dt083 Yr4 Industrial Automation PT v2 0 PDF

Diploma in Electrical Services Engineering (DT083.
4), Automation Systems
Bachelor of Technology (Electrical Services Engineering)

Ordinary Degree
Dublin Institute of Technology
Kevin Street
Dublin 8
Industrial Automation 2
Fourth Year Course (Part-Time)
Version 2.0
Lecturer: Dr. John McGrory

School of Electrical Engineering Systems,
Dublin Institute of Technology, Room 10, Kevin Street, Dublin 8.
Phone: +353-(0)1-402-3755
E-Mail: john.mcgrory@dit.ie
Web Site: http://eleceng.dit.ie/jmcgrory/
Dr.J.McGrory, DIT Kevin Street. Version 1.0, File: dt083_yr4_industrial_automation_pt_v2_0 Page 1 of 110
Diploma in Electrical Services Engineering (DT083.4), Automation Systems
Notes from the author.

Each semester is 15 weeks in duration. This includes one week for revision and
two weeks for exams. This equates to only 12 weeks teaching. Assuming this
course is disseminated using three hours per week, this means that there are only
thirty six contact hours per section involved (not including your private study time
for this subject). Therefore, onus is on you from the beginning to perform to the
best of your ability. The term “luck” refers to that which happens beyond a person's
control. Passing the exam and handing in satisfactory continuous assessments are
not a matter of “luck”, but a matter of effort and work. Remember woulda coulda
shoulda are the last words of a fool.
As a caveat to students, the contents of these notes should not be considered the
complete course. Items raised during the lectures are just as important and
revenant and you should note them for yourselves. These notes are provided
before the lecture takes place. This allows you read ahead and to make the best
use of your contact time with the lecturer.
In the diagram below you can see my office (Room KEG-010) location in Kevin
Street. Beside my office in Room KEG-012 in Kevin Street is where the laboratory
is located. So “yes” you have to get to Kevin Street for the laboratories once every
three or four weeks.
So let’s get through it and work hard,
John McGrory
Table of Contents
NOTES FROM THE AUTHOR. .................................................................................................................... 2
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................................. 3
OBJECTIVES OF THIS MODULE:.............................................................................................................. 6

COMPLETION TIME .......................................................................................................................................... 7
MODULE CONTENT:......................................................................................................................................... 7
CHAPTER 1, INTRODUCTION TO PLC’S (PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS)............ 8
WHAT IS A PLC? ............................................................................................................................................. 8
THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF A PLC ............................................................................................................. 8
WHAT DOES WHAT IN THE PLC? ..................................................................................................................... 9
Input Interface ............................................................................................................................................ 9
Output Interfaces ........................................................................................................................................ 9
Memory Unit............................................................................................................................................... 9
Central Processing Unit (CPU) ................................................................................................................. 9
PLC MEMORY ............................................................................................................................................... 10
Why does a PLC need memory? ............................................................................................................... 10
System Routine Memory ........................................................................................................................... 11
User Memory............................................................................................................................................ 11
Storage Memory ....................................................................................................................................... 11
How the Storage Memory works............................................................................................................... 11
WHAT IS A PROGRAMME?.............................................................................................................................. 11
Ladder Logic Diagrams ........................................................................................................................... 12
LADDER PROGRAMMING SYMBOLS...................................................................................................................13
SFC/STL ................................................................................................................................................... 17
HOW YOUR PROGRAMME IS PROCESSED BY THE PLC. ................................................................................... 18
SCANNING ..................................................................................................................................................... 18
INPUT AND OUTPUT PROCESSING .................................................................................................................. 18
CONTINUOUS UPDATING ............................................................................................................................... 18
BATCH INPUT/OUTPUT COPYING ................................................................................................................... 18
CHAPTER 2, GOOD WORKING PRACTICE… DOCUMENT IT. ....................................................... 19
INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................................................. 19
SO HOW IS THIS DOCUMENTATION ACHIEVED…. ........................................................................................... 22
STEP 1 SOMEBODY HAS COMPLETED THE MECHANICAL/ELECTRICAL DESIGN, SO WHERE DO WE GO FROM
HERE?............................................................................................................................................................ 22
STEP 3, CABLE SCHEDULE............................................................................................................................. 26
STEP 4, PRODUCE A CONTROL PHILOSOPHY.................................................................................................. 27
STEP 5, TIMETABLE OR PROJECT GANTT CHARTS.......................................................................................... 29
CHAPTER 3, INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL THEORY.................................................................... 30
INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................................................. 30
OPEN AND CLOSED LOOP SYSTEMS ................................................................................................................ 31
BASIC ELEMENTS OF A CLOSED-LOOP SYSTEM............................................................................................... 33
Comparison element................................................................................................................................. 33
Control element ........................................................................................................................................ 33
Process element ........................................................................................................................................ 33
Measurement element............................................................................................................................... 33
MODELLING A FEEDBACK LOOP.................................................................................................................... 36
Example D ................................................................................................................................................ 40
Solution D................................................................................................................................................. 40
SENSITIVITY OF CLOSED-LOOP GAIN TO CHANGES IN PARAMETERS ............................................................. 41
OPEN LOOP TRANSFER FUNCTION .................................................................................................................. 42

