​ NAME: ANBARASAN R

REG. NO: 18BEM0142

SUBJECT: ​Renewable Energy Sources
DA1
3)Describe the principal and operation of various types of collectors
TYPES OF COLLECTORS
1)Non- concentrating or stationary
1. Flat plate collector (FPC)
○ The flat-plate solar collector is the heart of any solar energy collection system
designed for operation in the low-temperature range or in the medium
temperature range
○ It is used to absorb solar energy, convert it into heat, and then to transfer that
heat to a stream of liquid or gas
○ It absorbs both the beam and the diffuse radiation and is usually planted on the
top of a building or other structures
○ It does not require tracking of the sun and requires little maintenance
○ Here the collector area and the absorber area are numerically the same, the
efficiency is low and temperatures of the working fluid can be raised only up
to 100°C

○
○ A metallic flat absorber plate: The absorber plate is of high thermal
conductivity made of copper, steel, or aluminum and has a black surface. The
thickness of the metal sheet ranges from 0.5 to 1.0 mm.
○ Tubes or channels: Tubes or channels are soldered to the absorber plate. Water
flowing through these tubes takes away the heat from the absorber plate. The
diameter of tubes is around 1.25 cm while that of the header pipe which leads
water in and out of the collector and distributes it to absorber tubes is 2.5 cm
 ○ Transparent glass cover: A transparent toughened sheet of 5 mm thickness is
provided as the cover plate. It reduces convection losses through a stagnant air
layer between the absorber plate and the glass. Radiation losses are also
reduced as the spectral transmissivity of glass is such that it is transparent to
shortwave radiation and nearly
○ opaque to longwave thermal radiation emitted by interior collector walls and
absorbing plate
○ Insulation: Fiberglass insulation of thickness 2.5 to 8.0 cm is provided at the
bottom and on the sides in order to minimize heat loss
○ Enclosure: A container encloses the whole assembly in a box made of metallic
sheets or fiberglass. It can be tilted at a suitable angle.
■
2. Stationary compound parabolic collector (CPC)

○ CPC are non-imaging concentrators.

