Solar Panel Construction

See our detailed article on manufacturing solar cells and panels.

The Power Temperature Coeffi cient

The power output of a solar panel, rated in Watts (W), is performed at standard test conditions (STC) and measured at a cell
temperature of 25°C. However in real world use, cell temperature generally rises well above 25°C, depending on the ambient
air temperature, wind speed, time of day and amount of solar irradiance (solar energy - W/m2).

Generally cell temperature is 20-30°C higher than ambient air temperature, which equates to approximately 8-12% reduction
in total power output, depending on the type of solar cell and its temperature coefficient.

Rising cell temperature reduces power output by a specific amount for every degree above 25°C. This is known as the power
temperature coefficient which is measured in %/°C. Monocrystalline cells have an average temperature coefficient (or loss) of
-0.38% /°C, while polycrystalline cells are slightly higher at -0.41% /°C. Monocrystalline IBC cells have a much better (lower)
temperature coefficient of around -0.30%/°C while by far the best performing cells at high temperatures are the HJT cells
which are as low as -0.26% /°C.

Power output vs Temperature chart shows reduced efficiency at higher cell temperatures - Image credit LG.  Click to enlarge

Temperature coeffi cient comparison

Power temperature coefficient is measured in % per °C - Lower is more efficient

 Polycrystalline cells - 0.4 to 0.43 % /°C

 Monocrystalline cells - 0.37 to 0.40 % /°C
 Monocrystalline IBC cells - 0.29 to 0.31 % /°C
 Monocrystalline HJT cells - 0.26 to 0.27 % /°C
Generally cell temperature is 20-30°C higher than the ambient air temperature which equates to approximately 8-12% reduction
in power output. Note, cell temperature can rise as high as 80°C, or higher when mounted on a dark coloured rooftop during
very hot 40+°C, windless days.
 Most Efficient Solar Cells
The most efficient solar panels on the market generally use either N-type (IBC) monocrystalline silicon cells or the another
highly efficient N-type variation, heterojunction (HJT) cells. Most other manufacturers currently use the more common  P-type
mono-PERC cells; however, several large volume manufacturers, including JinkoSolar, Longi Solar and Trina, are now starting
to shift to the more efficient N-type cells.

Effi ciency of different solar PV cell types

 Polycrystalline - 15 to 18%
 Monocrystalline - 16.5 to 19%
 Polycrystalline PERC - 17 to 19.5%
 Monocrystalline PERC - 17.5 to 20%
 Monocrystalline N-type - 19 to 20.5%
 Monocrystalline N-type HJT - 19 to 21.7%
 Monocrystalline N-type IBC - 20 to 22.6%

https://www.cleanenergyreviews.info/blog/solar-panel-components-construction
Solar Panel Assembly And Manufacturing
Solar panels are assembled in advanced manufacturing facilities using automated robotic equipment and sensors to precisely
position the components with extreme accuracy. The manufacturing plants must be extremely clean and controlled to prevent
any contamination during assembly.

Throughout the manufacturing process the panels and cells are checked and inspected using advanced optical/imaging sensors
to ensure all the components are located correctly and the cells wafers, which are very delicate, are not damaged or cracked
during the assembly process. Depending on the manufacturer the final panel assembly is thoroughly checked using a number of
tests including electroluminescent (EL) or flash testing to identify any defects in the cells which could lead to failure once
exposed to sunlight and high temperatures for many years.

Below is a video from Tindo Solar, an Australian solar panel manufacturer.

Video showing a modern solar panel assembly plant with automated assembly and testing processes and controls. -
Video Credit Tindo Solar

Sustainability
Sunlight or solar energy is a free source of renewable energy which will never be depleted. Fossil fuels, on the other hand, are
a finite resource that emit greenhouse gases and other particulates during extraction, processing and combustion. In
comparison, solar panels do not produce any emissions while in use, but they are made from several different materials which
require different levels of resources and energy. The energy used to extract the raw materials and manufacture a product is
known as the ‘embodied energy’. The amount of time it takes for a product to repay the embodied energy is measured in years.
This is known as the total energy payback time (EPBT).

A typical silicon crystalline solar panel will generate enough energy to repay the embodied energy within 2-3 years of
installation. However, as panel efficiency has increased the payback time has reduced to less than 2 years in many areas
with high average solar radiation.