Example F................................................................................................................................................. 43
Answer F................................................................................................................................................... 43
SYSTEM REPRESENTATION ............................................................................................................................ 43
MULTI-ELEMENT, MULTI-LOOP CLOSED LOOP TRANSFER FUNCTION ............................................................. 43
Example 1 ................................................................................................................................................. 45
Solution 1.................................................................................................................................................. 45
EFFECT OF DISTURBANCES ............................................................................................................................ 46
CHAPTER 4, DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION........................................................................... 47
DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION .............................................................................................................. 47
LOGIC FAMILIES ............................................................................................................................................ 47
FOUR-BIT D/A CONVERTER .......................................................................................................................... 47
R-2R LADDER DAC ...................................................................................................................................... 48
DECIMAL TO BINARY(“1”OR “0”) ................................................................................................................. 49
ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION .............................................................................................................. 50
COMPARATOR ............................................................................................................................................... 50
DIGITAL RAMP ADC ..................................................................................................................................... 51
RESOLUTION (ASIDE) .................................................................................................................................... 53
CHAPTER 5, USER INTERFACES ............................................................................................................ 55
INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................................................. 56
HISTORY OF USER INTERFACES IN BRIEF ........................................................................................................ 56
MOBILE PHONE/PHOTOCOPIER EXAMPLE ..................................................................................................... 59
WINDOWS BASED APPLICATIONS ................................................................................................................... 60
WINDOWS BASED APPLICATIONS ................................................................................................................... 60
TEXT VERSES ICON/IMAGES ON BUTTONS ...................................................................................................... 62
SO WHAT COMPONENTS MAKE UP A STANDARD USER INTERFACE?................................................................ 63
SO WHAT COMPONENTS MAKE UP A STANDARD USER INTERFACE?................................................................ 64
STATIC TEXT ................................................................................................................................................. 64
DYNAMIC INFORMATION ............................................................................................................................... 64
DYNAMIC TEXT ............................................................................................................................................. 65
BUTTONS ....................................................................................................................................................... 65
BUTTONS ....................................................................................................................................................... 66
CHECK BOXES/RADIO BOXES ....................................................................................................................... 67
COMBO BOXES OR SELECTION BOXES .......................................................................................................... 68
COMBO BOXES OR SELECTION BOXES .......................................................................................................... 69
SECTION 6, FAULT FINDING AND MAINTENANCE .......................................................................... 72
FAULT FINDING ............................................................................................................................................. 72
REMEMBER THESE SIX IMPORTANT STEPS TO SUCCESSFUL FAULT FINDING: .................................................. 73
1. Collect the evidence.......................................................................................................................... 73
2. Analyse the evidence......................................................................................................................... 73
3. Locate the fault ................................................................................................................................. 73
4. Determine and remove causes .......................................................................................................... 73
5. Rectify the fault................................................................................................................................. 73
6. Check system .................................................................................................................................... 73
CHAPTER 7, SCADA.................................................................................................................................... 74
WHAT IS SCADA? ........................................................................................................................................ 74
WHAT DOES A SCADA PACKAGE DO? .......................................................................................................... 77
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION....................................................................................................................... 77
TRENDING ..................................................................................................................................................... 80
ALARMS ........................................................................................................................................................ 81
ALARMS ........................................................................................................................................................ 82
DATA LOGGING ............................................................................................................................................. 83
HISTORICAL INFORMATION ........................................................................................................................... 83

