Practical 1: Aim: Study of Different Types of Cables

Practical 1
Aim: Study of different types of cables.

Introduction
When two or more people want to share their resources through their own
PCs, a network has to be setup. A very common network that most offices and
schools are using is the Ethernet Network. In order to build the network, network
cables, network interface card or hubs/routers will be used.
Make a network cable

Computers can be connected by means of co-axial cables or RJ-45 cables
(as shown in the figure). Since in most
offices use R”J-45 cables in building their
connections, so we will not go in detail on
co-axial cables here.
When connecting only two computers

or two hubs, the RJ-45 crossover cable will
be used. The RJ-45 straight-through cables
will be used between computers and the hub
or router.
Numbering of the pins:
Hold up the cable as shown in the figure. The left most

pin is ‘pin 1’ and the right most pin is ‘pin 8’.
Modasa Government Engineering College

Color of the pairs of wires inside the cable:
There are four twisted pairs with Pair 1 as Blue, Pair 2 as Orange, Pair 3 as Green
and Pair 4 as Brown. Colors are always shown with the Base Color first, then the
Stripe Color.
Straight-through Cabling:
In a straight-through cable, the colored wires are in the same sequence at both
ends of the cable. The coloring standard may be different from different
manufacturers. One of the most commonly used standards is as follow:
Pin 1 White/Orange
Pin 2 Orange/White
Pin 3 White/Green
Pin 4 Blue/White
Pin 5 White/Blue
Pin 6 Green/White
Pin 7 White/Green
Pin 8 Brown/White
Crossover Cable:
In a crossover cable, the first (Pin 1) and second (Pin 2) coloured wire at one end
of the cable is connected to the third (Pin 3) and sixth (Pin 6) coloured wire at the
other end respectively.
One End the

Other End
Pin 1 White/Orange Pin 1

White/Green
Pin 2 Orange/White Pin 2 Green/White

Pin 3 White/Green Pin 3 White/Orange
Pin 6 Green/White Pin 6 Orange/White
LAN Cable Tester can be used to test the correct wiring of the cables.
Connection of Computers:
When computers are to be connected to share resources,

there are various ways of connections. But before
connecting, the network interface card must be installed
first.
Connecting only two computers:
When only two computers are to be connected, a crossover connection cable

should be used.

Connecting more than two computers:
When more than two computers are to be connected, hubs or routers will be the
choice.
In this case, straight through connection cables will be used.
Network Cable Installation
For some networks, cabling serves as bridges for computer networks.

There are various types of cables that assist computers with communication
among each other. The Technical Division networks operate off unshielded
twisted pair (UTP) category five cables. This transfers data up to one hundred

megabits per second. The quality of UTP may vary from telephone-grade wire
to extremely high-speed cable. The cable has four pairs of wires inside the jacket.
Each pair is twisted with a different number of twists per inch to help eliminate
interference from adjacent pairs and other electrical devices. The tighter the cable
is twist, the higher the supported transmission rate and the greater the cost per
foot. (Cabling) The standard connector for unshielded twisted pair cabling is an
RJ-45 (Registered Jack) connector.
When installing cable one should always use more cable than is expected
and be sure to leave plenty of slack. Frequent tests for network connections are
expected after each setup is complete. To prevent cable damage, those that are
installed in ceilings should be at least three feet from florescent lights or any
other source of electrical interference. Cable ties opposed to tape should be used
to keep order to groups of cable.
Categories of Unshielded Twisted Pair
Type Use
Category 1 Voice Only (Telephone Wire)
Category 2 Data to 4 Mbps (Local Talk)
Category 3 Data to 10 Mbps (Ethernet)
Category 4 Data to 20 Mbps (16 Mbps Token Ring)
Category 5 Data to 100 Mbps (Fast Ethernet)
 Coaxial cable:
o Coaxial cable, called “coax” for short, was the cable of choice for
Ethernet networks throughout the 1970s and 1980s.
o Coaxial cable consists of a central copper core that carries data. It is
surrounded by plastic insulation, braided metal shielding, and an

outer jacket. Because it has a lot of shielding, it has a lot of
resistance to noise.
o It has major drawbacks:
 It is expensive.
 It is thick and inflexible.
o It comes in two varieties:

 Thicknet is 1 cm thick and the original Ethernet medium.
 Thinnet is .64 cm thick which made it more flexible and easier
to install.
Thicknet on left; Thinnet in middle
 Twisted-pair cable:

o Twisted-pair cable consists of color-coded pairs of insulated wires.
Every two pairs wrap around each other to form pairs and all of the
pairs are encased in a plastic cover.
 Pairs of wires carry signals in opposite directions, so that the
two magnetic fields also occur in opposite directions and
cancel each other out. This process is known as cancellation.
 The more twists per foot or meter, the more resistant the pair
will be to crosstalk. The number of twists per foot is known
as the twist ratio.
 High twist ratios indicate higher quality and lead to more
attenuation.
 All twisted-pair cable falls into one of two categories: STP
(shielded twisted pair) or UTP (unshielded twisted pair).
o Shielded twisted-pair (STP) cable consists of twisted pair wires that

are not only individually insulated, but also surrounded by a shielded
made of a metallic substance such as foil.
Shielded twisted-pair cable; notice the foil
o Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cabling consists of one or more

insulated wire pairs. There is no additional shielding for the twisted
pairs.

Unshielded twisted-pair cable
 UTP is less expensive and less resistant to noise.
 Categories of UTP:
• Cat 1 – used for telephone communication
• Cat 2 – transmits up to 4 Mbps
• Cat 3 – transmits data up to 10 Mbps; used in both
Ethernet or Token Ring
• Cat 4 – transmits data up to 16 Mbps; used in both
Ethernet or Token Ring
• Cat 5 – transmits data up to 100 Mbps; used by
Ethernet
• Cat 5e – higher grade of Cat5; transmit data up to 1000
Mbps; used by Ethernet
• Cat 6 – transmit data up to 1000 Mbps; additional foil
insulation to protect against noise; used by Ethernet
• Cat 7 – in development
 Fiber-optic cable:
o Fiber-optic cable has a core of several glass or plastic fibers. Data
is transmitted via pulsing light sent from a laser through the central
fibers.
 Surrounding the fiber is a layer of more dense glass known as
cladding which reflects light back to the core.

 Ethernet Implementations:
10Base-5 10Base-2
– developed in 1980 – developed in 1985
– 10 represents max throughput of 10 – 10 represents max throughput of 10

Mbps Mbps
– Base represents baseband – Base represents baseband

transmission transmission
– 5 represents the 500 m max cable – 2 represents the 200 m max cable
length length
– Used Thicknet – Used Thinnet
10Base-T 100Base-T
– developed in 1990 – also known as “Fast Ethernet”
– 10 represents max throughput of 10 – 100 represents max throughput of

Mbps 100 Mbps
– Base represents baseband – Base represents baseband

transmission transmission
– T indicates twisted pair – T indicates twisted pair
– Uses Cat3 or higher – Uses Cat5
100Base-TX 1000Base-T

– T represents twisted pair – also known as “Gigabit Ethernet”
– X means it works in full-duplex – 1000 represents max throughput of

1000 Mbps
– Base represents baseband
transmission – Base represents baseband
transmission
– has 200 Mbps throughput
– T indicates twisted pair
– Uses Cat5
– Uses Cat5e or higher

Practical – 2
AIM: Study of OSI and TCP/IP Reference Model
THE OSI REFERENCE MODEL
This model is based on a proposal developed by the international standards

organization as a first step towards international standardization of the protocols
used in the various layers.
The model is called the ISO OSI (open system interconnection) reference
model because it deals with connecting open systems, i.e. systems that are open
for communication with other systems.
The OSI model has seven layers. The principals that were applied to arrive
at the seven layers can be briefly summarized as follows:
1. A layer should be created where a different abstraction is needed.

