Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 14 (2019) 100484

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Case Studies in Thermal Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/csite

Thermal performance assessment of steam surface condenser

T
Lalatendu Pattanayaka,∗∗, Biranchi Narayana Padhib,∗, Bibhakar Kodamasinghc
a
Steag Energy Services India Pvt. Ltd., A-29, Sector-16, Noida, UP, 201301, India
b
International Institute of Information Technology, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, 751003, India
c
Siksha O Anusandhan University, Department of Mathematics, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, 751031, India

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Two pass water cooled steam condenser is commonly used in coal fired power plants and its
Condenser effectiveness thermal performance significantly affects the generation as well as the efficiency of the unit. In
Cooling water flow rate this paper the characteristics of various parameters affecting the thermal performance of steam
Cycle heat rate condenser in coal fired power plant for different operating scenarios are discussed. The impact of
Thermal performance
flow rate, temperature and velocity of cooling water on heat transfer and condenser effectiveness
are analyzed through a simulation study using thermodynamic theory. The analysis includes
development of correlation for the heat transfer coefficient and the system effectiveness. The
study revealed that 1 °C change in cooling water temperature leads to deviation of condenser
pressure by 0.59 kPa, which corresponds to deviation in cycle heat rate of 0.36% and unit gen-
eration of 33000 kW. The relations for condenser thermal performance provided in this study
contains no constant coefficients and only being function of inlet conditions of condenser. Based
on the actual measurement data collected from power plant, it is found that the proposed rela-
tions provide good accuracy.

1. Introduction

The steam condenser is one of the important components in a power plant which significantly affect the power generation and
performance of unit in terms of heat rate. Deterioration in thermal performance of condenser not only affects the power generation
but also thermal performance of unit as a whole [1,2]. The parameters that are responsible for condenser thermal performance are
cooling water (CW) mass flow rate, temperature, heat transfer area, velocity, tube fouling, partially filled water box and air leakage.
CW flow rate and condenser pressure changes according to the variation in unit load. The CW temperature at condenser inlet varies
according to change in annual temperature cycle of the intake system. During operating condition, the condenser performance is
subject to change with variation in exhaust steam and CW parameters. The operating conditions of steam surface condenser are of the
great influence on the power generation and the turbine cycle heat rate. At the same time, the operating conditions of the CW system
determine the operating condition of the condenser.
Manufacturers and researchers have put many efforts for performance enhancement of surface condenser based on design aspects
like flow arrangement, tube configuration and material modification [3,4]. In recent years many studies have been performed which
examine the effect of CW temperature, CW flow rate, condenser vacuum on the thermal performance of steam condenser [5–15].
Assessment of condenser performance is generally performed by two methods: correction method (related to heat transfer surface
area based on known CW flow rate and temperatures) and effectiveness method [16,17]. Zhao et al. [18] analyzed the condenser

∗
Corresponding author.O)
∗∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: pattanayak.l@gmail.com (L. Pattanayak), biranchi@iiit-bh.ac.in (B.N. Padhi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csite.2019.100484
Received 25 September 2018; Received in revised form 21 May 2019; Accepted 17 June 2019
Available online 18 June 2019
2214-157X/ © 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/BY-NC-ND/4.0/).
L. Pattanayak, et al. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 14 (2019) 100484