The chart below highlights the increase in emissions from the combustion of fossil fuels over the last 250 years. Image credit
ourworldindata.org
Modern crystalline silicon solar panel generate enough energy to repay the embodied energy within 2-3 years. This is supported
by multiple detailed studies and life-cycle analysis. However, many of the studies are now outdated as solar PV cell efficiency
has increased from 15% to 20% (a 35% increase) over the last few years, and payback time is estimated to be as low as 1.5
years. Considering a typical solar panel will last 20-30 year’s, it will easily repay the embodied energy multiple times over and
offset thousands of tonnes of emissions.

Are Solar Panels Toxic?

Despite the large amount of information circulating about solar panels being toxic, modern crystalline silicon solar panels
contain virtually no toxic materials. The claims of 'toxic solar panels' come from the mostly obsolete thin-film (Cadmium
telluride - CdTe) solar panels which did contain trace amounts of cadmium and telluride. However, unless these (relatively
rare) panels are broken up into fragments, the trace amount of cadmium is contained within the EVA layers and cannot leach
out.

Modern crystalline silicon solar panels contain only a trace amount of lead in the solder used for the cell interconnections.
However, the use of solder is starting to be phased out with the new busbar compression joining techniques and conductive
paste materials. It's worth noting solder is used in hundreds of millions of electrical devices and appliances. There are far more
toxic elements used in consumer electronic devices, mobile phones, computers, & TVs, which is why electronic waste or E-
waste is a large global problem.

Roughly 98% of the solar panels installed around the world today are of the crystalline silicon variety and do not contain
cadmium or telluride. Solar panels are very benign and even when damaged the cells do not cause any contamination as the
cells are encapsulated and contain no readily soluble materials. However, like all appliances solar panels need to be collected
and recycled at the end of life which we discuss in the section below.

High Temperature Performance

Monocrystalline cells have a slightly lower cell temperature coefficient which results in slightly higher performance in elevated
temperature. The power temperature coefficient is the amount of power loss as cell temperature increases. All solar cells
and panels are rated using standard test conditions (STC - measured at 25°C) and slowly reduce power output as cell
temperature increases. Generally cell temperature is 20-35°C higher than the ambient air temperature which equates to a 8-14%
reduction in power output.

Power temperature coefficient comparison - Lower is more efficient

 Polycrystalline cells - 0.4 to 0.43 % /°C

 Monocrystalline cells - 0.35 to 0.40 % /°C
 Monocrystalline IBC cells - 0.29 to 0.31 % /°C
 Monocrystalline HJT cells - 0.26 to 0.27 % /°C

Thermal infrared image of a solar array

The monocrystalline IBC cells described in more detail below have a much lower temperature coefficient of -0.30% per°C. By
far the best performing cells at elevated temperatures are the HJC cells from Panasonic and REC which we describe in the
last section of this article.

PERC - Passivated Cells

Over the last few years PERC has emerged as the preferred technology for many manufacturers in both mono and poly
crystalline cells. PERC stands for 'Passivated Emitter and Rear Cell' which is a more advanced cell architecture using
additional layers on the rear side of the cell to absorb more light photons and increase total 'quantum efficiency'. A common
PERC technology is the local Al-BSF or local Aluminium Back Surface Field (see diagram below). However, several other
variations have been developed such as PERT (passivated emitter rear totally diffused) and PERL (Passivated Emitter and Rear
Locally-diffused).

The director of the Australian Centre for Advanced Photovoltaics at UNSW, Professor Martin Green invented the PERC
concept which is now widely used by most solar panel manufacturers around the world.

The PERC rear layer local AI-BSF (Aluminium Back Surface Field) used by Trina Solar

Q cells were the first in incorporate PERC technology into mulitcrystalline cells but use the name Q.antum for their range of
PERC modules. Jinko solar recently broke the solar efficiency record with 24.79% recorded from a monocrystalline N-type
PERC cell. Mono PERC cells are now the most popular and efficient cell type with most manufacturers including Winaico,
Trina Solar, Q cells, LONGi Solar, Jinko Solar, Risen and JA Solar now all using PERC cell architecture.

Multiple / Wire Busbars - MBB

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Small silver metallic fingers across each cell transfer current to the busbars. More recently, many manufacturers have moved from traditional ribbon

busbars to multiple-wire busbars or MBB.