2. Each layer should perform well-defined functions.
3. The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye towards defining
internationally standardized protocols.
4. The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow
across the interface.

5. The number of layers should be large enough that distinct functions needed
not be thrown together in the same layer. Out of necessity and small
enough that the architecture does not become unwieldy.
Figure -1
1. The Physical Layer
The physical layer is concerned with transmitting row bits over a

communication channel. The design issue has to do with making sure that the
other side send a 1 bit, it is received by the other side as a 1 bit, not as a 0 bit.

Typical questions here are how many volts should be used to represent 1
and how many for a 0, how many nanoseconds a bit lasts, whether transactions
may processed simultaneously in both the directions, how the initial connection is
established and how it is turned down when both gides are finished, and how
many pins the network connector has and what each pin is used for.
2. The Data Link Layer
The main task of the data link layer is to transform a raw transmitting
facility into a line that appears free of undetected transmission errors to the
network layer. It accomplishes this task by having the sender break up the input
data into data frames and transmits the frames sequentially. If the service is
reliable, the receiver confirms correct receipt of each frame by sending bake an
acknowledgement frame. Another issue arises in the data link layer is how to keep
a fast transmitter from drowning a slow receiver in data.
3. The Network Layer
The network layer controls the operation of the subnet. A key designing
issue is determining how packets are routed from source to destination. Routes
can be based on the static tables that are “wired into” the network and rarely
changed. They can also be determined at the start of each conversation. Finally,
they can be highly dynamic, being determined a new for each packet, to reflect
the current network load.

If too many packets are present in the subnet at the same time, they will get in
one another’s way forming bottlenecks when a packet has to travel from one
network to another to get to its destination different from the first one.
In broadcast networks, the routing problem is dimple, so the network layer is often
thin or even nonexistent.
4. The Transport Layer
The basic function of the transport layer is to accept data from above, split
is up in smaller units if needed, pass this to network layer and ensure that all the
pieces arrive correctly at the other end. Furthermore, all this must be done
efficiently and in a way that isolates the upper layer from the in evitable changes
in the hardware technology.
The difference between layer 1 and 3, which are chained, and layers 4
through 7, which are end to end, is illustrated in the figure.
5 The Session Layer
The session layer allows user on different machines to establish sessions

between them. Sessions offer various services, including dialog control, token
management and synchronization.
6 The Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information transmitted. In order to possible for computers with different data
representations to communicate, the data structures to exchange can be

defined is an abstract way, along with standard encoding to the used “on the
wire”. The presentation layer manages these abstract data structure and
allows higher level data structure to be defined to and exchanged.
7. The Application Layer
The application layer contains a variety of protocols that are commonly

needed by user. One widely used protocol is HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol),
which is the base of World Wide Web. When the browser wants a web page, it
sends a page name to the server using HTTP. The server then sends the page
back. Other application protocols are used for file transfer, electronic mail and
network news.
The TCP/IP Reference Model
Let us now turn from the OSI reference model to the reference model used
in the grandparent of all wide area computer networks, the ARPANET and its
successor, the worldwide internet. Although we will give a brief history of
ARPANET later, it is useful to mention some of the key factors of it now. The
ARPANET was a research network sponsored by the DoD.
Thus, the ability to connect multiple networks in a seamless way was one of
the major design goals from the very beginning. This architecture later becomes
known as TCP/IP reference model, after its two primary protocols. It was first
defined in (cert. and Khan, 1974). A layer perspective is given in C leinternals.
1985. The design philosophy (Clark 1988).it has 4 layers.

1. The Internet Layer
All these requirements led to the choice of a packet-switching network

based on a connection less inter-network layer. This layer, called the internet
layer, linchpin that holds the whole architecture together. Its job is to permit hosts
to inject packets into any network and have them travel independently to the
destination.
The internet layer defines the official packet format and protocol called IP
(Internet Protocol). The job of the internet layer is to deliver IP packets where they
are supposed to go. Packet routing is clearly the major issue here, as is avoiding
congestion. For these reasons, it is reasonable to say that TCP/IP internet layer is
similar in functionally to the OSI network layer. Figure (a) shows this
correspondence.
2. Transport Layer

The layer above the internet layer in the TCP/IP model is now usually called
the transport layer. It is designed to allow peer entities on the source and
destination hosts to carry on a conversation, just as in the OSI transport layer.
Two and to end transport protocols have been defined here. The first one
transmission control protocol is a reliable connection-oriented protocol that
allows a byte stream originating on a one machine to be delivered without
error on any other machine in internet.
The second protocol in this layer user datagram protocol is an unreliable

connection less protocol for applications that do not want TCPs sequencing or flow
control and wish to provide their own. It is widely used for one shot client server
type request reply queries and applications in which prompt delivery is more
important than accurate delivery such as transmitting speech or video. The
relation of IP, TCP and UDP is shown in figure (b). Since the model was developed,
IP has been implemented on many other networks.
3. The application Layer
The TCP/IP model does not have session or presentation layer. No need for
them was perceived so they were not included. Experience with the OSI model has
proven this view correct. They are of little use to most application.
On top of the transport layer is application layer. It contains all the higher
level protocols. The early once included virtual terminal (telnet), file transfer (FTP)
and electronic mail (SMTP) as shown in figure (b). The virtual terminal protocol
allows a user on one machine to logon to a distance machine and work there. The
file transfer protocol provides a way to move data efficiently from one machine to
another. Email was original was just a kind of file transfer, but later a specialized
protocol (SMTP) was developed for it, many other protocols have been added to
this over the years. The domain name system (DNS) for mapping host names onto
their network addresses, MNTP, the protocol for moving use-net news articles

around and HTTP, the protocol fetching pages on the world wide web and many
others.
4. The Host to Network Layer
Below the internet layer is a great void. The TCP/P reference model does
not really say much about what happens here accept to point out that host has to
connect to network using some protocol, so it can send IP packets to it.
This protocol is not defined and varies from host to host and network to
network. Books and papers about TCP/IP model rarely discuss it.