performance with two indexes namely cleanliness factor and condenser corrected pressure. Laković et al. [19] presented influence of
CW parameters (flow rate and temperature) on performance of condenser, and thus on energy efficiency of Kostolac B plant operating
in tubine follow mode. Effect of condenser sub cooling on vapor-compression system performance was investigated by Pottker and
Hrnjak [20]. The effects on power plant cycle efficiency with variation in condenser CW flow rate have been investigated by Anozi
et al. [21]. In another study, Ayoola et al. [22] proposed linear programming and EXCEL solver for operation optimization of Egbin
thermal power plant. Qureshi and Zubair [23] demonstrated evaporative cooler and condenser performance due to fouling as a
function of thickness based on fouling data generated from experiment. The results revealed the decrease in effectiveness due to
fouling was about 75% in condenser. Zhao et al. [24] proposed method to optimize the operating mode of cold end system for a
300 MW power plant. Masiwal et al. [25] performed off design performance analysis of surface condenser in a 525000 kW thermal
power plant by comparing actual and calculated condenser pressure. Economic effect of condenser back pressure was investigated
and presented by Putman and Harpster [26] with impact on heat rate and power generation. All the above analysis uses mathematical
model, heat and mass balance calculation, equations for the overall heat transfer coefficient or NTU, with a non dimensional analysis
[27,28]. Some models [29–31] have been proposed for condenser performance assessment based on fouling, velocity and material
characteristics. In the literature, attempts have been made to investigate or evaluate the condenser performance based on effec-
tiveness method, with function of overall heat transfer coefficient, CW flow rate, heat transfer area, CW velocity, fouling model for
design and off design conditions. This requires detailed design information like data related to geometry of condenser, set of
equations to determine Reynolds, Nusselt and Prandtl number. Many cases it is difficult to make available complete geometric data,
which leads to further difficulties to develop an accurate model.
This study attempts to develop the correlation for heat transfer coefficient, condenser pressure, CW flow rate and velocity towards
assessment of thermal performance of condenser using the data of actual operating condition of a typical Indian coal fired power
plant with nominal generation capacity of 210000 kW. The characteristics of various parameters affecting the thermal performance of
steam condenser are presented for different operating conditions. The analysis includes development of correlation for the heat
transfer coefficient, system effectiveness, condenser heat load and CW flow rate through a simulation model. The relationship
proposed can be used for thermal performance evaluation of a steam surface condenser in actual running condition with basic
measured operating data like CW inlet temperature and flow rate. The relations for condenser thermal performance provided in this
study contains no constant coefficients and are function of inlet condition of condenser.

2. System description

In this study the process flow considered is a typical 210000 kW coal fired power plant having single reheat system with 4 low
pressure heater (LPH), 3 high pressure heaters (HPH), high pressure turbine (HPT), intermediate pressure turbine (IPT) and double
flow low pressure turbine (LPT). The configuration of steam condenser as shown in Fig. 1, is a shell and tube type heat exchanger.
Cooling water (CW) enters to the tubes, through tube sheet and the shell side of condenser receives steam from exhaust of LPT. Steam
passes over the shell side and cooling water flows through tube side. The condenser is equipped with 15620 number of welded 90/10
cupronickel tubes having total surface area of 14600 m2. At nominal condition the condenser pressure is maintained at 10.13 kPa
with CW temperature of 33 °C. Detailed design parameters are shown in Table 1.

3. Thermal performance analysis

Performance of the condenser is analyzed based on logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD) method. Based on LMTD,
the heat transfer equation can be expressed as in Eq. (1),

Fig. 1. Flow arrangement of steam condenser.

2
L. Pattanayak, et al. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 14 (2019) 100484

Table 1
Design details of steam condenser.
Parameter Value

CW temperature 33 °C
CW temperature rise 9 °C
Condenser back pressure 10.13 kPa
CW flow 27000 m3/h
No. of pass 2
No. of tubes 15620
Tube OD/thickness 30/1 mm
Tube material 90/10 cupronickel
Surface area 14600 m2
Steam flow at nominal load 127.5 kg/s

Q = kA (dTm) (1)
where k, heat transfer coefficient; A, tube surface area; Q, heat transfer rate.
Based on energy balance, heat to cold side flow (Q12 ) and heat from hot side flow (Q345) is given by Eqs. (2) and (3) [32],
Q12 = m1 (h2 h1) = m1 cp (T2 T1) (2)

Q345 = ( m3 h3 + m5 h5 m4 h 4 ) (3)
where m˙, mass flow rate; h, enthalpy; T, temperature. Subscript 1, 2, 3, 4 &5 denotes the state point as shown in Fig. 1.