Busbars are thin wires or ribbons which run down each cell and carry the electrons (current) through the solar panel. As PV
cells have become more efficient they in turn generate more current and over recent years most manufacturers have moved
from 3 busbars to 5 or 6 busbars. Several manufactures such as LG energy, REC, Trina Solar, and Canadian Solar have gone
one step further and developed multi-busbar (MBB) systems using up to 12 or 16 very thin round wires rather than flat busbars.
The problem with traditional flat ribbon busbars is they shade part of the cell which slightly reduces performance, hence why
they must be carefully designed. On the other hand multiple round wire busbars provide lower resistance and a shorter path for
the electrons to travel along the fingers, resulting in higher performance.

If a cell micro-crack occurs due to impact, heavy loads or people walking on panels, more busbars help reduce the chance of
the crack/s developing into a hot spot as they provide alternative paths for current to flow.

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LG Neon 2 cells with 12 round wire busbars.

The LG Neon 2 modules where the first to use 12 small round wire busbars which LG refer to as 'Cello' technology which
stands for 'cell connection, electrically low loss, low stress and optical absorption enhancement'. It's a bit of a mouth full but
basically the Cello multi-wire technology lowers electrical resistance and further increases efficiency.
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Multi-busbar compared to a standard ribbon busbar - Image credit Trina Solar (click to enlarge)

Trina solar along with many other manufacturers recently started offering thin round wire busbar cells under the name multi
busbar (MBB) as an option on a range of modules in 2019. As explained earlier, another benefit of having more busbars is if
micro-cracking does occur in a cell due to external stresses there is less chance of this forming a hotspot as the electrons have
many alternative busbars to flow along. This is shown in the diagram opposite.

See the complete Trina Solar panel and technology review here

Split Modules With Half-Cut Cells

Most of the world’s leading manufacturer’s have now shifted to half-cut or half size cells rather than traditional full size
square cells. This effectively splits the solar panel into two smaller panels of 50% capacity which work in parallel. This has
multiple benefits including increased performance due to lower resistive losses through the bus bars (current collectors). More
recently, a number of manufacturers such as Trina Solar began producing extra-large 210mm square cells which enable the cell
to be cut into three sections, known as 1/3-cut cells. These large format cells are used to produce high-powered panels up to
600W.

Since each cell is half size, it produces half the current at the same voltage, which means the width of the busbar can be
reduced by half in turn reducing cell shading, losses and increasing efficiency. The lower current also translates to lower cell
temperatures which in turn reduces the potential formation and severity of hot spots due to localised shading, dirt or cell
damage. In addition, the shorter wire distance to the center of the panel from the top and bottom further boosts efficiency and
can increase power output of a similar sized panel by up to 20W.

The Hanwha Q Cells Q.Peak Duo G6 panel uses half cut mono PERC cells with 6 round wire busbars

Improved shade tolerance

Another substantial benefit is that partial shading on either the upper or lower part of the panel does not reduce the power
output of the panel the same amount as a panel with conventional full size cells. This is due to the upper and lower sections
being connected in parallel and acting much like smaller individual panels. During partial shading, the voltage is maintained
and current loss is reduced by 50%, meaning better performance when shaded.
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REC Twin Peak panels were some of the first available with half-cut cells (click to enlarge)
The REC twin peak 2 range of split panels have been available for some time and now most majar panel manufacturers are
following suit with split panels being released by Trina Solar, Q-cells, Canadian Solar, LONGi Solar, JA Solar, Risen,
Phono solar, Jinko solar and most other manufacturers.

BiFacial Solar Modules

Rear side of a LG Neon 2 bifacial module

Bifacial solar technology has been available for several years but is starting to become popular as the cost to manufacture the
very high quality monocrystalline cells required continues to decrease. Bifacial cells absorb light from both sides of the panel
and in the right location and conditions can produce up to 27% more energy than traditional monofacial panels. Bifacial solar
panels typically use a glass front and clear rear polymer backsheet to encapsulate the cells which allows reflected light to enter
from the rear side of the panel. Bifacial modules can also use a glass rear side which lasts longer and can significantly reduce
the risk of failure, with some manufacturers now offering 30 year performance warranties on bifacial panel models.