Practical 3
Aim:To Implement LAN Using Ethernet Technology With Star

Topology.
History
Ethernet was originally developed at Xerox PARC in 1973–1975. Robert

Metcalfe and David Boggs wrote and presented their "Draft Ethernet Overview"
before March 1974. In March 1974, R.Z. Bachrach wrote a memo to Metcalfe
and Boggs and their management, stating that "technically or conceptually there
is nothing new in your proposal" and that "analysis would show that your system
would be a failure." This analysis was flawed in that it ignored the "channel
capture effect", though this was not understood until 1994. In 1975, Xerox filed a
patent application listing Metcalfe and Boggs, plus Chuck Thacker and Butler
Lampson, as inventors (U.S. Patent 4,063,220 : Multipoint data communication
system with collision detection). In 1976, after the system was deployed at
PARC, Metcalfe and Boggs published a seminal paper.
A 1990s Ethernet network interface card. This is a

combination card that supports both coaxial-based using a
10BASE2 (BNC connector, left) and twisted pair-based 10BASE-T,
using a RJ45 (8P8C modular connector, right).

Ethernet was originally based on the idea of computers communicating
over a shared coaxial cable acting as a broadcast transmission medium. The
methods used show some similarities to radio systems, although there are
fundamental differences, such as the fact that it is much easier to detect collisions
in a cable broadcast system than a radio broadcast. The common cable providing
the communication channel was likened to the ether and it was from this
reference that the name "Ethernet" was derived.
Above the physical layer, Ethernet stations communicate

by sending each other data packets, blocks of data that are
individually sent and delivered. As with other IEEE 802 LANs,
each Ethernet station is given a single 48-bit MAC address,
which is used both to specify the destination and the source of
each data packet. Network interface cards (NICs) or chips
normally do not accept packets addressed to other Ethernet
stations. Adapters generally come programmed with a globally
unique address, but this can be overridden, either to avoid an
address change when an adapter is replaced, or to use locally
administered addresses
CSMA/CD shared medium Ethernet
Ethernet originally used a shared coaxial cable (the shared medium)

winding around a building or campus to every attached machine. A scheme
known as carrier sense multiple accesses with collision detection (CSMA/CD)
governed the way the computers shared the channel. This scheme was simpler
than the competing token ring or token bus technologies. When a computer
wanted to send some information, it used the following algorithm:
Main procedure
1. Frame ready for transmission.

2. Is medium idle? If not, wait until it becomes ready and wait
the interframe gap period (9.6 µs in 10 Mbit/s Ethernet).

3. Start transmitting.
4. Did a collision occur? If so, go to collision detected
procedure.
5. Reset retransmission counters and end frame transmission.
Collision detected procedure
1. Continue transmission until minimum packet time is

reached (jam signal) to ensure that all receivers detect the
collision.
2. Increment retransmission counter.
3. Was the maximum number of transmission attempts
reached? If so, abort transmission.
4. Calculate and wait random backoff period based on number
of collisions.
5. Re-enter main procedure at stage 1.
The simplest form of Ethernet uses a passive bus operated at 10 Mbps. The bus is
formed from a 50 Ohm co-axial cable which connects all the computers in the
LAN. A single LAN may have up to 1024 attached systems, although in practice
most LANs have far fewer. One or more pieces of coaxial cable are joined end to
end to create the bus, known as an "Ethernet Cable Segment". Each segment is
terminated at both ends by 50 Ohm resistors (to prevent reflections from the
discontinuity at the end of the cable) and is also normally earthed at one end (for
electrical safety). Computers may attach to the cable using transceivers and
network interface cards.

An Ethernet LAN consisting of three computers joined by a shared coaxial cable
Frames of data are formed using a protocol called Medium Access Control
(MAC), and encoded using Manchester line encoding. Ethernet uses a simple
Carrier-Sense Multiple Access protocol with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) to
prevent two computers trying to transmit at the same time (or more correctly to
ensure both computers retransmit any frames which are corrupted by
simultaneous transmission).

100 Mbps networks may operate full duplex (using a Fast Ethernet Switch)
or half duplex (using a Fast Ethernet Hub). 1 Gbps networks usually operate
between a pair of Ethernet Switches. (N.B. It is not possible to have a dual-speed
hub, since a hub does not store and forward frames, however a number of
manufacturers sell products they call "dual-speed hubs". In fact, such devices
contain both a 10 Mbps and a 100 Mbps hubs, interconnected by a store-and-
forward bridge.)
Ethernet frame types
There are several types of Ethernet frames:
• The Ethernet Version 2 or Ethernet II frame, the so-called

DIX frame (named after DEC, Intel, and Xerox); this is the
most common today, as it is often used directly by the
Internet Protocol.
• Novell's non-standard variation of IEEE 802.3 ("raw 802.3
frame") without an IEEE 802.2 LLC header.
• IEEE 802.2 LLC frame
• IEEE 802.2 LLC/SNAP frame
In addition, Ethernet frames may optionally contain a IEEE 802.1Q tag to

identify what VLAN it belongs to and its IEEE 802.1p priority (quality of
service). This encapsulation is defined in the IEEE 802.3ac specification and
increases the maximum frame by 4 bytes to 1522 bytes.
The different frame types have different formats and MTU values, but can
coexist on the same physical medium.
The most common Ethernet Frame format, type II

Versions 1.0 and 2.0 of the Digital/Intel/Xerox (DIX) Ethernet
specification have a 16-bit sub-protocol label field called the EtherType. The
original IEEE 802.3 Ethernet specification replaced that with a 16-bit length
field, with the MAC header followed by an IEEE 802.2 logical link control
(LLC) header; the maximum length of a packet was 1500 bytes. The two formats
were eventually unified by the convention that values of that field between 0 and
1500 indicated the use of the original 802.3 Ethernet format with a length field,
while values of 1536 decimal (0600 hexadecimal) and greater indicated the use of
the DIX frame format with an EtherType sub-protocol identifier. This convention
allows software to determine whether a frame is an Ethernet II frame or an IEEE
802.3 frame, allowing the coexistence of both standards on the same physical
medium. See also Jumbo Frames.
SNAP (subnetwork access protocol)
By examining the 802.2 LLC header, it is possible to determine whether it

is followed by a SNAP (subnetwork access protocol) header. Some protocols,
particularly those designed for the OSI networking stack, operate directly on top
of 802.2 LLC, which provides both datagram and connection-oriented network
services. The LLC header includes two additional eight-bit address fields, called
service access points or SAPs in OSI terminology; when both source and
destination SAP are set to the value 0xAA, the SNAP service is requested. The
SNAP header allows EtherType values to be used with all IEEE 802 protocols, as
well as supporting private protocol ID spaces. In IEEE 802.3x-1997, the IEEE
Ethernet standard was changed to explicitly allow the use of the 16-bit field after
the MAC addresses to be used as a length field or a type field.
Novell's "raw" 802.3
Novell's "raw" 802.3 frame format was based on early IEEE 802.3 work.
Novell used this as a starting point to create the first implementation of its own
IPX Network Protocol over Ethernet. They did not use any LLC header but
started the IPX packet directly after the length field. This does not conform to the
IEEE 802.3 standard, but since IPX has always FF at the first two bytes (while in
IEEE 802.2 LLC that pattern is theoretically possible but extremely unlikely), in
practice this mostly coexists on the wire with other Ethernet implementations,

with the notable exception of some early forms of DECnet which got confused by
this.
Novell NetWare used this frame type by default until the mid nineties, and
since Netware was very widespread back then, while IP was not, at some point in
time most of the world's Ethernet traffic ran over "raw" 802.3 carrying IPX.
Since Netware 4.10, Netware now defaults to IEEE 802.2 with LLC (Netware
Frame Type Ethernet_802.2) when using IPX.
Mac OS
Mac OS uses 802.2/SNAP framing for the AppleTalk V2 protocol suite on