○ These have the capability of reflecting the absorber all of the incident radiation
within wide limits.
○ Their potential as collectors of solar energy was pointed out by Winston.
○ The necessity of moving the concentrator to accommodate the changing solar
orientation can be reduced by using a trough with two sections of a parabola
facing each other, as shown in Figure.
○ The absorber can take a variety of configurations. It can be cylindrical (as
shown in Fig) or flat.
○ The lower portion of the reflector (AB and AC) is circular, while the upper
portions (BD and CE) are parabolic
○ By using multiple internal reflections, any radiation that is entering the
aperture, within the collector acceptance angle, finds its way to the absorber
surface located at the bottom of the collector.
○ Compound parabolic concentrators can accept incoming radiation over a
relatively wide range of angles.
○ CPCs are usually covered with glass to avoid dust and other materials from
entering the collector and thus reducing the reflectivity of its walls.
○ As the upper part of a CPC contributes little to the radiation reaching the
absorber, they are usually truncated thus forming a shorter version of the CPC,
which is also cheaper.
○ The acceptance angle is defined as the angle through which a source of light
can be moved and still converge at the absorber.
○ The orientation of a CPC collector is related to its acceptance angle (θc,).
○ Also depending on the collector acceptance angle, the collector can be
stationary or tracking.
○ These collectors similar to flat-plate collectors should be fixed in a specific
acceptance angle based on its position, although some kinds of compound
parabolic collectors can track the sunlight.
○ For stationary CPC collectors mounted in this mode the minimum acceptance
angle is equal to 47°.
○ This angle covers the declination of the sun from summer to winter solstices
(2×23.5°).
○ In practice, bigger angles are used to enable the collector to collect diffuse
radiation at the expense of a lower concentration ratio.
○ Smaller (less than 3) concentration ratio CPCs are of greatest practical interest.
○ These are able to accept a large proportion of diffuse radiation incident on
their apertures and concentrate it without the need of tracking the sun
○ A CPC concentrator can be orientated with its long axis along either the
north-south or the east-west direction and its aperture is tilted directly towards
the equator at an angle equal to the local latitude.
○ When orientated along the north-south direction the collector must track the
sun by turning its axis so as to face the sun continuously.
○ As the acceptance angle of the concentrator along its long axis is wide,
seasonal tilt adjustment is not necessary.
○ It can also be stationary but radiation will only be received the hours when the
sun is within the collector acceptance angle.
 ○ When the concentrator is orientated with its long axis along the east-west
direction, with a little seasonal adjustment in tilt angle the collector is able to
catch the sun's rays effectively through its wide acceptance angle along its
long axis.
○ The minimum acceptance angle, in this case, should be equal to the maximum
incidence angle projected in a north-south vertical plane during the times
when output is needed from the collector.
3. Evacuated tube collector (ETC)
 ○ Conventional simple flat-plate solar collectors were developed for use in
sunny and warm climates.
○ Their benefits however are greatly reduced when conditions become
unfavorable during cold, cloudy and windy days.
○ Furthermore, weathering influences such as condensation and moisture will
cause early deterioration of internal materials resulting in reduced
performance and system failure.
○ Evacuated heat pipe solar collectors (tubes) operate differently than the other
collectors available on the market.
○ These solar collectors consist of a heat pipe inside a vacuum-sealed tube.
○ In this cycle, solar heat evaporates the liquid, and the vapor travels to the heat
sink region where it condenses and releases its latent heat.
○ The condensed fluid returns back to the solar collector and the process is
repeated.
○ When these tubes are mounted, the metal tips up, into a heat exchanger
(manifold) .
○ Water, or glycol, flows through the manifold and picks up the heat from the
tubes.
○ The heated liquid circulates through another heat exchanger and gives off its
heat to a processor to water that is stored in a solar storage tank.
○ Because no evaporation or condensation above the phase-change temperature
is possible, the heat pipe offers inherent protection from freezing and
overheating.
○ This self-limiting temperature control is a unique feature of the evacuated heat
pipe collector.
○ ETC basically consist of a heat pipe inside a vacuum-sealed tube. A large
number of variations of the absorber shape of ETC are on the market.
○ Evacuated tubes with CPC-reflectors are also commercialized by several
manufacturers.
○ One manufacturer recently presented an all-glass ETC, which may be an
important step to cost reduction and increase of lifetime.

2)Concentrating type or sun-tracking collectors

● Parabolic trough collector

○ This type of collector collects the solar radiation coming from a particular
direction over the area of the reflecting surface and concentrates at the focus
of the parabola. When the reflector is manufactured in the form of a trough
with a parabolic cross-section, the solar radiation gets focused along a line.
Parabolic trough reflectors are usually made of highly polished aluminium or
silvered glass or of a film of aluminized plastic on a firm base. The reflector
may be of continuous form or a number of line flat mirror strips can be placed
on a parabolic base. Cylindrical parabolic concentrators are mostly used in
practice. Here, the collector pipe is used as an absorber preferably with a
selective coating and it is placed along the focus axis.
○ In focussing the solar radiation on a line, with respect to changes in suns
elevation by the parabolic trough reflector, either the trough or collector pipe
is to be rotated continuously
○
● Linear Fresnel reflector (LFR)

○ It is also a line focussing type collector. In this type, the focussing is achieved
by using a Fresnel lens where refraction takes place. The Fresnel lens is made
flat on one side and on the other side, fine longitudinal grooves are kept. The
angles of these grooves are made in such a manner that solar radiation can be
focused on a line. A typical Fresnel lens which is usually used is having an
overall length of about 4.7 m and a width of about 0.05m. It is usually made of
extruded acrylic plastic sheets
● Parabolic dish

○ The earlier mentioned collectors are considered under line focusing type. The
paraboloid dish collector is of point focusing type. In the line focusing type,
the receiver is placed at the focus, i.e. along the focal line. But for point
focusing type, the receiver is placed at the focus point of the concentrator. A
dish of 6 m in diameter is made from about 200 curved mirror segments
forming a Paraboloidal surface. The absorber is a cavity made of a
Zirconium-copper alloy. Black chrome is used as a selective coating. The
absorber is placed at the focus. In this case, the tracking system is provided to
track the sun automatically for all times. These collectors can have
concentration ratios ranging from 100 to a few 1000. About 2000°C
temperature can be achieved by this collector
○
● Central receiver