Bifacial solar modules also absorb reflected light energy on the rear side of the cells - Image credit LG energy

Traditionally bi-facial solar panels were only used in ground mounted installations in unique locations where the sunlight is
easily bounced or reflected off the surrounding surfaces, in particular snow-prone regions and extreme latitudes. Although they
have been proven to work well when ground mounted over light sandy surfaces and are also able to achieve up to 10% higher
output even on light coloured rooftops when tilted. Manufacturers producing bifacial solar panels include LG energy, Trina
solar, Jinko Solar and Yingli Solar.

Dual Glass Panels

LONGi solar dual glass panels with 30yr warranty

Many manufacturers are now producing what is known as glass-glass, dual glass or double glass solar panels which should
not be confused with bifacial technology. The rear glass replaces the traditional white EVA (plastic) backsheet and creates a
glass-glass sandwich which is considered superior as glass is very stable, non reactive and does not deteriorate over time or
suffer from UV degradation. Due to the longer life of glass-glass panels some manufacturers such as Trina solar are now
offering 30 year performance warranties.

Frameless Panels
Many double glass panels are also frameless having no aluminium frame which can complicate the mounting of panels as
special clamping systems are required. However, frameless modules offer several advantages especially in regards to cleaning,
with no frame to catch dirt and dust the frameless modules when tilted or flat are much easier to clean and are more inclined to
aid from wind and rain to self-clean which results in greater solar output. However without the strength of an aluminium frame
double glass panels, although more durable, are not as stiff and can appear to flex or bow, especially when mounted flat or
horizontal.

Manufacturers producing dual glass solar panels include Jinko solar, LONGi Solar, Trina Solar, Yingli Solar and JA solar.

Smart Panels And Power Optimisers

The add-on Tigo DC power optimiser

A technology which is becoming more popular is the addition of DC power optimisers within the solar panel. Optimisers along
with micro-inverters are generally known as MLPE or Module Level Power Electronics, which as the name suggests consists
of small power conversion units attached directly to individual solar panels. DC Optimisers are designed to supply the
optimum voltage for maximum power generation. If a panel is shaded, dirty or under performing resulting in low voltage or
current, optimisers can compensate for the poor performing panel to provide the optimum voltage to the inverter.

Power optimisers are available from Tigo, SolarEdge and more recently Huawei. Both SolarEdge and Tigo have developed
panels with inbuilt optimisers at the junction box on the rear side of the panel. SolarEdge differs to Tigo and Huawei in that the
SolarEdge optimisers must be used together with the SolarEdge inverters, while the Tigo and Huawei optimisers can be be
attached to any existing panels as an add-on optimiser. See full Tigo optimiser details here.

SolarEdge DC Power Optimisers

A big advantage of 'add-on' optimisers such as those from Tigo and SolarEdge is the ability to monitor the performance of
each solar panel individually, this can also help highlight any faults and issues in a solar array. Micro-Inverters also offer this
advantage over common string inverters.

Maxim Integrated went one step further and developed submodule optimiser chips. These smart chips from Maxim go beyond
the traditional add-on optimiser and separate the panel into 3 strings of cells which enables the panel to operate at the optimum
MPPT voltage when partially shaded or dirty. It is worth noting that some installers have reported customers having RFI
interference issues (TV & radio) using this new technology however the next generation Maxim chips are claimed to have
resolved the RFI problem.

Shingled Cells
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SunPower P series Shingled solar panels

Shingled cells are an emerging technology which use overlapping thin cell strips that can be assembled either horizontally or
vertically across the panel. Shingled cell are made by laser cutting a normal full size cell in to 5 or 6 strips and layering them in
a shingle configuration using rear side connection adhesive. The slight overlap of each cell strip hides a single busbar which
interconnects the cell strips. This unique design covers more of the panel surface area as it doesn’t require front side busbar
connections which partially shade the cell, thus increaseing the panel efficiency much like IBC cells explained below.

Seraphrim Eclipse uses the horizontal shingles cell format.

Another benefit is that the long shingled cells are usually connected in parallel which greatly reduces the effects of shading
with each long cell effectively working independently. Also shingled cells are relatively cheap to manufacture so they can be a
very cost effective high performance option, especially if partial shading is an issue.

Seraphim were one of the first manufacturers to release shingled cell modules with there high performance Eclipse range of
panels. The SunPower P series are a more recent addition to the SunPower range offering a lower cost option primarily for
large scale applications. Other manufacturers producing shingled cell solar panels include Yingli Solar and Znshine.

SunPower P19 series panels uses the verticle shingled cell format up to 405Wp.