Ethernet ("EtherTalk") and Ethernet II framing for TCP/IP.
The 802.2 variants of Ethernet are not in widespread use on common

networks currently, with the exception of large corporate Netware installations
that have not yet migrated to Netware over IP. In the past, many corporate
networks supported 802.2 Ethernet to support transparent translating bridges
between Ethernet and IEEE 802.5 Token Ring or FDDI networks. The most
common framing type used today is Ethernet Version 2, as it is used by most
Internet Protocol-based networks, with its EtherType set to 0x0800 for IPv4 and
0x86DD for IPv6.
There exists an Internet standard for encapsulating IP version 4 traffic in

IEEE 802.2 frames with LLC/SNAP headers.[8] It is almost never implemented on
Ethernet (although it is used on FDDI and on token ring, IEEE 802.11, and other
IEEE 802 networks). IP traffic cannot be encapsulated in IEEE 802.2 LLC
frames without SNAP because, although there is an LLC protocol type for IP,
there is no LLC protocol type for ARP. IP Version 6 can also be transmitted over
Ethernet using IEEE 802.2 with LLC/SNAP, but, again, that's almost never used
(although LLC/SNAP encapsulation of IPv6 is used on IEEE 802 networks).
The IEEE 802.1Q tag, if present, is placed between the Source Address
and the EtherType or Length fields. The first two bytes of the tag are the Tag
Protocol Identifier (TPID) value of 0x8100. This is located in the same place as
the EtherType/Length field in untagged frames, so an EtherType value of 0x8100
means the frame is tagged, and the true EtherType/Length is located after the Q-
tag. The TPID is followed by two bytes containing the Tag Control Information

(TCI) (the IEEE 802.1p priority (quality of service) and VLAN id). The Q-tag is
followed by the rest of the frame, using one of the types described above.
Types of Ethernet
10Base5
Uses Thicknet coaxial cable which requires a transceiver

with a vampire tap to connect each computer. There is a drop
cable from the transceiver to the Attachment Unit Interface
(AIU). The AIU may be a DIX port on the network card. There is a
transceiver for each network card on the network. This type of
ethernet is subject to the 5-4-3 rule meaning there can be 5
network segments with 4 repeaters, and three of the segments
can be connected to computers. It uses bus topology. Maximum
segment length is 500 Meters with the maximum overall length
at 2500 meters. Minimum length between nodes is 2.5 meters.
Maximum nodes per segment is 100.
10Base2
Uses Thinnet coaxial cable. Uses a BNC connector and bus

topology requiring a terminator at each end of the cable. The
cable used is RG-58A/U or RG-58C/U with an impedance of 50
ohms. RG-58U is not acceptable. Uses the 5-4-3 rule meaning
there can be 5 network segments with 4 repeaters, and three of
the segments can be connected to computers. The maximum
length of one segment is 185 meters. Barrel connectors can be
used to link smaller pieces of cable on each segment, but each
barrel connector reduces signal quality. Minimum length
between nodes is 0.5 meters.
10BaseT

Uses Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cable. Uses star
topology. Shielded twisted pair (STP) is not part of the 10BaseT
specification. Not subject to the 5-4-3 rule. They can use
category 3, 4, or 5 cable, but perform best with category 5
cable. Category 3 is the minimum. Require only 2 pairs of wire.
Cables in ceilings and walls must be plenum rated. Maximum
segment length is 100 meters. Minimum length between nodes
is 2.5 meters. Maximum number of connected segments is 1024.
Maximum number of nodes per segment is 1 (star topology).
Uses RJ-45 connectors.
10BaseF
Uses Fiber Optic cable. Can have up to 1024 network

nodes. Maximum segment length is 2000 meters. Uses
specialized connectors for fiber optic. Includes three categories:
o 10BaseFL - Used to link computers in a LAN

environment, which is not commonly done due to high
cost.
o 10BaseFP - Used to link computers with passive hubs
to get cable distances up to 500 meters.
o 10BaseFB - Used as a backbone between hubs.
100BaseT
Also known as fast ethernet. Uses RJ-45 connectors.

Topology is star. Uses CSMA/CD media access. Minimum length
between nodes is 2.5 meters. Maximum number of connected
segments is 1024. Maximum number of nodes per segment is 1
(star topology). IEEE802.3 specification.
o 100BaseTX - Requires category 5 two pair cable.

Maximum distance is 100 meters.

o 100BaseT4 - Requires category 3 cable with 4 pair.
Maximum distance is 100 meters.
o 100BaseFX - Can use fiber optic to transmit up to
2000 meters. Requires two strands of fiber optic cable.
100VG
AnyLAN - Requires category 3 cable with 4 pair. Maximum

distance is 100 meters with cat 3 or 4 cable. Can reach 150
meters with cat 5 cable. Can use fiber optic to transmit up to
2000 meters. This ethernet type supports transmission of Token-
Ring network packets in addition to ethernet packets. IEEE
802.12 specification. Uses demand-priority media access
control. The topology is star. It uses a series of interlinked
cascading hubs. Uses RJ-45 connectors.
GIGA ETHERNET
History
The result of research done at Xerox Corporation in the early 1970s,

Ethernet has evolved into the most widely implemented physical and link layer
protocol today. Fast Ethernet increased speed from 10 to 100 megabits per
second (Mbit/s). Gigabit Ethernet was the next iteration, increasing the speed to
1000 Mbit/s. The initial standard for gigabit Ethernet was standardized by the
IEEE in June 1998 as IEEE 802.3z. 802.3z is commonly referred to as
1000BASE-X, where -X refers to either -CX, -SX, -LX, or (non-standard) -ZX.
IEEE 802.3ab, ratified in 1999, defines gigabit Ethernet transmission over

unshielded twisted pair (UTP) category 5, 5e, or 6 cabling and became known as
1000BASE-T. With the ratification of 802.3ab, gigabit Ethernet became a
desktop technology as organizations could utilize their existing copper cabling
infrastructure.

