Propeller Performance: An introduction, by EPI Inc. http://www.epi-eng.com/propeller_technology/selecting_a_propeller.

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From: EPI Inc. Contact: tech@epi-eng.com

Thursday, February 13th, 2020 Last Update: 01 January 2020

- Propeller Performance Factors -

Basic Information to Help Select the Correct Propeller

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The in-flight performance of a propeller encompasses several complex subjects. The high-performance
propellers that are available these days are the product of a lot of engineering, development, testing –
and unfortunately a few mistakes.

The selection of an appropriate propeller for a new aircraft should not be done without considering
several factors which characterize the performance of a propeller.
Race Engine
Technology The following sections of this page present a few basics to help provide a better understanding of
Magazine propeller performance.
INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND
to Race Engine
Technology BACK
The purpose of a propeller is to convert engine power, delivered to the propeller by a rotating shaft,
ISSUES
into a quasi-linear thrust force, and to do so as efficiently as possible throughout a suitable range of
SUBSCRIBE
vehicle velocities. The propeller generates thrust by accelerating a large mass of air from a lower
velocity (in front of the propeller disc, roughly the current speed of the vehicle) to a higher velocity
behind the propeller disc

A propeller blade is a sophisticated whirling airfoil. At a constant propeller rpm and vehicle true
airspeed, the relative velocity of the air (and therefore the airfoil’s angle of attack) varies with the
distance along the blade from the propeller’s center of rotation.

Therefore, in an effort to provide an ideal angle of attack along the entire blade, the blade has a "twist"
to it which varies the pitch angle of the blade from the low (at the root) to high (at the tip), using
various distribution algorithms derived from extensive experimentation and development.

The nominal pitch angle of a blade (β) is typically the angle measured at 75% of the radial distance
from the center of rotation to the propeller tip.

At a constant propeller rpm, as aircraft velocity increases, the angle of attack seen by the propeller
blade of a fixed-pitch propeller will obviously decrease. That limits the maximum efficiency of a
fixed-pitch propeller to a single airspeed at a given rpm, as shown in Figure 1 (from ref-4:13:149)..

This graph is a representative plot of propeller efficiency at different blade pitch angles (β) and advance
ratios (speed). The Y-axis of that plot is propeller efficiency (how efficiently the propeller converts the
applied engine power into thrust (discussed later), and the X-axis of the plot is “Advance Ratio”, which
is a non-dimensionalized quantification of propeller speed parameters, calculated as follows:

Advance Ratio = true airspeed {ft/sec} / (propeller speed {rev/sec} x diameter {ft})

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Figure 1

The curves in Figure 1 demonstrate that the speed range over which good propeller efficiency can be
achieved is very limited for a fixed pitch angle. It is also clear from that plot that if the blade pitch
could be varied in flight, the propeller efficiency could be quite high over a wide range of operating
conditions.

In fact, that variable-pitch capability is common to all high-performance propellers, and is most often
accomplished by a hydraulic piston mechanism in the propeller hub. Axial movement of that piston
changes the pitch of the blades. A mechanical governor varies the hydraulic pressure that is applied to
the piston in response to (a) instantaneous propeller rpm, and (b) pilot command.

That system allows the propeller governor to maintain propeller rpm at a pilot-requested value (within
certain limits) by suitably adjusting the propeller load (blade angle) in response to either a change in
engine power or a change in aircraft flight conditions (or both).

There are other pitch control mechanisms as well, which attempt to accomplish the same task, but this
is the most common system.

THRUST, POWER and EFFICIENCY

As described above, a rotating propeller produces thrust, which is not power, it is a force that is
applied to the airframe.

Power is defined as work per unit of time, which is force x distance / time. One horsepower is defined
as 550 ft-lb of work per second, so the propeller power that is produced equals thrust (pounds of force)
multiplied by velocity (distance per unit time) and a scaling constant appropriate to the unit system
being used (550 in this case).

So using the pounds, hp and feet-per-second unit system:

Propeller (propulsive) hp = thrust {lbs} * velocity {ft/sec} / 550

Rearranging that equation to solve for thrust, produces:

Thrust = 550 * propeller hp / velocity

That equation shows why, for a constant amount of engine power, the thrust generated by a propeller
MUST decrease with speed; - - - speed is the denominator in the above equation, so as speed increases,

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the quotient (thrust) must decrease.

Propeller efficiency is defined as power produced (propeller power) divided by power applied
(engine power).

propeller efficiency = propeller power (produced) / engine power (applied)

OR

propeller efficiency = thrust {lbs} x velocity {ft/sec} / (engine power {hp} * 550)

In case you are wondering, multiplying "engine hp" by 550 produces the number of ft - lb / second in
that number of hp, so as to match the units in the numerator of the equation (8th grade algebra).

The general relationship between engine power, thrust, and propeller power across a given speed
envelope in a constant atmospheric model is shown in Figure 2 below. The red line shows a constant
engine power at all speeds. The green line shows how much of that engine power is converted into
propeller power (propeller efficiency * engine power), and the purple line shows how thrust varies with
speed and propeller efficiency, first rising very quickly with as speed increases (a result of the very
high slope of the efficiency curve), then decreasing as speed increases.