● For extremely high inputs of radiant energy, a multiplicity of flat mirrors, or

heliostats, using altazimuth mounts, can be used to reflect their incident direct solar
radiation onto a common target. (as shown in Figure).
● This is called the heliostat field or central receiver collector.
● By using slightly concave mirror segments on the heliostats, large amounts of thermal
energy can be directed into the cavity of a steam generator to produce steam at high
temperature and pressure
● The concentrated heat energy absorbed by the receiver is transferred to a circulating
fluid that can be stored and later used to produce power. The heliostats collect and
concentrate sunlight onto the receiver, which absorbs the concentrated sunlight,
transferring its energy to a heat-transfer fluid.
● The heat-transport system, which consists primarily of pipes, pumps, and valves,
directs the transfer fluid in a closed-loop between the receiver, storage, and
power-conversion systems.
● A thermal-storage system typically stores the collected energy as sensible heat for
later delivery to the power-conversion system.
 ● The storage system also decouples the collection of solar energy from its conversion
to electricity.
● The power-conversion system consists of a steam generator, turbine generator, and
support equipment, which convert the thermal energy into electricity and supply it to
the utility grid.
● The average solar flux impinging on the receiver has values between 200 and 1000
kW/m2. This high flux allows working at relatively high temperatures of more than
1500 °C and to integrate thermal energy in more efficient cycles.
4)​Define the following:
Beam radiation
Solar radiation received on the earth’s surface without change in direction is called beam or
direct radiation
diffused radiation
The radiation received on a terrestrial surface from all parts of the skydome is known as
diffuse radiation
Surface azimuth angle
The surface azimuth angle is the angle made in the horizontal plane between the line due
south and the projection of normal ti the surface on the horizontal plane.
Solar azimuth angle
it is a horizontal angle measured from north to the horizontal plane between the line due
south and the projection of normal to the surface on the horizontal plane
Local clock time
it is normal local time
local apparent time.
LAT = LCT-4(standard time longitude -longitude of location)+ equation of time correction
5)How to use the solar thermal energy for pumping of water for your agricultural land. Give
its salient features.
The pumps used for the transport of the water are equipped with solar cells. The solar energy absorbed by the cells is
then converted into electrical energy via a generator which then feeds an electric motor driving the pump. Most of the
traditional pump systems mainly work with a diesel engine or with the local power grid. However, these two modes of
operations present disadvantages compared to solar pumps.

In many rural areas, especially in developing and emerging countries, the access to the electricity grid is not always
guaranteed. In this case, farmers cannot rely on the traditional irrigation system. Thus, using an independent and
alternative energy system can be a solution for the farmer to secure a safe power source and for the public grid to
avoid saturation.

Diesel pumps are slightly more efficient than AC powered pumps as they allow greater flexibility. However, one of
the main constraints is that this system relies on the fuel availability, added to a greater impact on the environment.
Diesel-driven pumps are cheaper than solar-powered pumps but the operating costs are quite high and depend heavily
on the diesel price. In solar-powered systems, it works the other way round, that is, although this system is relatively
expensive, the source of energy is free, therefore, after the amortization period, there are no longer operating costs.
Therefore, solar pumps turn out to be a viable long term investment​.​The installation of solar pumps in arid regions such as
in Africa, India and South America is also part of many development projects, aiming at increasing local farmers productivity and as
a consequence, improving their living conditions.

benifits

solar irrigation reduces the co2 emission

Solar irrigation can increase incomes dramatically, particularly for remote producers with
inconsistent access to electricity or fuel.

Pump irrigation reduces labor for water delivery.

By targeting water at a crop’s roots, drip irrigation can reduce weed and disease pressures,
and increase efficiency of chemical applications.