Initially, gigabit Ethernet was deployed in high-capacity backbone network
links (for instance, on a high-capacity campus network). In 2000, Apple's Power
Mac G4 and PowerBook G4 were the first mass produced personal computers
featuring the 1000BASE-T connection.[1] It quickly became a built-in feature in
many other computers.
Since that time, faster 10 gigabit Ethernet standards have become available
as the IEEE ratified a fiber-based standard in 2002, and a twisted pair standard in
2006.
Summary
There are four different physical layer standards for gigabit Ethernet using optical
fiber, twisted pair cable, or balanced copper cable.
The IEEE 802.3z standard includes 1000BASE-SX for transmission over multi-
mode fiber, 1000BASE-LX for transmission over single-mode fiber, and the
nearly obsolete 1000BASE-CX for transmission over balanced copper cabling.
These standards use 8B/10B encoding, which inflates the line rate by 25%, from
1000 Mbit/s to 1250 Mbit/s to ensure a DC balanced signal. The symbols are then
sent using NRZ.
IEEE 802.3ab, which defines the widely used 1000BASE-T interface type, uses a
different encoding scheme in order to keep the symbol rate as low as possible,
allowing transmission over twisted pair.
Ethernet in the First Mile later added 1000BASE-LX10 and -BX10.
name medium specifie

d
distance
1000BASE-T unshielded twisted pair 100
meters
1000BASE-SX multi-mode fiber 500
meters
1000BASE-LX single-mode fiber 2 km

1000BASE-LX10 single-mode fiber 10 km
1000BASE-BX10 single-mode fiber, over single-strand 10 km
fiber: 1490 nm downstream 1310 nm
upstream
1000BASE-CX balanced copper cabling 25
meters
1000BASE-ZX / single-mode fiber at 1550 nm ~ 70 km
1000BASE-LH wavelength
1000BASE-X
1000BASE-X is used in industry to refer to gigabit Ethernet transmission over

fiber, where options include 1000BASE-SX, -LX, -BX10, or the non-standard
-LH/-ZX implementations.
1000BASE-SX
1000BASE-SX is a fiber optic gigabit Ethernet standard for operation over

multi-mode fiber using a 850 nanometer, near infrared (NIR) light wavelength.
The standard specifies a distance capability between endpoints of 220 m over
62.5/125 µm fibre although in practice, with good quality fibre and terminations,
1000BASE-SX will usually work over significantly longer distances. Modern
50/125 µm fibres can reliably extend the signal to 500 m or more. This standard
is highly popular for intra-building links in large office buildings, co-location
facilities and carrier neutral internet exchanges. Typical optical power parameters
of SX interface: maximum mean output power = -5 dBm; stressed receiver
sensitivity = -14 dBm.
1000BASE-LX
1000BASE-LX is a fiber optic gigabit Ethernet standard which uses a long

wavelength laser (See IEEE 802.3 Clause 38), with a wavelength of 1270 to 1355
nm, and a maximum RMS spectral width of 4 nm. Typically, GbE lasers will be
specified as having a 1300 or 1310 nm wavelength.

1000BASE-LX is specified to work over a distance of up to 2 km over 9
µm single-mode fiber. In practice it will often operate correctly over a much
greater distance. Many manufacturers will guarantee operation up to 10 or 20 km,
provided that their equipment is used at both ends of the link. 1000BASE-LX can
also run over multi-mode fiber with a maximum segment length of 550 m. For
any link distance greater than 300 m, the use of a special launch conditioning
patch cord may be required. This launches the laser at a precise offset from the
center of the fiber which causes it to spread across the diameter of the fiber core,
reducing the effect known as differential mode delay which occurs when the laser
couples onto only a small number of available modes in multi-mode fiber.
1000BASE-ZX and 1000BASE-LH
1000BASE-ZX and 1000BASE-LH are non-standard but industry accepted

terms to refer to gigabit Ethernet transmission using 1550 nm wavelength to
achieve distances of at least 70 km over single-mode fiber.
1000BASE-BX10
This latest addition to the standard also includes the 1000-BASE-BX10

transmission over a single strand of fibre (which is itself single-mode fiber), with
one different wavelength going to each direction. The terminals on each side of
the fibre are not equal, as the one transmitting "downstream" (from the center of
the network to the outside) uses the 1490 nm wavelength, and the one
transmitting "upstream" uses the 1310 nm wavelength.
1000BASE-CX
1000BASE-CX is an initial standard for gigabit Ethernet connections over

copper cabling with maximum distances of 25 meters using balanced shielded
twisted pair. It is still used for specific applications where cabling is not done by
general users, for instance the IBM BladeCenter uses 1000BASE-CX for the
Ethernet connections between the blade servers and the switch modules.
1000BASE-T succeeded it for general copper wiring use.

1000BASE-T
1000BASE-T (also known as IEEE 802.3ab) is a standard for gigabit

Ethernet over copper wiring. It requires, at a minimum, Category 5 cable (the
same as 100BASE-TX), but Category 5e ("Category 5 enhanced") and Category
6 cable may also be used and are often recommended. 1000BASE-T requires all
four pairs to be present and is far less tolerant of poorly installed wiring than
100BASE-TX.
Each network segment can have a maximum distance of 100 meters.

Autonegotiation of speed and duplex is a requirement for using 1000BASE-T[2]
according to the standard. Several device drivers will allow you to force 1000
Mbit/s full duplex to eliminate autonegotiation issues.
1000BASE-T details
In a departure from both 10BASE-T and 100BASE-TX, 1000BASE-T uses

all four cable pairs for simultaneous transmission in both directions through the
use of echo cancellation and a 5-level pulse amplitude modulation (PAM-5)
technique. The symbol rate is identical to that of 100BASE-TX (125 Mbaud) and
the noise immunity of the 5-level signaling is also identical to that of the 3-level
signaling in 100BASE-TX, since 1000BASE-T uses 4-dimensional Trellis Coded
Modulation (TCM) to achieve a 6 dB coding gain across the 4 pairs.
The data is transmitted over four copper pairs, eight bits at a time. First,
eight bits of data are expanded into four 3-bit symbols through a non-trivial
scrambling procedure based on a linear feedback shift register; this is similar to
what is done in 100BASE-T2, but uses different parameters. The 3-bit symbols
are then mapped to voltage levels which vary continuously during transmission.
One example mapping is as follows:
Symb Line signal

ol level
000 0

001 +1
010 +2
011 -1
100 0
101 +1
110 -2
111 -1
Non-trivial DSP algorithms and processing power were involved with the
introduction of PAM-5, hence its delayed introduction after 802.3z.
1000BASE-TX
The Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) created and

promoted a version of 1000BASE-T that was simpler to implement, calling it
1000BASE-TX (TIA/EIA-854). The simplified design would, in theory, have
reduced the cost of the required electronics by only using two pairs in each
direction. However, the two-pair solution required Category 6 cable and has been
a commercial failure, likely due to the rapidly falling cost of 1000BASE-T
products combined with the Category 6 cable requirement. Many 1000BASE-T
products are advertised as 1000BASE-TX due to lack of knowledge that
1000BASE-TX is actually a different standard.
Practical 4

Aim: To study Amplitude Modulation and Amplitude
Demodulation and observe the wave-form.
Apparatus:
(1) ETB for AM and ADM
(2) Function generator
(3) CRO
(4) CRO probe
(5) Path Cards
Theory:
In the case of AM of carrier signal varied in proportion to the instances
amplitude of information signal. Amplitude of carrier signal changes but
frequency and phase don’t greater the amplitude, of information signal,
greater the functions in the amplitude of carrier signals.
The process of AM is shown graphically in figure 1(a) for the sake of

simplicity, the AF has been assumed sinusoidal, and the carrier signal by
which it is desired to transmit the AF signal is shown in figure 1(b). The
resulting wave is called modulated are in figure 1(c).
The function of modulator is to mix these two waves in such a way that (a)
is transmitted along with (b). All stations broadcasting on the standard
broadcast band (550-1550 KHz) use AM.
If you observe the envelope of the modulated carrier wave you will realize
that is an exact replica and AF signal.
In summary,
(1) Function in the amplitude of the carrier (signal) wave depends on
amplitude of its signal.
(2) Rate at which these fluctuations take places depends on the frequency of
audio signal.

