined by the content of alkaline earth elements in form of Calcium, Magnesium,
(Strontium, Barium) Ions

 Aerobic groundwater, which is abstracted

from soils rich in calcium, is often very hard Range of Name of Water hardness Sum of alkaline
(>3 mmol/l). Hardness hardness step in [°dH] earths [mmol/l]
 CO2 can result in substantial dissolution of
1 Soft 0-7 0-1.25
limestone, forming Ca2+ and HCO− 3 in
water. 2 Medium 7-14 1.25-2.5
 The water becomes supersaturated with 3 Hard 14-21 2.5-3.75
respect to calcium carbonate (SI > 0) due to 4 Very hard Over 21 Over 3.75
the carbon dioxide removal.

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AEROBIC GROUNDWATER (PHREATIC)
Hard water

The softening installation should be

followed by granular media filtration, Precipitation by
because possible post precipitation might addition of
occur. NaOH or
Ca(OH)2

Gas exchange
(CO2↗, so that Ion exchange
CaCO3↘)

Methods for
softening

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ANOXIC GROUNDWATER
Anoxic groundwater is found when the groundwater is located under a confining layer, and is
characterized by the lack of oxygen and the presence of iron and manganese (and some ammonia).

Often consists of aeration followed by submerged granular media filtration

Filtration
Clear water
Abstraction Aeration (Physical-
reservoir
chemical)

Aeration
 Addition of oxygen
 Removal of carbon dioxide
 Oxidation of Fe2+ to Fe3+ (chemical
process)
 Oxidation of NH4+ to NO− 2+
3 and of Mn
to MnO2 in the filter bed

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ANOXIC GROUNDWATER

Choice for a specific aeration system

Favorable effect Potential system

Input of O2 All systems
Low removal of CO2 Compressor aeration, deep well aeration,
cascades
Moderate removal of CO2 Spraying
High removal of CO2 Tower aeration
High removal of CH4 High cascades, plate aeration, tower aeration
High removal of H2S All systems, except compressor aeration
Removal of micropollutants Tower aeration

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ANOXIC GROUNDWATER
Sand filters
 Followed by aeration
 Consist of a sand bed of 1 - 2 m through which water flows.
 In groundwater filters, various chemical and biological processes take place
 Backwashing of filter necessary (usually 2 - 4% of the total drinking water production.)
Reactions:

4Fe2+ + O2 + 10H2 O → 4Fe OH 3 (s) + 8H + The rate at which oxidation and the hydrolysis of iron
takes place depends on the pH (process slower at low
pH).
flocs are filtered in the sand bed:

2Mn2+ + O2 + 2H2 O → 2MnO2 (S) + 4H + Mn2+ + MnO2 (S) → Mn2+ . MnO2 (S)
Initial process is slow, catalyzing job by 𝑀𝑛𝑂2 (𝑆)

In practice 30 - 90% of the manganese will be oxidized.

Manganese is deposited in the lower part of the filter (observed by a black color).

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ANOXIC GROUNDWATER
Quality data of the raw and treated water at Zutphenseweg pumping station (Overijssel)
Parameter Unit Raw water Clear water
Temperature °C 13.1 13.1
pH - 7.7 7.9
EC mS/m 58 58
SI - -0.1 0.1
Ca2+ mg/l 47 46
HCO−
3 mg/l 185 177
O2 mg/l 0.4 9.5
CO2 mg/l 7 4
Fe2+ mg/l 0.39 0.03
E−Coli n/100 ml 0 0
NH4+ mg/l 0.82 <0.04
NO−
3 mg/l <0.1 2.8
Mn2+ mg/l 0.03 <0.01

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ANAEROBIC GROUNDWATER
Anaerobic groundwater is found when the water is abstracted under a confining layer and no
oxygen is present in the water.

 No nitrate present
Biological degradation of 𝑁𝐻4+
 Higher concentrations of Fe2+ , Mn2+ and NH4+
 Presence of H2 S and CH4

Dry Rapid sand Clear water

Abstraction Aeration Aeration
filtration filtration reservoir

Aims
increase the oxygen content and to decrease the
concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane, hydrogen several aeration and filtration steps
Sulfide, iron, manganese and ammonium.

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ANAEROBIC GROUNDWATER
Quality data of the raw and treated water at St. Jansklooster pumping station (Overijssel)
Parameter Unit Raw water Clear water
Temperature °C 10.5 10.5
pH - 6.9 7.6
EC mS/m 51 48
SI - -0.4 0.2
Ca2+ mg/l 82 77
HCO−
3 mg/l 267 241
O2 mg/l 0 10.7
CO2 mg/l 63 11
Fe2+ mg/l 8.8 0.04

Mn2+ mg/l 0.3 <0.01

NH4+ mg/l 2.2 <0.01
NO−
3 mg/l 0.07 1.6
E−Coli n/100 ml 0 0

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RIVERBANK GROUNDWATER
Riverbank groundwater is groundwater that is abstracted directly adjacent to surface water, usually
a river.
Normally abstracted between 200 and 1000 m from the river.
Water is passing through the soil -> removing all harmful bacteria

Riverbank
River Aeration Dry filtration Aeration
groundwater

Activated
Clear water Rapid sand
UV-disinfection carbon
reservoir filtration
filtration

With UV-disinfection the With AC taste problems and organic micropollutants

microorganisms are killed ( herbicides and pesticides) are removed

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RIVERBANK GROUNDWATER

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