SERVER DATABASE ....................................................................................................................................... 84
SCADA SYSTEM MODEL. ............................................................................................................................. 85
DANGERS ...................................................................................................................................................... 85
CHAPTER 8, PID........................................................................................................................................... 86
WHAT IS PID................................................................................................................................................. 86
Proportional Band.................................................................................................................................... 86
Integral..................................................................................................................................................... 87
Derivative ................................................................................................................................................. 88
Control Loop Tuning ................................................................................................................................ 89
Fine Tuning "Rules" ................................................................................................................................. 89
Starting PID Settings For Common Control Loops.................................................................................. 90
CHAPTER 9, COMPUTERISED CONTROL SYSTEM ARCHITECTURES ....................................... 91
ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (EMS)....................................................................................................... 91
ENERGY MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL SYSTEM ............................................................................................ 91
FACILITIES MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL SYSTEM (FMCS) AND BUILDING MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (BMS) . 91
SUMMARY OF ENERGY SAYING STRATEGIES ................................................................................................ 91
THE TRIANGLE OF AUTOMATION ................................................................................................................... 92
THE WORKSTATION AND FIELD FUNCTION RELATIONSHIPS............................................................................ 93
CHAPTER 10, AUTOMATED SYSTEMS INTEGRATION .................................................................... 94
SYSTEMS INTEGRATION MANUAL METHOD .................................................................................................... 95
SYSTEMS INTEGRATION STREAMLINED METHOD ........................................................................................... 96
CHAPTER 11, SYSTEMS INTEGRATION ............................................................................................... 98
CHAPTER 12, COMPUTER INTEGRATED MANUFACTURE .......................................................... 101