3.1. From Eqs. (1)–(3) the following relation can be worked out

m1 cp (T2 T1) = kA (dTm) (4)

Considering no heat loss is taking place, Q = Q12 = Q345
LMTD (dTm) from Eq. (1), can be derived by using following expression in Eq. (5) [33],
(T2 T1)
dTm =
ln((Tsat T1)/(Tsat T2 )) (5)
where Tsat , saturation temperature of steam inlet to condenser.
As the cooling system is an open cycle system, usually deposition takes place on the tubes in the water side. Fouling on water side
decreases the thermal performance of steam condenser. When there is no change in the operational mode and water quality is
stabilized then the velocity of water is the only factor which affect rate of deposition in tube.
To determine the CW flow rate, velocity traversing method is used. As the diameter of the pipe is known, the measured average
velocity is used to calculate the CW flow rate using the Eq. (6).
CW flow rate, m1 = UA (6)
where ρ is density of water, U is the velocity.
In order to validate the measured flow using ultrasonic flow meter, CW flow rate is also computed based on the heat balance
method. In this a detailed heat balance calculation is performed in turbine cycle for determining the condenser duty as given in Eq.
(7).
Cond _duty = (QMS + QSHSpray + QCRH + QRHSpray + QBFP ) 860(Qgen + Q genloss + Qrad ) (7)
The CW flow rate is calculated taking the measured CW inlet & outlet temperature and condenser duty using Eq. (8).
Cond _duty
CW flow rate =
Cp (T2 T1) (8)
The effectiveness can be expressed as a function of surface area, CW flow rate, heat transfer coefficient and specific heat of water
or as a ratio of temperature differences [9,16],
(T2 T1) kA
c = =1 e m1 Cp
(Tsat T1) (9)
where T is temperature and subscript 1 and 2 denotes the state point as shown in Fig. 2.

4. Results and discussion

The theory of condenser operation is reasonably straight forward. Heat transfer in condenser and latent heat removal from the
exhaust vapor depends on condenser pressure, CW temperature and flow rate. At a given unit load, variation in CW parameters (flow

3
L. Pattanayak, et al. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 14 (2019) 100484

Fig. 2. Effect of CW temperature on condenser pressure and heat transfer coefficient.

rate and temperature) affect the condenser pressure as well as turbine cycle heat rate.
Based on the results from simulation model (Table 2), Fig. 2 depicts the impact of CW temperature on condenser pressure and heat
transfer coefficient. With rise in CW temperature heat flow reduces, leads to increase in condenser pressure for a given CW flow rate.
Heat transfer coefficient increased with increase in CW temperature from 15 °C to 40 °C. As observed, the functional relation of CW
inlet temperature with heat transfer coefficient is found to be nonlinear but quadratic in nature, where as with condenser pressure the
relation is exponential. From the analysis, the relation of CW temperature with heat transfer coefficient and condenser pressure is
established as k = −0.78T12 + 63.09T1 + 1684.33 and Pcond = 1.977e0.049T1 respectively. In a steady state operating condition
when venting system works properly, the condenser pressure is truly determined by CW temperature. During normal operation of the
unit at a given CW temperature and load to maintain the condenser pressure, the CW flow rate should be optimum which again
depends on the CW temperature. Based on the derived relation from Fig. 2, expected condenser pressure can be determined with a
given CW inlet temperature and can be compared to the measured condenser pressure using plant online instruments. The validated
results [34,35] in Fig. 3 depicts the comparison of heat transfer coefficient using the derived relation from Fig. 2 and ‘k’ calculated
based on the measured parameters using Eq. (1) at CW flow rate of 25500 m3/h. It can be seen that the derived relation accurately
validated and the error precision is less than 1%. The results will help plant operator to justify the requirement of online instrument
calibration. Thus the CW flow rate and temperature are the variable parameters under such operating condition to achieve the
optimum condenser pressure for a given unit load. Fig. 4 shows the variation of condenser pressure and heat transfer coefficient with
CW flow rate, at fixed unit load of 210000 kW and CW temperature of 33 °C. It is found that the percentage change in condenser
pressure is significant when the CW flow rate varies from 15000 m3/h to 25000 m3/h, and then with every increase in 5000 m3/h the
change in condenser pressure minimizes. The relation is derived from Table 3 as, Pcond = 0.00000001VF12 - 0.0007VF1 + 22.94. At
a fixed CW flow rate when CW temperature increase, condenser LMTD decreases and heat transfer coefficient increases. The cor-
relation of CW flow rate with heat transfer coefficient is found to be k = -5E-07 VF12 + 0.086 VF1 + 1072.25. As CW flow increase,