Note that the green line is also a clear depiction of the overall efficiency envelope of the propeller at the
specific power loading shown, since engine power in this graph is a constant.

Figure 2

Again, the purple curve illustrates the rapid rise in thrust due to the fact that at low airspeeds, propeller
efficiency is very low. As airspeed increases, so does efficiency, quickly at first, then more slowly, up
to its maximum (about 85-87%), and then falls off beyond the peak That trend is also shown by the
outline of the Maximum Efficiency Envelope in Figure 1.

The following plot (Figure 3) illustrates that effect again by showing the thrust generated by a typical
propeller with different levels of constant engine horsepower applied to it, as a function of airspeed (15
through 240 MPH) and power applied to it (250 through 500 HP).

Note that the rising slope of the thrust curves at very low airspeeds is a by-product of the fact that
efficiency is very low at low airspeeds, but increases fairly rapidly as airspeed increases. That will
become more clear as we present more information on propeller efficiency below.

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Figure 3

Now, some more simple algebra enables the production of some efficiency equations that are a bit more
useful.

As presented above Figure 2:

propeller efficiency {"eff"}= thrust * velocity / (engine hp * 550)

There is already the constant "550" in that equation (550 ft-lb / sec in one HP), so instead of having to
convert airspeed (typically MPH or Knots) into feet / second, I simply combine the conversion factors
to produce:

eff = Thrust * Speed {KTAS or MPH} / (Engine HP * "K" )

(where "K" is a constant to account for units).

If the system of units is Pounds (thrust), Horsepower (power) and Knots True Airspeed (KTAS), then
the equation becomes:

eff = ( Thrust * KTAS ) / ( HP * 326 )

In any of the following equations, if you prefer to use MPH instead of MTAS, use the constant 375 in
place of 326. For example:

eff = ( Thrust * MPH ) / ( HP * 375)

The equation for efficiency has other useful forms. Rearranging the terms, the equation for the thrust
produced at a known airspeed, engine power, and propeller efficiency yields:

Thrust = ( Engine HP * eff * 326 ) / KTAS

To find the HP required to produce a known thrust at a known airspeed and propeller efficiency:

Engine HP = ( Thrust * KTAS ) / ( 326 * eff )

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To find the speed which can be reached with a known engine HP, prop efficiency and airframe drag
(thrust = drag in steady state level flight):

KTAS = ( Engine HP * eff * 326 ) / Drag

Those equations are helpful when using a propeller performance map (explained below).

In general, the larger the propeller diameter, the more efficient it will be. The following three equations
(ref-4:9:219) provide an estimate of the recommended propeller diameters (inches) as a function of the
horsepower available to the prop. ("Fourth root" is the square root of the square root.)

Two-blade: d = 22 x fourth root of (HP)

Three-blade: d = 18 x fourth root of (HP)
Three-blade (agricultural application): d = 20 x fourth root of (HP)

However, the maximum useful prop diameter will be limited by the speed of the propeller tip and by
the airframe-provided ground clearance.

PROPELLER TIP SPEED

As described above, variable-pitch propellers are highly efficient over a wide range of airspeeds and
applied engine power. However, that performance has important limiting parameters.

Anytime the aircraft is in motion (and the propeller is turning, of course), the path of the tip of a
propeller blade through the air is a helix, and therefore, it's velocity (the "tip speed") is the vector sum
of the rotational velocity plus the translational velocity, or the helical tip velocity (explained in detail
below).

Maximum helical tip velocity is an important parameter for propeller selection. In the absence of
specific data from the manufacturer, it is safe to assume that (a) the maximum propeller efficiency will
be about 85 to 87% (for any propeller a non-governmental agency can afford), and (b) that the propeller
efficiency begins to decrease dramatically when the propller is operated at a helical tip velocity greater
than the peak efficiency Mach Number, which can vary from about 0.84 to 0.88 M. (Mach Number is
the ratio of a specific velocity to the local velocity of sound, explained below.)

The very best contemporary propellers can approach 90% peak conversion efficiency, but with any
propeller, the efficiency drops very rapidly as the tip velocity exceeds its optimal value. The loss of
efficiency occurs because the local air velocity over the surface of the propeller blade (near the point of
maximum chordal airfoil thickness and velocity) will reach Mach 1, and create a shockwave that
separates the airflow from the surface and dissipates propeller energy.

That phenomenon is very easy to spot in a high speed aircraft which has the capacity to run the
propeller too fast for a given set of flight conditions. Here is an example. A few years ago, I was flying
the facrtory Glasair-3 to an airshow. I was cruising at 13,000 feet, 2400 RPM, wide open throttle. I was
running a bit behind schedule, so in pursuit of a few more knots, I decided to operate at max power
(2700 RPM, WOT). It was something of a surprise when I lost about 15 knots of airspeed. I set the
RPM back to 2400, and regained the lost 15 knots. Later I did the calculations to verify that the loss
was due to the sudden loss of efficiency. It was.