ISLANDS OF AUTOMATION AND SOFTWARE ................................................................................................. 101
CAD AND DESIGN ....................................................................................................................................... 101
Conceptual design:................................................................................................................................. 102
Layout design: ........................................................................................................................................ 102
Drafting:................................................................................................................................................. 102
Design analysis: ..................................................................................................................................... 102
CAD SYSTEMS AND MODELLERS ................................................................................................................ 103
Wire-Frame ............................................................................................................................................ 103
Surface modellers ................................................................................................................................... 103
Solid modellers ....................................................................................................................................... 104
COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURE ............................................................................................................. 104
Discrete part: ......................................................................................................................................... 104
Process manufacture:............................................................................................................................. 104
Mass production:.................................................................................................................................... 105
Batch production:................................................................................................................................... 105
Flexible production: ............................................................................................................................... 105
Jobbing production: ............................................................................................................................... 105
(a) Technological planning of the approach and detailed methods of manufacture .............................. 105
(b) Production scheduling and control of the product's manufacture .................................................... 106
(c) Automated and computer controlled manufacture............................................................................ 107
FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS (FMS) ............................................................................................ 108
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................. 110
Objectives of this Module:
Module Description
This course has been designed to build on the Industrial Automation Module 1.
The students will be introduced to the PLC as the ‘front end’ interface to the factory
floor machinery. They will examine its role in automatically gathering relevant
production information and passing this information up to the management
computer systems. There will be an emphasis on software design, implementation
and faultfinding. The safety concerns and standard applicable, to automated
process are discussed and demonstrated in all relevant lecture and laboratory
exercises.
Module aim:
The aim of the subject is to:
• prepare the students to work at a high level in industry with automation and
control systems.
• give students extensive hands on practice at implementing the automation,
control and monitoring of industrial processes and fault finding.
• provide a laboratory programme closely linked to the lecture that emphasise
the main learning objectives of the course through assignments and mini
projects.
Learning Outcomes:
On completion of this module, the learner will be able to:
• work at a high level in industry with automation and control systems.
• design, install and maintain automation and control systems.
• Use high level PLC control systems in the computer integration of a
manufacturing process.
• Implement the skills required for automation, control and monitoring of
industrial processes.
• Implement industrial processes including discrete manufacturing, control of
sequences, batch processing, and process control.
• Implement computer integrated manufacturing (C.I.M.) and flexible
manufacturing systems (F.M.S.).
• Verify automation / control systems using good design practice
• Evaluate methods of data handling and conversion
Completion Time
Chapters 1 to 2 06 Hours
Chapters 3 to 4 06 Hours
Chapter 5 01 Hour
Chapter 6 01 Hour
Chapter 7 01 Hour
Chapter 8 01 Hour
Chapter 9 01 Hour
Chapter 10 01 Hour
Chapter 11 01 Hour
Chapter 12 01 Hour
Chapter 13 01 Hour
Chapter 14 01 Hour
Module content:
• Competent use of the programming software and fault finding skills.
• Produce well documented software and mini projects
• Revision of basic automation elements, e.g. I/O, bits, timers and counters.
• Use of Data registers, and basic instructions e.g. Modes of Instructions,
Compare, Increment, Decrement, Zone compare.
• Automation of a machine using all of the above as a mini project.
• Advanced sequence control including series and parallel sequences, loop
sequences and automation of process with a sequence.
• Process control, analogue modules, use and configuration, sampling
frequency, Alias frequencies, Minimum sampling rate, Analogue Alarms,
Implementation of ON / OFF, ON / OFF with dead band, P Control.
• Automatic materials handling systems
• Automation systems monitoring using operator interfaces and SCADA
packages
Chapter 1, Introduction to PLC’s (Programmable Logic Controllers)
What is a PLC?
A programmable logic controller is a device that can be programmed by the user to

perform a series or sequence of events.
These events are triggered by electrical signals called inputs, received at the PLC
or through time delays or counted occurrences. Once an event has been triggered,
it will switch ON or OFF equipment that could be electronic control gear or Electro
mechanical devices.
Ladder Logic
PLC
Address
Controlled
Electrical Signals Equipment
Data
(inputs) (outputs)
User Program
A programmable logic controller will continually "loop" through its internal "user
defined" programme, waiting for inputs and giving outputs at the programmed
specific times.
The internal structure of a PLC

The structure of a PLC can be broken down into four basic components:
Input Interface
CPU Memory Unit
Output Interface
• An Input Interface
• An Output Interface
• The Central Processing Unit (CPU)
• The Memory Unit
The above diagram shows the relationship between each of the components in a
PLC.
The information follows a very simple path within the PLC as shown below:
CPU reads the Input interface Update CPU Update Output