Panel And Cell Strength

Along with the many cell advancements to improve efficiency there are also new technologies to increase reliability and
performance over the expected 25 year life of a solar module. Solar panels can be put under extreme stress due to wind lift
forces, vibrations, extreme heat and freezing cold causing expansion and contraction. These can develop micro-cracks, hot
spots and PID (potential induced degradation) within the cells leading to reduced performance and accelerated failure.
Manufacturers such as Winaico and LG, and the Q.Peak DUO panels from Qcells have extremely strong aluminium frames to
help reduce cell and module stresses in high wind locations that experience cyclonic weather.

IBC cells - High strength and durability

IBC silicon cells explained in detail below are not only more efficient but also much stronger than conventional cells as the rear
layers reinforce the whole cell and help prevent micro-cracking which can eventually lead to failure.

Sunpower use a high grade solid copper IBC rear foundation layer on their patented 'Maxeon' cell design along with a highly
reflective metal mirror like surface to reflect any light which passes through back into the cell. The rear side of the 'Maxeon'
IBC cell shown below is extremely tolerant to stress and bending unlike conventional cells which are relatively brittle in
comparison.
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The rear side of a Sunpower 'Maxeon' IBC cell showing the fine metal grid conductors which improves efficiency, helps reinforce the cell and prevents

micro-cracking.
High Effi ciency N-Type Solar Cells
While PERC and bifacial are the talk of the solar world the most efficient and reliable technology is still the N-type
monocrystalline cell. The first type of solar cell developed in 1954 by Bell labs used an N-type doped silicon wafer but over
time the more cost effective P-type silicon became the dominant cell type with over 80% of the global market in 2017 using P-
type cells. With high volume and low cost being the main driving factor behind P-type it is expected that N-type will become
more popular as the manufacturing costs reduce further and efficiency increases.
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SunPower IBC N-type cells with solid copper backing achieve ultra-high efficiencies over 22% - Image credit Sunpower Corp

IBC Cell Technology

IBC or Interdigitated Back Contact cells have a grid of 30 or more conductors integrated into the rear side of the cell, unlike
standard cells which typically have 4 to 6 large visible ribbon busbars and multiple fingers on the front side of the cell. The
most obvious problem with the more common front exposed busbar design is they partially shade the cell and reflect some of
the light photons which reduces efficiency, while IBC cells don't suffer this problem and as a bonus look much 'cleaner' with no
exposed busbars.

The most effi cient solar panels - IBC N-type

The world's most efficient and best performing solar panels are manufactured by SunPower and LG using IBC N-type
monocrystalline silicon cells and although they are the most expensive, they are without doubt the most reliable and highest
quality panels available.

 SunPower - Maxeon 3 - 22.6% efficiency

 LG energy - Neon R - 21.7% efficiency
The complete list of the most efficient solar panels in 2020.

For many the higher cost of the these premium N-type solar panels ($1 or more per W) is outweighed by the higher efficiency
which ranges from 20 to 22.6%, improved performance at higher temperatures and minimal light induced degradation (LID),
which means much higher energy yield over the life of the panel. The industry leading performance warranty is offered on both
the SunPower Maxeon 2 and 3 series panels of up to 92%. The LG Neon R and Neon 2 panels are also covered by a 25 year
product warranty and a new minimum 90 to 90.8% performance warranty after 25 years.

The LG Neon R solar modules with high efficiency IBC N-type cells - up to 375W (60 cell)

Heterojunction - HJT Cells

HJT solar cells use a base of common crystalline silicon with additional thin film layers of amorphous silicon on either side
forming what is known as a heterojunction. The different photovoltaic layers absorb light of different wavelengths and thus
boost overall cell efficiency. As opposed to the common P-N junction cells, the next-generation heterojunction cells have the
potential to dramatically boost increase efficiency with lab testing achieving cell efficiencies up to 26.5% when combined with
IBC technology.

Following the early HJT development work at UNSW and Sanyo, Panasonic created the efficient 'HIT' range of panels and
were the leaders in HJT cell technology for many years. However, REC group recently released the Alpha series panels which
use half-cut HJT cells combined with 16 micro busbars (16BB) to achieve an impressive 21.7% panel efficiency.
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Panasonic HiT (HJT) cell construction - Image credit Panasonic Corporation

SOLAR POWER INFORMATION FORUM

Panasonic developed the HIT cell using a high performance N-type silicon base to produce panels with an efficiency up to
20.0% and excellent high temperature performance. The N-type silicon cells also offer exceptional long term performance
guaranteeing 90.76% output after 25 years, the second highest available behind SunPower. See full specifications – Panasonic
HIT N335W.