Drip irrigation significantly increases water use efficiency

6)
7. With the help of block diagram, explain the operation of stand-alone and grid interactive
SPS systems.
stand alone pv system

Stand-alone PV systems are used in areas that are not easily accessible or have no access to
an electric grid. A stand-alone system is independent of the electricity grid, with the energy
produced normally being stored in batteries. A typical stand-alone system would consist of a
PV module or modules, batteries, and a charge controller.An inverter may also be included in
the system to convert the direct current generated by the PV modules to the alternating
current form required by normal appliances. This system can satisfy both AC and DC needs

grid interactive SPS systems.I

In a grid-connected system, the electricity generated by the PV system can either be used
immediately (which is normal for systems installed in offices, other commercial buildings,
and industrial applications) or be sold to one of the electricity supply companies.
When the solar system is unable to provide the electricity required, power can be bought back
from the network.
In effect, the grid is acting as an energy storage system, which means the PV system does not
need to include battery storage

8)A small biogas plant is to be designed for a family of 6 adults. The house needs two lamps
of 100 watts each and runs for 4 hours a day. Find out the volume of cow dung required and
number of cows required. Assume the requirement of gas for cooking is 0.2 m3/person/day.
The gas requirement for lights is 0.125 m3/lamp hour. Each one produces 10 kg dung/day
and collectable is 75% only. Dry mass in cow dung is 20%. The slurry density is 1100 kg/m3
when 1 kg dry dung in mixed with 1 kg of water. The digester slurry occupies is 90%
volume. Gas generation from the dry mass is 0.35 m3/kg/day.
9)
digester
The container in which this digestion takes place is called digester
Floating Drum Biogas Plants

Om 1956, Jashu Bhai J Patel from India designed the first floating drum biogas plant,
popularly called Gobar gas plant. Floating-drum plants consist of an underground digester
(cylindrical or dome-shaped) and a moving ​gas-holder​. The gas-holder floats either directly
on the fermentation slurry or in a water jacket of its own. The gas is collected in the gas
drum, which rises or moves down, according to the amount of gas stored. The gas drum is
prevented from tilting by a guiding frame. When biogas is produced, the drum moves up and
when it is consumed, the drum goes down.
If the drum floats in a water jacket, it cannot get stuck, even in substrate with high solid
content. After the introduction of cheap Fixed-dome Chinese model, the floating drum plants
became obsolete as they have high investment and maintenance cost along with other design
weakness
In the past, floating-drum plants were mainly built in India. They are chiefly used for
digesting animal and human feces on a continuous-feed mode of operation, i.e. with daily
input. They are used most frequently by small to middle-sized farms (digester size: 5-15m​3​)
or in institutions and larger agro-industrial estates (digester size: 20-100m​3​)​.
Disadvantages​: The steel drum is relatively expensive and maintenance-intensive. Removing
rust and painting has to be carried out regularly. The life-time of the drum is short (up to 15
years; in tropical coastal regions about five years). If fibrous substrates are used, the
gas-holder shows a tendency to get "stuck" in the resultant floating scum.

fixed dome digester

The digesters of fixed-dome plants are usually masonry structures, structures of cement and
ferro-cement exist. Main parameters for the choice of material are:
Technical suitability (stability, gas- and liquid tightness);cost-effectiveness; availability in the
region and transport costs; availability of local skills for working with the particular building
material.

Fixed dome plants produce just as much gas as floating-drum plants, if they are gas-tight.
However, utilization of the gas is less effective as the gas pressure fluctuates substantially.
Burners and other simple appliances cannot be set in an optimal way. If the gas is required at
constant pressure (e.g., for engines), a gas pressure regulator or a floating gas-holder is
necessary.

10) A Pelton wheel is working under a gross head of 400 m. The water is supplied through
penstock of diameter 1m and length 4 km from reservoir to the Pelton wheel. The co-efficient
of friction for the penstock is given as 0.008. The jet of water having diameter 150 mm
strikes the buckets of the wheel and gets deflected through an angle of 165°, The relative
velocity of water at outlet is reduced by 15% due to friction between inside surface of the
bucket and water. If the velocity of the buckets is 0.45 times the jet velocity at inlet and
mechanical efficiency as 85%, compute: (i) Draw velocity triangle at inlet and outlet (ii)
Power given to runner (iii) Shaft power (iv) Hydraulic efficiency and overall efficiency (v)
Rotor diameter.