memory unit status check status Status
What does what in the PLC?
Now you know the major components of the PLC; these are the functions they
perform:
Input Interface
This is where ALL the input signals are collected. As its name suggests, this part of
the PLC is also used as an interface, which directly accesses the CPU. To protect
the CPU from harmful high voltage and currents all the input terminals are isolated.
This is called "opto-isolation", which means that no voltages are transmitted from
the input terminals directly to the CPU, the signals are optical (light) pulses. This is
the method used in most PLCS.
Output Interfaces
This is where ALL the output signals originate. The signal type for the output is
dependent on the output switching-method (e.g. relay, transistor, triac). As with the
Input Interface the Output Interface is connected to the CPU and is also isolated
against harmful back voltages. Transistor and triac units use opto-isolation as
protection, whereas relay units have isolation built in, by a mechanical method.
Memory Unit
Most PLCs can use two types of memory, RAM (Random Access Memory) and
ROM (Read Only Memory). Only one type of memory can be accessed at any
given time. RAM is usually built in, with ROM memory available on
cassettes/cartridges. It is normal for ROM to take priority over the internal RAM.
PLC memory is dealt with in greater depth in the next section.
Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Processing can be described as running the programme. The CPU consists of the
microprocessor, memory chips and circuits necessary to store and retrieve
information from the memory and communication circuits required for the CPU to
interface with the programmer, printer and other peripherals.
A typical microprocessor-based CPU will be capable of four basic types of

operation:
1. Arithmetic and logic such as add, subtract, AND, and OR.

2. Operations that deal with reading the contents of memory or changing them.
3. Jump operations that make it possible to "skip" sections of the programme.
4. Input and output operations which enable the system to communicate with
the outside world.
PLC Memory
Why does a PLC need memory?
A PLC requires memory to store its operating instructions, the current programme
and data which results from the user programme. The memory section of a PLC
consists of thousands of locations where this information can be stored. The
memory is in three main parts:
• SYSTEM ROUTINE MEMORY

• USER MEMORY (also known as the Programme Memory)
• STORAGE MEMORY (Data Memory)
Input Interface
Register
Processor
Storage Memory Unit
Register
User
Output Interface Memory
System
Routine
Memory
The above diagram is of a PLC storage memory showing the breakdown of each
part.
System Routine Memory

The System Routine Memory has information stored in it which makes the
microprocessor behave as a Programmable Logic Controller. This section of
memory is programmed by the manufacturer and cannot be accessed by the user.
This would be similar to a PC which is made up of various components all
communicating through the BIOS which makes it act as a PC. (not necessarily the
Operating System)
User Memory
The User Memory is where the user programme (e.g. ladder logic diagram) is
entered and stored. Within the user memory some areas are set aside as "holding
registers" which store information generated and used by the processor while it is
solving the user programme. The user memory may count for most of the total
memory in a PLC. Once the user programme has been loaded into the user
memory the PLC will be ready to control the process in accordance with the user
programme.
Storage Memory
Storage Memory is that portion of memory that will store information on the status
of input and output devices, pre-set and accumulated values of timers, and
counters, internal 1/0 relay equivalents (flags), numerical values for arithmetic
functions etc. The entire storage memory may be called a data table a register
table or another name depending on the PLC manufacturer. A register is defined
as an area for storing information, logic or numeric. Although the names or titles
given to sections or subsections of the storage memory vary, the principles
involved do not, the information is stored in the same way.
How the Storage Memory works

The status of each input device is stored as binary data, either a 1 or 0 (ON or
OFF) in the storage memory. When the processor is executing the user
programme it scans the status of the input devices which is stored in the storage
memory to determine which inputs are ON or OFF. As the processor executes the
user programme, it sends binary data (l's or O's) to the output section of memory to
control the output devices.
What is a programme?
A simple definition of a PLC programme is "a series of instructions written in a form
that the PLC can read and obey". The PLC language should enable the user to
carry out control functions without the complexity and learning time which is
generally associated with high level computer languages.
You will come across PLC languages in several different formats, the three most
common being:
• INSTRUCTION (Not this year)
• LADDER LOGIC DIAGRAMS
• SFC/STL (Sequential Flow Chart/Step Ladder)
Ladder Logic Diagrams
"Ladder" is a graphical system of programming which uses pictures or icons to

represent the commands.
Ladder diagrams can be generated in two ways.