Percent Modulation:
If m indicates the degree of which the AF signal modulated, the carrier
wave,
m= 100
m= 100
m= 100
The ratio is expressed as a function is called modulation index (μ).
So,
m=μ 100
Upper and Lower side Frequency:

An unmodulated carrier wave consists of only 1 signal frequency
component of frequency fc. It is combined with a modulating signal at
frequency fm, letrodying actions take place.
As a result additional frequency called side f is produced. The AM wave is

found consisting of 3 frequency components.
(1) The original carrier frequency (fc).
(2) A higher frequency component (fc + fm) called sum component.
(3) A lower frequency component (fc – fm) called difference component.

The two new frequencies are called upper and lower frequency and they
are symmetrically around the carrier frequency. The modulating frequency
remains unchanged, but not appears in amplifier output because amplifier’s
load presents partially zero independent to this low frequency.
There are shown in time-domain figure 2(a) and in frequency-domain in

figure 2(b). The amplitude of the side frequency depends on the value of m.
The amplitude of each side frequency = , Where A is amplitude of
modulating carrier wave.
Mathematical Analysis of a Modulated Carrier Wave:

The equation of an unmodulated carrier wave is,
ρc = Em sin 2πfct = A sin 2πfct = A sin ωt

Where, A = constant amplitude of the carrier wave and
ω = 2πfc
Let the equation of the signal-frequency sinusoidal modulation signal be,
em = Im sin 2πfmt
= β sin pt.
Where p = 2πfm, β = Im
Let the equation of the single-frequency sinusoidal modulation signal be,
em = Em sin 2πfmt
= β sin pt.
Where p = 2πfm, β = Em
As seen from figure (3), the amplitude of the modulated carrier wave at any
instance is,
= A + Em
= A + β sin pt

Hence the instantaneous value is given by,
e = (A + B sin pt) sin ωt
= A sin ωt + B sin pt · sin ωt
= A sin ωt + (B/2) (cos (ω – p) – cos (ω + p) t)
= A sin ωt + (B/2) cos 2π (fc – fm) t – (B/2) cos 2π (fc + fm) t
= A sin 2πfct + (B/2) (cos 2π (fc – fm) t – cos 2π (fc + fm) t)
As seen from figure 4,

m = B/A
And B = Am
e = A sin 2πfct + (mA/2) (cos 2π (fc – fm) t – cos 2π (fc + fm) t)
It is seen that the modulated wave contains B components:

(1) A sin 2πfct the original carrier wave.
(2) (mA/2) cos 2π (fc + fm) t upper side frequency.
(3) (mA/2) cos 2π (fc – fm) t lower side frequency.
These 3 frequencies are not a mathematical function but actually exist. In fact
with the help of a narrow band, after filter we can separate side frequency
from the carrier wave.
Procedure:
(1) Observe the carrier signal wave form on CRO.
(2) Observe the information signal wave form on CRO, available from
function generator.
(3) Apply carrier signal and information signal to amplitude modulator.
(4) Observe the amplitude modulated wave-form on the CRO.
(5) Calculate the value of Vmax and Vmin.
(6) Provide the output of amplitude modulator to input of demodulator to
observe the demodulated output on the CRO.
Observations:
Vmax = 2 volt
Vmin = 2 volt

Here,
M.I. = 100 %
= 100 %
= 100 %
M.I. = 100 %
Conclusion:
Here, the modulation index is 100 % by experiment.

Practical 5
Aim: To Study Sampling and Reconstruction Theorem.
Apparatus:
(1) ETB for Sampling and Reconstructing theorem.
(2) Function Generator.
(3) CRO.
(4) CRO probes.
(5) Patch Cards.
Theory:
Any real signal will be transmitted along same form of channel which will
have a finite bandwidth. As a result, received signal’s spectrum can not
contain any frequencies above some maximum values, however, the
spectrum obtain by using the Fourier method will be the characteristics of a

signal which repeats after the interval t. This means it can be described by a
spectrum which only contain the f; , 2 , 3 ,……… n , where n is the
largest integer which satisfies the inequality.
n ≤
As a consequence, we can specify everything we know about the signal

spectrum in terms of a dc level plus the amplitudes and phases of just N
frequencies i.e. all the information we have about the spectrum can be
specified by just 2N + 1 numbers. Given that no information was lost when
we calculated the spectrum can be specified by just 2N + 1. It immediately
follows that everything we know about the shape of the time domain signal
pattern could also be specified by just 2N + 1 values.

For a signal whose duration is T1 this means that we can respect all of the
signal information by measuring the signal level of 2N + 1 points equally
spaced along the signal waveform. If we put the first point at the start of the
message and the final one at the end that means each sampled point will be at
a distance (½) from its neighbors. This result is generally expressed in
terms of the “SAMPLING THEOREM”, which can be stated as:-

“If a continuous function contains number of frequency
higher than f (max) Hz, it is completely determined by
its values of a series of points less than (½) a
part.”
Consider a signal p{t} which is observed over the time interval 0≤ θ ≤
T and which we know can not contain any f above . We can sample this
q signal to obtain q series a values , which represent the signal level at the
instants, = , where i is an integer in the range 0 to k provided, that k ≥ 2N
where N is defined as above. We have satisfied the requirements of the

sampling theorem. The samples will then contain all of the information
present in the original signal and make up what is called complete record of
original.
In fact, the above statement, is a fairly ‘weak’ form of sampling theorem.

We can go on a striker form “ “if a continuous function only contains f
within above B Hz. It is completely determined by its value at a series of
points spaced less than seconds apart.

This form of sampling theorem can be seen the values of and for
low n (i.e. low values of 2π ) will be zero. This limits the number of spectral
components present in the signal just as upper limit means that there are
no components above . This situation illustrated in figure.
Procedure:
(1) Observe the sine wave to be sampled.
(2) Observe the sampled output.
(3) Change the frequency.
(4) Provide the output of sampling act to different reconstruction circuits.
(5) Vary the duty cycle and note the changes.
Conclusion:
“In order to convey faithfully all the information in a signal with a
bandwidth of N Hz only 2N samples per second n to be sent.”