Table 2
Input and out put parameters based on simulation study.
m3 (kg/s) VF1 (m3/h) T1 (oC) k (W/m2K) Pcond (kPa)

Input parameter Output parameter

127.56 25452 15 2448.548 4.13

127.56 25452 18 2571.32 4.79
127.56 25452 21 2672.833 5.56
127.56 25452 24 2755.73 6.46
127.56 25452 27 2822.324 7.51
127.56 25452 30 2874.64 8.72
127.56 25452 33 2914.45 10.10
127.56 25452 36 2943.32 11.68
127.56 25452 39 2962.59 13.49
127.56 25452 41 2971.15 14.83
102.04 27000 33 3001.78 8.65
89.29 27000 33 3001.78 8.11
76.53 27000 33 3001.78 7.60
63.78 27000 33 3001.78 7.11
51.02 27000 33 3001.78 6.65
127.56 15000 30 2206.83 12.25
127.56 20000 30 2548.23 10.00
127.56 25000 30 2849.01 8.80
127.56 30000 30 3120.93 8.05
127.56 35000 30 3370.99 7.53
127.56 40000 30 3603.74 7.16

4
L. Pattanayak, et al. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 14 (2019) 100484

Fig. 3. Comparison of measured parameters with expected, based on relation for condenser pressure and heat transfer coefficient.

Fig. 4. Effect of CW flow rate on condenser pressure and heat transfer coefficient.

Table 3
Responce of condenser performance with variation of CW flow rate at different CW temperature.
T1 (oC) VF1 (m3/h) Q (kW) LMTD (oC) U(m/s) k (W/m2K) Pcond (kPa)

30 15000 290112.11 9.00 0.43 2206.83 12.25

30 20000 292255.02 7.86 0.58 2548.23 10.00
30 25000 293579.53 7.06 0.72 2849.01 8.80
30 30000 294485.83 6.46 0.87 3120.93 8.05
30 35000 295150.18 6.00 1.01 3370.99 7.53
30 40000 295660.13 5.62 1.16 3603.74 7.16
33 15000 288609.53 8.84 0.43 2237.40 14.07
33 20000 290740.17 7.71 0.58 2583.52 11.55
33 25000 292056.12 6.93 0.72 2888.47 10.19
33 30000 292956.00 6.34 0.87 3164.16 9.35
33 35000 293615.29 5.88 1.01 3417.68 8.77
33 40000 294121.13 5.51 1.16 3653.66 8.34
36 15000 287092.04 8.70 0.43 2259.56 16.14
36 20000 289211.43 7.59 0.58 2609.11 13.31
36 25000 290519.73 6.82 0.72 2917.08 11.79
36 30000 291413.97 6.25 0.87 3195.50 10.84
36 35000 292068.87 5.80 1.01 3451.53 10.18
36 40000 292571.17 5.43 1.16 3689.84 9.70

the water velocity increases and thus the heat transfer coefficient increases at a given load and CW temperature. The relationship
between heat transfer coefficient and CW flow rate is quite linear for a particular CW temperature. Lower the CW velocity higher the
chance of fouling potential in tubes which needs additional tube cleaning system to maintain the condenser pressure to improve the
thermal performance. Thus it can be concluded that the higher the CW temperature, higher will be the heat transfer coefficient; larger
the CW flow rate, higher the heat transfer coefficient. At the same time more be the clean CW pipes, the greater the heat transfer
coefficient and vice versa.
With rise in CW temperature for a given CW flow rate the condenser vacuum deteriorates, which will have adverse effect on the
power generation. In other wards to maintain a desired condenser pressure, with higher CW temperature the flow rate should be
adequate to avoid generation as well as cycle heat loss. Generation loss is severely affected by condenser pressure. Fig. 5 (a) shows the
correlation of condenser pressure with unit generation for a range of CW flow rate (from 15000 m3/h to 35000 m3/h) at constant CW
temperature of 33 °C. At a given CW flow rate when the load demand increases the condenser pressure rises. Condenser pressure