1) On a computer by PLC software packages and transferred to the PLC by a
special cable link.
2) On a hand held programmer.
Example of Ladder Logic Diagram
Note:
Instruction List and in some cases ladder diagrams can also be generated on a
hand held programmer which is connected to the PLC. Today though it is more
popular to programme the PLC from a PC compatible computer.
LADDER PROGRAMMING SYMBOLS

The symbols shown below are those, which are displayed in software while you,
are in the ladder mode. The number associated with each symbol indicates which
numeric key is to be pressed to select that symbol.
This is a NORMALLY OPEN contact. It works in the same way as a

normally open switch would (i.e. it needs the contact to be closed for
it to operate).
This is a NORMALLY CLOSED contact. It works in the same way as

a normally closed switch would (i.e. it needs the contact to be open
for it to operate).
This function allows you to add a normally open contact in parallel.

This will give you an OR function, if either of the inputs are switched
on you will get an output.
This function allows you to add a normally closed contact in parallel.
This is used for connecting two rungs together
This is used for connecting items like the contacts above together
on the same rung. Some times this is automatic on in the
software.
The ladder logic format can be considered similar to an electrical circuit and if that
is kept in mind you should have no difficulty. In the diagram below you can see that
the inputs are usually on the left and demoted with an X. The outputs from the PLC
sometimes called the activity would be located on the right denoted with a Y.
If you compare the ladder logic circuit on the top to it’s a similar electrical version
underneath it is clear the activity (output, light bulb) will operate when switch 1 is
closed and switch 2 stays as it is (normally closed).
Inputs to the PLC are Outputs to the PLC are
usually denoted by X usually denoted by Y
Make a mental note Make a mental note

to have the line to the to have the line to the
left as the +Voltage X001 X002 Y001 right as the ground
Switch Switch
1 2
+ Ground
In another example you could have two switches in parallel. If you compare circuits
shown below, the ladder logic circuit on the top to it’s a similar electrical version
underneath. It is clear the activity (output, light bulb) will operate when switch 1 OR
switch 3 OR both switches 1 and 3 are closed and switch 2 stays as it is (normally
closed).


left as the +Voltage X001 X002 Y001 right as the ground
X003
Switch Switch
1 2
+ Ground
Switch
3
In another example you could have two switches in series. If you compare circuits
shown below, the ladder logic circuit on the top to it’s a similar electrical version
underneath. It is clear the activity (output, light bulb) will operate when switch 1
AND switch 3 are closed and switch 2 stays as it is (normally closed).


left as the +Voltage X001 X003 X002 Y001 right as the ground
Switch Switch Switch

1 3 2
+ Ground
Be careful with the concept of ADDRESS and DATA when using ladder logic and
linking information to a SCADA system. ADDRESS is the label being used and the
DATA is the content of that ADDRESS. An example of this could be a car park.
Car park space X001 is its ADDRESS and if there is a car present the DATA could
be “1” and if there is no car then the DATA could be “0”
ADDRESS
X001
Y001
If “on” or “off”
is it’s state i.e. it’s DATA
Switch
1
Ground
+
ADDRESS
X001
MOV K300 D30
Some Address locations can

Store numbers i.e. the number K300
Is moved into memory location D30, therefore
Address D30 will now have 300 as it’s DATA
It is important to note that the PLC contains the process control logic and it should
be used to provide a safe working environment for the process. The only aspect
that we access via the SCADA is the changing of the data aspect. We cannot
rewrite the ladder logic or drive an output directly. This will be demonstrated in the
laboratory.
SFC/STL
The Sequential Function Chart/Step Ladder format uses the PLC software to
generate a type of flow chart graphics. The programme merely consists of a flow
diagram of the desired responses. As it is a problem solving representation, SFC
aids communication between specialists of various disciplines (hydraulics,
pneumatics, production etc.) the manufacturer, the installer and customer.
Using this technique it is possible to have sub tasks and routines which lets the
code take on the human thought structured. For example: sub tasks such as tires,
bumpers, engine, fuel and steering only need to be processed only when you are
in the car, otherwise why process/think-about them.
Example of an SFC/STL programme.
How your programme is processed by the PLC.