It is actually quite simple to do the arithmetic necessary to determine the tip Mach of a prop at a given
RPM and true airspeed. First, calculate the helical tip velocity components (rotational velocity, Vr, and
translational velocity, Vt).

The rotational velocity is the diameter of the prop times the RPM times a conversion factor. Again
using KTAS as the unit of speed, the rotational velocity in feet per second is:

Vr (ft / sec) = RPM * Prop Diameter (inches) * 3.1416 / (12 * 60), OR

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Vr (ft / sec) = RPM * Prop Diameter (inches) / 229.2

The translational velocity is simply the aircraft TAS expressed in feet per second, or:

Vt (ft / sec) = KTAS * 6076 / 3600 or Vt = KTAS * 1.688

With the rotational and translational speed (in the same units, of course) you can easily calculate the
helical tip speed:

Vht = square root ( Vr² + Vt²)

Next, calculate the speed of sound (Mach 1.0). The speed of sound in air varies with the square root of
absolute temperature ONLY, as defined by the following equation:

Vs = square root (k*g*R*T)

where k, g and R are constants (1.4, 32.17 and 53.34 for air)
and T is the absolute temperature (°F + 460) of the surrounding air.

So, if you are at 13,000 feet on a standard day, the air temperature is 12.71 °F and the speed of sound
(in feet per second) is:

Vs1 = square root ( 1.4 * 32.17 * 53.34 * (460 + 12.71) )

Vs1 = 49.013 * square root ( 472.71 ) = 1065.6 ft / sec.

The Mach number of a given speed is simply:

M = speed / Vs1

Putting it all together in a specific example, suppose you are flying at 13,000 feet on a standard day at a
true airspeed of 240 knots and an 84-inch propeller turning at 2700 RPM. Here is how to calculate your
prop-tip Mach (using the simple equations above):

Vr = 2700 * 84 / 229.2 = 989.5

Vt = 240 * 1.688 = 405.1
Vht = square root ( 405.1² + 989.5² ) = 1069.2 feet per second
Tip Mach = 1069.2 / 1065.6 = 1.034

See why the Glasair slowed down?

Now, to calculate the RPM at which a known tip mach occurs on your propeller, perform a bit of
simple algebra on those four equations (Vr, Vt, Vs1 and M) to solve for RPM with a given Propeller
Diameter, TAS, and outside air temperature.

(Instead of doing the calculations by hand, it is very convenient to put the equations into an Excel
spreadsheet and let your computer do the arithmetic. The computer is much faster at it that you are.)

PERFORMANCE MAPS

Propeller performance maps are 3-dimensional tables which list the efficiency of a propeller at various
combinations of advance ratio and power loading for various altitude conditions. Most propeller
manufacturers characterize the performance of each of their products with such a performance map.
Don't be afraid to ask your propeller manufacturer for a map defining the propeller (s) you are
considering or evaluating.

By using the appropriate map, you can accurately determine the operating efficiency for almost every
condition (as long as map data represent the actual performance of the prop, which is not always the
case ! ).

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In order to use a performance map, you will need to calculate the advance ratio and power loading.

Advance Ratio (J) = TAS / ( N * D ) and

Power Loading (Cp) = ( Prop HP * 550 ) / (air density * N^3 * D^5)

where
TAS is true airspeed in feet-per-second;
N is prop speed in Revs-per-second;
D is prop diameter in feet;
air density in is slugs-per-cubic foot ( sea level = 0.002376 )

Again, an Excel spreadsheet makes these calculations very easy.

AN INTERESTING RELATIONSHIP

It should be obvious that, for an aircraft at a constant speed in level flight:

airframe drag = propeller thrust

It is well-known that:

airframe drag = air density * vehicle frontal area * drag coefficient * velocity²

Substituting the components of ‘airframe drag’ (density, area, drag coefficient, velocity²) for “thrust”
into the propeller hp equation produces the following interesting equation:

Propeller hp = (air density x frontal area x drag coefficient x velocity²) x velocity / 550

OR

Propeller hp = air density x frontal area x drag coefficient x velocity³ / 550

That equation shows that required propeller hp is proportional to velocity * velocity * velocity {
velocity³ }.

Think about that.

It means that, for a given airframe (or aerodynamic drag value), in order to increase speed by a given
percentage (for example, by 10%, or a multiplier of 1.10 ) the available propeller power must increase
by (1.10)³ or 1.331 (all other things remaining equal). Or, in other words, to increase aircraft speed by
10%, you must increase available propeller power by 33%.

Here is a more dramatic example: to double (2x) the speed, (for a given aerodynamic drag value) you
need 8 times (2³) as much propeller power. (This statement does not take into account the very rapid
rise in airframe drag that occurs as true airspeed approaches Mach 1.)

THAT is why drag reduction pays bigger dividends than adding engine power (for level flight
conditions;.....clearly more power has a big payback in terms of increasing climb rate.

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