5
L. Pattanayak, et al. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 14 (2019) 100484

Fig. 5. Effect of condenser pressure on (a) unit generation and (b) cycle heat rate.

improves with increase in CW flow rate for a given load. To ensure better condenser performance and reduce pump load it is essential
to maintain the condenser pressure with optimum CW flow rate. It is found that condenser pressure increased with decrease in flow
rate. It can be concluded that for a defined CW flow rate and temperature the performance of the condenser deteriorated because of
higher condenser pressure or higher dissolved oxygen. With high condenser pressure the unit consumes additional fuel to reach the
desired load or it may happen that the unit is unable to generate desired load as the condenser pressure reached its limit. An increase
in condenser pressure will tend to cause the end point enthalpy to rise, leads to reduction in power generation. The increase in heat
rate is due to the higher steam flow required to maintain load with the increase of condenser pressure. Fig. 5 (b) depicts the effect of
condenser pressure on turbine cycle heat rate with change in CW temperature. With 1 °C change in CW temperature the condenser
pressure changes by 0.59 kPa, which leads to change in cycle heat rate by 0.36% (as shown in Fig. 5 (b)) and unit generation of
33000 kW. The change in fuel consumption will be approximately 0.115 kg/s (i,e annually 848 kg/yr with running hours of 7446 h/
yr).
At a given CW temperature with deposition in tubes the total available heat transfer area reduces, thus the condenser pressure
increases. To maintain the desired condenser pressure CW flow rate should be increased and thus will have better heat transfer in the
condenser and the performance will improve. Moreover with increase in CW flow rate the total heat transfer area increases. In this
condition the heat load will be more and maximum heat will be rejected from hot medium (steam) to cold medium (water). Thus the
condenser pressure will be optimum. The relationship of CW flow rate on condenser heat load and effectiveness is shown in Fig. 6.

Fig. 6. Effectiveness and heat load as a function of CW flow rate.

6
L. Pattanayak, et al. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 14 (2019) 100484

Rise in CW flow rate leads to a decrease in condenser effectiveness, an increase in heat load and a drop in the steam pressure in the
condenser. Keeping CW temperature as 33 °C and steam flow rate of 127.5 kg/s (for 100% load), with increase in CW flow rate from
15000 m3/h to 40000 m3/h condenser heat load increases with a reduction in effectiveness.

5. Conclusion

This paper describes the influence of CW parameters on the condenser as well as unit performance. The dependency of CW
parameters with heat transfer coefficient, condenser pressure and heat load is established for a 210000 kW power plant condenser.
This study shows that the optimum condenser pressure that can be maintained in the condenser at CW temperature of 33 °C is
10.10 kPa. Under this condition the CW flow rate will be 25550 m3/h with condenser heat load of 292150.98 kW. With a fixed CW
temperature as 33 °C and steam flow rate of 127.5 kg/s (for 100% load), with increase in CW flow rate from 15000 m3/h to
40000 m3/h condenser heat load increases with a reduction in effectiveness. Having the dependencies as explained above, it is
evident that for a given power generation, with higher CW temperature, the heat rate of the power cycle deteriorates. To optimize the
condenser operation and improve the power cycle heat rate, CW flow rate increases to maintain the same heat transfer at higher
condenser vacuum.