This section describes how the PLC reacts to your programme and gives you the
seemingly instantaneous response to changes in the status of inputs.
Scanning
A PLC solves the logic of your programme in a scanning mode. The top rung of the
ladder diagram is the first in memory to be examined by the processor, then the
second rung, then the third, and so forth, to the end of programmed logic. After the
end is reached, the processor goes back to the first rung and begins a, second
scan. The speed of scanning is a measure of a programmable controller's
effectiveness. Typical scan speeds are 1 to 2.5 ms per K of programmed memory
or 20-200 complete memory scans per second.
Input and Output Processing

There are two different methods used for processing the data which arrives at the
input and departs from the outputs in a PLC. The methods are: continuous
updating and batch input/output copying.
Continuous Updating
This involves the Central Processing Unit (CPU) in scanning input channels as
they occur in the programme. There is a built-in delay (typically 3 ms) to ensure
that only valid input signals are read into the processor. Output channels are then
directly driven when OUT instructions are executed following a logical operation.
Outputs are latched in the I/O unit so they retain their status until the next updating.
As the CPU can deal with only one instruction at a time during programme
execution, the status of each input must be examined to determine its effect on the
programme. Since there is a time delay on each input, the total cycle time for a
continuously sampled system becomes longer the greater the number of inputs.
Batch Input/Output copying

To allow for a rapid programme execution, input and output updating may be
carried out at one particular point in the programme. Here a specific RAM area
within the PLC is used as a buffer store between the control logic and the I/0 unit.
Each input and output has a cell in this I/O RAM. During I/O copying, the CPU
scans all the inputs in the I/O unit and copies their status into the I/O RAM cells.
This happens at the start and end of each programme cycle.
As the programme is executed, the stored input data is read one location at a time
from the I/O RAM. Logic operations are performed on the input data, and the
resulting output signals are stored in the output section of the I/O RAM. Then, at
the end of each programme cycle the I/O copying routine transfers all output
signals from the I/O RAM to the corresponding output channel, driving the output
stages of the I/O unit. These output stages are latched, that is they retain their
status until they are updated by the next I/O routine. I/O copying takes place
between the end of one programme cycle and the start of the next.
Chapter 2, Good working practice… DOCUMENT IT.
Introduction
Control and automation systems take in data from the real world, apply some logic
to this data and then choose an output path with which a process can be managed.
This overall concept is illustrated in Figure 2.1. The main issue to realise is that the
inputs are a simplistic view/observation of a far more complex real-work
environment and thus are blinkered to some degree.
Real world environment

Collections of objects living together A simplistic view or interpretation
Sometimes a blinkered view
Computers
Weather
Inputs
Government
Processes
Decision
Maker
Vehicles
Employees
Feedback
Outputs
Acting or impacting on the

environment
Figure 2.1, Real-world system
Consider the example of staring a car via the ignition switch when a loud grinding
noise is heard. Do you continue to run the engine or stop? Most people would stop,
but how many automation/control systems have noise sensors to detect unusual
loud noises. Most control and automation systems control based on what a
reasonable person would expect, not for every deviation or possibility.
Most large scale projects involve a large group of stakeholders in order to realise
the project as shown in Figure 2.2. Each stakeholder would have a different
background, expertise (i.e. owner, user, maintenance etc) but they would in almost
all cases have some overlapping goal/knowledge (i.e. a building, process or
business).
Marine Mechanical
Perspective Perspective
Control
Perspective
© Dr John McGrory
Electrical
Perspective Chemical
Perspective
Figure 2.2 Process Stakeholders
If the overlapping documentation between the respective stakeholders of the

process is not completed fully, correctly and accurately then key aspects of the
project can be missed. This phenomenon is termed “Over the Fence” as shown in
Figure 2.3. If information such as energy saving or design limitations etc are not
detailed then the stakeholders are not aware of these details and their impact.
Over The Fence