Practical 6
Aim: To study the pulse Amplitude Modulation and

Demodulation.
Apparatus:
(1) CRO
(2) CRO Probe
(3) ETB for RAM and RAD
Theory:
Types of modulation:
(1) Continuous Wave Modulation:

Where, the carrier wave is a pure sinusoidal waveform. There are
various subtypes under this heading amplitude modeling frequency
modulation.
(2) Pulse Modulation:

Where, the carrier wave is in the form of pulse with constant pulse
repetition frequency. This can be further divided into the following:
(1) Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

(2) Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
(3) Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)
(4) Pulse Duration Modulation (PDM)
In the pulse modulation, the signal is replaced by a series of

pulses having a field duration and repetition frequency parameter of the
pulses are now varied to give various type of pulse modulation as listed
above.
• Pulse Amplitude Modulation:

Here the amplitude of pulses is varied according to modulating
modulation of continuous wave. The PAM waveform can be of two
types.
Some characteristics of the sampling pulses must be varied by the

modulating signal for the intelligence of signal to be present in the
pulsed wave figure shows 3 typical waveforms in which pulse
amplitude is varied by amplitude of the modulating signal view (A)
represent a sine wave of intelligence by modulated on a transmitted
carrier wave view (B) shows the timing pulse intervals. View (C)
shows pulse amplitude of each pulse is controlled by instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating signal at the time of each pulse.
Pulse amplitude modulation is the simplest form of pulse

modulation. It is generated in must modulation since this variation in
amplitude actually represents the signal this type of modulation is
basically a form of pulses. This means that PAM has same built in
weakness as any other AM signal high susceptibility to noise
transmission path will either add or subtract from any voltage already
in the act. Thus the amplitude of the signal will be changed. Since the
amplitude of voltage to signal is considered a SIGNAL
PESTROTION. Technique of pulse modulation other than PAM has
been developed of overcome problems of noise interface.

• Demodulation of PAM:
Here the above discussion we can conclude that the modulation
signal can be extracted from the PAM signal simply by a diode and a
low passes filter with it’s out of frequency ay FM.
Figure shows the effects of frequency of sampling pulses on the

uncovered modeling signals after demodulation. The recovered signal
pulses figure 4(b) which uses low frequency sampling pulses.
Experiment No: 1
To demonstrate sampling of a sine wave audio signal thereby converting at
into (PAM) pulse amplitude modulated signal.
Procedure:
Using connecting loads connect the output of sampling pulse generator to
input 1 of PAM modulator and o/p of modulating signal generator to input 2
of the PAM modulator.
Turn the toggle switch marked to “H” position and the potentiometer
marked “frequency” to completely anticlockwise position. Potentiometer
marked “level” under the modulating signal generator to fully clockwise
position.
Observe PAM signal at socket marked TB^3 (TB’s cube) on a CRO after
switching on main power to training board adjust level of modulating signal
so that the peaks of the sampling, pulses clearly makes outline of an end is
started as shown in figure.
Experiment No: 2

To demonstrate demodulation of PAM signals thereby recovering the sine
wave audio signal.
Procedure:
(1) In continuous with above experiment now connect the above of PAM
modulation to the input of PAM demodulation with a connecting load.
(2) Observe the o/p of PAM, demodulation at sockets marked “DEMO
OUTPUT” on CRO.
The recovered waveform will resemble with modulating signal.
Conclusion:
Thus, pulse amplitude modulation is one type of digital modulation in
which amplitude of pulse is varied in accordance with the modulating
waveform.

Practical 7
AIM: To study Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM).
Apparatus:
(1) ETB for FDM
(2) CRO
(3) CRO Probes
(4) Patch Cords
Theory:
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM):
FDM is used with both wire links and radio links. The idea of FDM is to
modulate the signals of the various users into carries at different frequency.
These modulated signals can then share the same path (wire, air, or vacuum)
and they occupy different parts and the overall electronic spectrum. Before
multiplexing they have the same shape and bandwidth, but each user signal is
centered, that is shown in figure (1).

In FDM, the type of modulation chosen can be amplitude, frequency or
phase. The use of the FDM doesn’t mean that frequency modulation of the
carrier is the only type permitted. The modulation chosen depends on the
overall requirements of the application. Standard broadcast radio is a common
example of this the AM band uses amplitude modulation in FDM scheme to
allow multiple stations in the 550 to 1600 KHz band; the FM band uses
frequency modulation to allow for many stations in the 88 to 108 MHz band.
In FDM, the total bandwidth required is equal to the sum of the individual
sum of the individual b/w plus any guard bands that are required since the
link-air, wire, vacuum or assigned frequency band usually has a b/w much
wider than the b/w of the individual user signal, the link’s capacity is used
more efficiently. A link made up of 22 gauge copper wire has a bandwidth of
about 100 KHz, depending on wire spacing, insulation and other factors.
Therefore sending a single voice signal of several KHz b/w using this sort of
link is very wasteful.
An FDM system requires equipments as shown in figure (2) for each user
there are modulating circuitry, a transmitter, a receiver and a demodulator.
The channel is common to all users since each transmitter is using a carrier of
a different frequency, there is no interface unless the sidebands or carries are
incorrectly assigned and these overlapped. In same designer it is practical to
share a signal transmitter or receiver.
Procedure:
(1) Observe the signal, and signal 2 on CRO screen.
(2) Observe 16 KHz and 32 KHz subcarrier signals on CRO screen.
(3) Observe the output signals of modulator 1 and modulator 2.
(4) Observe the output of band pass filter having bands 12-16 KHz and 28-32
KHz.
(5) Observe the summing amplifier o/p.
(6) Observe the main carrier signal.
(7) Observe the FDM output.

Conclusion:
FDM is the technique use for multiplexing purpose.
Practical 8
Aim: To study Time-Division Multiplexing.
Apparatus:
( 11 ETB for TDM
( 11 CRO
( 11 CRO probes
( 11 Patch Cards.
Theory:
In most systems, there is a need to have more than one user. Share the
channel with other users. This means that various types information from
different sources need to have access to the channel “multiplexing” is the
general name for various different ways of achieving this.
Multiplexing allows these various users to share the channel

“simultaneously”.
Three types of multiplexing can be used:
(1) Space Division Multiplexing (SDM):

In which a spectrum wire is used as a channel for each user.
The users therefore can be on the same frequencies at the same time.

• Time Division Multiplexing
In a TDM system, a single path and carrier frequency is used.
Each user is assigned a unique tine slot for his/her signal. A central switch
or multiplexer goes from one user to the next in a specific, predictable
sequence and time. When the switch goes to user B, user C, and so on and
then back to the first user, see figure (a). At the receiving end the
demultiplexer reverses the process and sorts each signal received in time
sequence to the correct user.
A TDM system is a “serial system” because the signal from

each user follows in time, the signal from another user. The time domain
graph of signals before and after the TDM is shown in figure (2). The
frequency domain representation is of course dependent on the specific
signal. The overall bandwidth of TDM result is much wider than the
bandwidth of any individual user signal. This is because TDM output is
carrying much more information and information requires low. Typically
the final bandwidth is approximately equal to the sum of the bandwidths of
the individual signals.
In a TDM system, the carrier f is often 0 Hz at baseband
system. This is a simplest system in which the line for a specific time
window.
(2) Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM):

In which the total channel bandwidth is divided into smaller bands.
Each user is assigned one band.
(3) Time Division Multiplexing (TDM):

In which the channel uses only a single frequency band, the users share
this with each user having access at a different time.