The unique Panasonic HIT panels are only available in Japan and North America, but unfortunately the are not available in
Australia. Considering the high average temperatures in Australia they would be a great choice for rooftops and large scale
commercial applications… hint!

HJT cells offer the best high temperature performance

The new REC Alpha series with half-cut HJT cells

The most impressive characteristic of HJT cells is the incredibly low temperature coefficient which is around a 40%
improvement over common multi and mono silicon crystalline cells. Solar panel power is rated under Standard Test Conditions
(STC) which is measured at a cell temperature of 25°C. Every degree above the STC temperature reduces power output by a
small percentage known as the power temperature coefficient. In common multi and mono cells, the temperature coefficient
is 0.38% to 0.42% per °C which can add up to reduce total output by up to 20% during very hot windless days. In comparison
Panasonic's HIT cells have an very low 0.26%/°C temperature coefficient which is the lowest of any cell manufactured today.

Note: panel and cell temperature is also effected by roof color, tilt angle and wind speed, so mounting panels flat on a very
dark rooftop will usually reduce panel performance compared to lighter colored rooftops.
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More information

How are solar panels made?

Solar panels are made using a series of PV cells protected by glass, EVA and a protective back sheet housed in a tough
aluminium frame. The components must be engineered to withstand years of extreme weather temperatures and high wind
forces. Here we explain each component in detail and why it is vital to the long term performance of a solar panel.

How Are Solar Cells Made?

Monocrystalline silicon ingots made using the common Czochralski process.

Solar photovoltaic cells, or PV cells are made using silicon crystalline wafers which are similar to the wafers used to make
computer processors. The silicon wafers can be either polycrystalline or monocrystalline and are produced using several
different manufacturing methods. The most efficient type is monocrystalline (mono) which are manufactured using the well
known Czochralski process. This process is more energy intensive compared to polycrystalline (poly) and therefore more
expensive to produce.

Polycrystalline wafers on the other hand, are slightly less efficient and are made using several purification processes followed
by a simpler, lower cost, casting method. More recently, cast monocrystalline or cast mono cells have been gaining in
popularity. The reason is due to the lower-cost casting process used to make cast mono cells which is similar to the process
used for polycrystalline silicon cells. However, cast-mono wafers are not quite as efficient and pure mono wafers made using
the Czochralski process.

 Monocrystalline silicon cells - Highest efficiency and highest cost

 Cast monosilicon cells - High efficiency and lower cost
 Polycrystalline silicon cells - Lower efficiency and lowest cost

Manufacturing Crystalline Silicon Cells

First, silicon is extracted from sand, but not just any sand. The sand used, known as silica sand or silicon dioxide, is usually
made from crushed quartz rock. The silica sand must then be purified using a process called Carbon Arc Welding (CAW)
which extracts the unwanted oxygen and results in 99% pure silica. The silica is then further processed to become as close to
100% pure silicon. The end result is very pure polycrystalline silicon which can be doped with trace amounts of either boron or
phosphorous to become either P-type or N-type silicon. At this stage the polycrystalline silicon can be melted and cast into a
large rectangular blocks and thinly sliced using a diamond wire cutting method to produce the polycrystalline or
multicrystalline wafers.

To manufacture the more efficient monocrystalline wafer or cells, the doped silicon can be made into a pure solid crystal ingot
using the Czochralski process. This process involves melting the polycrystalline silicon under high pressure and temperature to
slowly grow a single monocrystalline crystal known as an ingot.
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The basic materials and steps involved in making a monocrystalline silicon solar cell - Click to enlarge

Steps to manufacture monocrystalline PV cells

1. Silica sand is purified to 99% silicon using the CAW process
2. The 99% silicon is further refined close to 100% pure silicon
3. The silicon is doped with boron or phosphorous (P or N type)
4. The doped silicon is melted and extracted into a single ingot
5. The round ingot is diamond wire-cut into thin square wafers
6. The thin wafers are coated with a thin layer of either P or N-type to form the PN-junction
7. Fine metallic fingers are screen printed onto the cells
8. Flat ribbon busbars (as shown) or thin wire (MBB) busbars are added