Nomenclature

A area (m2)
Cp specific heat of water kJ/kg K
d diameter of pipe (mm)
h specific enthalpy (kJ/kg)
k heat transfer coefficient (W/m2K)
m˙ mass flow rate (kg/s)
P pressure (kPa)
Q heat transfer rate (kW)
QMS heat added main steam (kW)
QCRH heat added cold reheat steam (kW)
QSHspray heat added super heater spray (kW)
QRHspray heat added reheater spray (kW)
QBFP heat added boiler feed pump (kW)
Qgen gross generation (kW)
Qgenloss generation loss (kW)
Qrad heat loss due to radiation (kW)
T temperature (oC)
c effectiveness (−)
dTm logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD) (K)
ρ density of water (kg/m3)
U water velocity (m/s)
VF volume flow rate (m3/h)

Subscript

1,2,3,4 and 5 state point at Fig. 1

References

[1] S. Chao, J. Yiqiang, Y. Yang, D. Shiming, Experimental performance evaluation of a novel dry-expansion evaporator with defouling function in a wastewater
source heat pump, Appl. Energy 95 (2012) 202–209.
[2] S.H. Ali, A.T. Baheta, S. Hassan, Effect of low pressure end conditions on steam power plant performance, MATEC Web of Conferences, 2014 EDP Sciences1-6
https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/20141302010.
[3] M.S. Kim, K.S. Lee, S. Song, Effects of pass arrangement and optimization of design parameters on the thermal performance of a multi-pass heat exchanger, Int. J.
Heat Fluid Flow 29 (1) (2008) 352–363.
[4] K. Chung, K.S. Lee, W.S. Kim, Optimization of the design factors for thermal performance of a parallel-flow heat exchanger, Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 45 (24)
(2002) 4773–4780.
[5] R. Laskowski, Relations for steam power plant condenser performance in off-design conditions in the function of inlet parameters and those relevant in reference
conditions, Appl. Therm. Eng. 103 (2016) 528–536.
[6] S.I. Attia, The influence of condenser cooling water temperature on the thermal efficiency of a nuclear power plant, Ann. Nucl. Energy 80 (2015) 371–378.
[7] R. Laskowski, A. Smyk, J. Lewandowski, A. Rusowicz, Cooperation of a steam condenser with a low-pressure part of a steam turbine in off-design conditions, Am.
J. Energy Res. 3 (1) (2015) 13–18.
[8] W. Wang, D. Zeng, J. Liu, Y. Niu, C. Cui, Feasibility analysis of changing turbine load in power plants using continuous condenser pressure adjustment, Energy 64
(2014) 533–540.
[9] A.N. Anozie, O.J. Odejobi, The search for optimum condenser cooling water flow rate in a thermal power plant, Appl. Therm. Eng. 31 (17–18) (2011)
4083–4090.
[10] Y. Haseli, I. Dincer, G.F. Naterer, Optimum temperatures in a shell and tube condenser with respect to exergy, Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 51 (9) (2008) 2462–2470.