SDM is the simplest and earliest form of multiplexing. Since the idea
of installing a separate transmitter, wire or cable and receiver is fairly
straight forward and logically.
FDM was developed as the circuitry to modulate and demodulate

carries as a specific frequency become available.
TDM is the most complex of the forms, since it requires establishing

precise time periods on both ends of the system. All of 3 forms of
multiplexing have disadvantages and advantages. In short, multiplexing is
a solution of the problem of transmitting the maximum amount of data
form is point to another.
This allows many users to make use of the links. TDM is used within
computer systems and integrated ckts too. Many ups and their associated
buses multiplex add and data bits to reduce the number of line drivers and
receives and IC pins needed.
Procedure:
(1) Observe the 3 input waveforms i.e. sine waveform, triangular waveform
and square waveform separately on the CRO screen.
(2) Supply these 3 i/p signals to the input of the TDM ckt.
(3) Observe the TDM o/p.
(4) Supply the TDM o/p to the i/p of the Demultiplexing ckt.
(5) Observe the demultiplexed o/p i.e. sine, triangular, square waveforms
separately on CRO screen.
Conclusion:
TDM is one of the best multiplexing techniques.

Practical 9
Aim: Write a program to check VRC (Vertical Redundancy

Check) through C.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<math.h>
void main()
{
char c;
int a[9]={0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0};
int i=1,sum=0;
clrscr();
printf("Enter Char: ");
scanf("%c",&c);
while(c!='o')
{
a[i++]=c%2;

c=c/2;
}
for(i=1;i<9;i++)
{
sum=sum+a[i];
if(sum%2==0)
a[0]=1;
}
for(i=0;i<9;i++)
{
printf("%d",a[i]);
}
getch();
}

Practical 10
Aim: Write a program to check LRC (Longitudinal Redundancy
Check) through C.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<math.h>
void main()
{
int a[16];
int sum=0,j,len=0,rev[8],x=0,i;
clrscr();
printf("Enter The Data: ");
for(j=0;j<16;j++)
{
scanf("%d",&a[i]);
len++;
}
for(j=0;j<len/2;j++)
{

printf("%d",a[j]);
}
printf("\n");
for(j=len/2;j<len;j++)
{
rev[x++]=a[j];
printf("%d",a[j]);
}
printf("\n");
while(sum != len/2)
{
if(rev[sum] == a[sum])
printf("0");
else
printf("1");
sum++;
}
getch();
}

Practical 11
Aim: Write a program to obtain CRC.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<math.h>
void main()
{
int i,j,k,x,y,z;
int a[10],b[5],c[4],r[14];
clrscr();
printf("Enter No. of Bits Of Data :\n");

scanf("%d",&x);
printf("\n");
printf("Eneter Data In 0s and 1s : \n");
for(i=0;i<x;i++)
{
scanf("%d",&a[i]);
}
printf("\n");

printf("Enter No. Of Bits Of Divisor : \n");
scanf("%d",&y);
printf("\n");
printf("Enter Divisor In 1 or 0 From \n");
for(i=0;i<y;i++)
{
scanf("%d",&b[i]);
}
printf("\n");
c[j]=0;
k=x+j;
for(i=0;i<k;i++)
{
if(k<x)
{
printf("%d",a[i]);
}
else
{
a[i]=0;
printf("%d",a[i]);
}
}
i=0;
while(i<k)
{
if(i<y)

{
if(a[i]==b[i])
r[i]=0;
else
r[i]=1;
printf("%d",r[i]);
i++;
}
else
{
for(z=0;z<y;z++)
{
if(z==j)
{
r[z]=a[i];
}
else
{
r[z]=r[++z];
if(r[z]==b[z])
r[z]=0;
else
r[z]=1;
printf("%d",r[z]);
}
}
}
i++;
}

for(i=x;i<k;i++)
{
printf("CRC=%d",r[i]);
}
getch();
}

Practical 12
Aim: Write a program to obtain the checksum.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a[8],b[8],c[8],d[8],i;
clrscr();
printf("Enter Any Two Eight Bit Data");
for(i=0;i<8;i++)
{
scanf("%d",&a[i]);
}
for(i=0;i<8;i++)
{
scanf("%d",&b[i]);
}
printf("\n---------------------\n");

for(i=0;i<8;i++)
{
if(a[i]==b[i])
{
c[i]=0;
}
else
{
c[i]=1;
}
printf("%d",c[i]);
}
printf("\n-----------------\n");
for(i=0;i<8;i++)
{
if(a[i]==1)
{
c[i]=0;
}
else
{
c[i]=1;
}
printf("%d",c[i]);
}
printf("\n------------------\n");
for(i=0;i<8;i++)
{

d[i]=a[i]+b[i]+c[i];
if(d[i]%2==0)
d[i]=0;
else
d[i]=1;
printf("%d",d[i]);
}
printf("\n is complement\n");
printf("\n-----------------------\n");
for(i=0;i<8;i++)
{
if(d[i]==1)
d[i]=0;
else
d[i]=1;
printf("%d",d[i]);
}
getch();
}

Practical 1: Aim: Study of Different Types of Cables

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Practical 1: Aim: Study of Different Types of Cables

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Practical 1

Aim: Study of different types of cables.

Make a network cable

When connecting only two computers

Numbering of the pins:

Hold up the cable as shown in the figure. The left most

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One End the

Pin 1 White/Orange Pin 1

Pin 2 Orange/White Pin 2 Green/White

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Pin 6 Green/White Pin 6 Orange/White

When computers are to be connected to share resources,

Connecting only two computers:

When only two computers are to be connected, a crossover connection cable

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In this case, straight through connection cables will be used.

Network Cable Installation

For some networks, cabling serves as bridges for computer networks.

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Categories of Unshielded Twisted Pair

Category 1 Voice Only (Telephone Wire)

Category 2 Data to 4 Mbps (Local Talk)

Category 3 Data to 10 Mbps (Ethernet)

Category 4 Data to 20 Mbps (16 Mbps Token Ring)

Category 5 Data to 100 Mbps (Fast Ethernet)

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o It comes in two varieties:

Thicknet on left; Thinnet in middle

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o Shielded twisted-pair (STP) cable consists of twisted pair wires that

Shielded twisted-pair cable; notice the foil

o Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cabling consists of one or more

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 UTP is less expensive and less resistant to noise.

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– 10 represents max throughput of 10 – 10 represents max throughput of 10

– Base represents baseband – Base represents baseband

– Used Thicknet – Used Thinnet

– 10 represents max throughput of 10 – 100 represents max throughput of

– Base represents baseband – Base represents baseband

– T indicates twisted pair – T indicates twisted pair

– Uses Cat3 or higher – Uses Cat5

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– X means it works in full-duplex – 1000 represents max throughput of

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AIM: Study of OSI and TCP/IP Reference Model

THE OSI REFERENCE MODEL

This model is based on a proposal developed by the international standards

1. A layer should be created where a different abstraction is needed.

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1. The Physical Layer

The physical layer is concerned with transmitting row bits over a

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2. The Data Link Layer

3. The Network Layer

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4. The Transport Layer

5 The Session Layer

The session layer allows user on different machines to establish sessions

6 The Presentation Layer

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