7
L. Pattanayak, et al. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 14 (2019) 100484

[11] A. Durmayaz, O.S. Sogut, Influence of cooling water temperature on the efficiency of a pressurized-water reactor nuclear-power plant, Int. J. Energy Res. 30 (10)
(2006) 799–810.
[12] L. Pattanayak, J.N. Sahu, P. Mohanty, Combined cycle power plant performance evaluation using exergy and energy analysis, Environ. Prog. Sustain. Energy 36
(4) (2017) 1180–1186.
[13] J. Ganan, A.R. Al-Kassir, J.F. Gonzalez, A. Macías, M.A. Diaz, Influence of cooling circulation water on the efficiency of a thermonuclear plant, Appl. Therm. Eng.
25 (4) (2005) 485–494.
[14] R. Harish, E.E. Subhramanyan, R. Madhavan, S. Vidyanand, Theoretical model for evaluation of variable frequency drive for cooling water pumps in sea water
based once through condenser cooling water systems, Appl. Therm. Eng. 30 (14) (2010) 2051–2057.
[15] L. Pattanayak, J.N. Sahu, Steady state modeling on energy and exergy analysis of a pulverized coal fired thermal power plant, Asia Pac. J. Chem. Eng. 10 (6)
(2015) 876–884.
[16] Y.A. Cengel, Heat Transfer, McGraw-Hill, 1998.
[17] J.P. Holman, Heat Transfer, McGraw-Hill, New York, 2002.
[18] Q. Zhao, D. Deng, Y. Liu, W. Chen, J. Wang, J. Xiang, S. Hu, The condenser performance test and thermal performance analysis of variable conditions in TQNPC,
Energy Power Eng. 5 (04) (2013) 566–569.
[19] M.S. Laković, M.M. Stojiljković, S.V. Laković, V.P. Stefanović, D.D. Mitrović, Impact of the cold end operating conditions on energy efficiency of the steam power
plants, Therm. Sci. 14 (2010) 53–66.
[20] G. Pottker, P.S. Hrnjak, Effect of condenser subcooling of the performance of vapor compression systems: experimental and numerical investigation,
International Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Conference, 2012 http://docs.lib.purdue.edu/iracc/1328.
[21] A.N. Anozie, O.J. Odejobi, O. Sowonola, Improving energy recovery at Egbin thermal power plant by variation in condenser cooling water flowrate, TekCONF
(2010) 154–161 Proceedings 2010.
[22] O.P. Ayoola, A.N. Anozie, O.J. Odejobi, Optimization of Egbin thermal power plant operation using linear programming, Niger. Soc. Chem. Eng. Proc. 40 (2010)
161–168.
[23] B.A. Qureshi, S.M. Zubair, The impact of fouling on performance evaluation of evaporative coolers and condensers, Int. J. Energy Res. 29 (14) (2005)
1313–1330.
[24] B. Zhao, L. Liu, W. Zhang, Optimization of cold end system of steam turbine, Front. Energy Power Eng. China 2 (3) (2008) 348–353.
[25] G. Masiwal, P.S. Kumar, S. Chaudhary, Performance analysis of surface condenser in 525MW thermal power plant, Int. J. Eng. Technol. 9 (3) (2017) 1931–1939.
[26] R.E. Putman, J.W. Harpster, The economic effects of condenser backpressure on heat rate, condensate subcooling and feedwater dissolved oxygen, Proceedings
of ASME International Joint Power Generation Conference, Miami, 2000.
[27] J.Q. Xu, T. Yang, Y.Y. Sun, K.Y. Zhou, Y.F. Shi, Research on varying condition characteristic of feedwater heater considering liquid level, Appl. Therm. Eng. 67
(1) (2014) 179–189.
[28] R.M. Laskowski, The application of the Buckingham Π theorem to modeling high-pressure regenerative heat exchangers in off-design operation, J. Power
Technol. 91 (4) (2011) 198–205.
[29] E. Nebot, J.F. Casanueva, T. Casanueva, D. Sales, Model for fouling deposition on power plant steam condensers cooled with seawater: effect of water velocity
and tube material, Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 50 (17) (2007) 3351–3358.
[30] R.E. Putman, J.W. Harpster, The measurement of condenser losses due to fouling and those due to air ingress, EPRI Condenser Seminar and Conference. San
Antonio, 2002.
[31] M. Prieto, J.M. Vallina, I. Suárez, I. Martı́n, Application of a design code for estimating fouling on-line in a power plant condenser cooled by seawater, Exp.
Therm. Fluid Sci. 25 (5) (2001) 329–336.
[32] B. Linnhoff, D.W. Townsend, D. Boland, G.F. Hewitt, B.E.A. Thomas, A.R. Guy, R.H. Marsland, A User Guide on Process Integration for Efficienct Use of Energy,
Warwick Printing Company Ltd, Warks, 1982.
[33] R.K. Sinnott, fourth ed., Chemical Engineering Design vol. 6, Elsevier Butter- Worth Heinemann, Oxford, 2005.
[34] Li Jianlan, Zhaoyin Zhai, Jizhou Wang, Shuhong Huang, On-line fouling monitoring model of condenser in coal-fired power, Appl. Therm. Eng. 104 (2016)
628–635.
[35] Kiran B. Naik, P. Muthukumar, Empirical correlation based models for estimation of air cooled and water cooled condenser's performance, Energy Procedia 109
(2017) 293–305.