Client
Commisioning
Builder
Designer
Only if all stakeholders know how to

implement and are aware of these will
Ideas, problems, desires, they be successfull. Otherwise they
solutions and goals are dumped.
Figure 2.3 Over the fence
The famous sketch shown in Figure 2.4 has been developed in various forms and
illustrates this “Over the Fence” concept comically but sadly it has some element of
truth.
Figure 2.4 Different stakeholder’s comprehension of ideas

Modern industrial processes are a hybrid of different types of engineering and
science concepts. Mechanical, chemical, electrical, process and control all
combine to make the process a success. All of these disciplines are stakeholders
in the system development. They must have voice or a method of getting involved
in the development process. So it is important to develop and use documents that
allow this cross-pollination to occur. Therefore, it is always important to keep any
system you design or are working on well documented. As an introduction to
SCADA systems let’s discuss the steps involved (in this example Air Handling
Systems are being discussed, but it could be any other process, chemical,
manufacturing etc….).
So how is this documentation achieved….
Step 1 Somebody has completed the mechanical/electrical design, so where

do we go from here?
Your mechanical design is now completed and you sized your rooms, airflows
rates, temperature ranges, water pressure drops and constructed process
diagrams for your design. The figure below shows a general mechanical outline of
an AHU.
One of the first things you need to is begin to label the equipment in a consistent
fashion. Pick a unique identification system that will serve you. Say dampers
denoted by a “D” valves denoted by “V” temperature sensors denoted by “T”
pressure denoted by “P” and humidity sensors denoted by “H”.
The above diagram shows all the components with their labels attached. This is
sometimes referred to a P&ID (Process & Instrument Drawing). However a real
P&ID drawing is much more involved and removes all the graphical clutter as
shown above and focused on the process flow diagram and the instrumentation. It
would be similar to a schematic drawing. The design and development of the P&ID
drawings would normally be a course in its own right and is not covered in this
document. However a sample of one is shown below.
As can be seen the drawing is much more focused on the process and the
instrumentation rather than a drawing of the equipment itself. However, all the
instruments and equipment labels are the same.
Step 2, I/O List.

The second thing to work on is an I/O list. An Input/Output list identifies all the
components in the HVAC system from a controls perspective. Each time you
identify a piece of equipment for the system take a copy of the “Data Sheets” and
identify if it needs auxiliary power or what type of signal it needs or produces. Does
it come with cable attached or a termination section? Keep a log of all this
information in the I/O List or Cable Schedule.
Reference No Description Manual/Auto On/Off or Comments

Adjustable
D1.01 Exhaust Auto Adjustable 4-20mA
Damper Open-Close
D1.02 Return Auto Adjustable 0-10vDC
Damper Open-Close
D1.03 Fresh air Auto Adjustable
intake Damper
D1.04 Supply Room Manual Fixed at
1 Fixed commissioning
D1.05 Supply Room Manual Fixed at
2 Fixed commissioning
The designer of the system could use packages such as Microsoft excel and
access to complete this work. Special packages are available if you need them.
This would allow the information entered into these packages be merged at a later
stage to another package if necessary [the likes of PLC and SCADA systems].
Some I/O lists are very detailed and locate the exact PLC Card, Channel, Type
and Address.
Data Sheet for a Valve Actuators also known as a solenoid valve.
Zone valves PN16 with

electric actuator
MVE../MXE.. CE1N4825
Two-port and three-port changeover valves, internally threaded, complete with electric
actuator. For two-position control of heating and cooling zones, with manual lever,
connecting cable 1.8 m, with / without auxiliary switch.
Operating voltage M..E22.. AC 230 V

Power consumption 7 VA
Positioning signal 2-position
Positioning time "opening" 9...15 s
Positioning time "closing" 4...5 s
De-energised position MVE..: closed
MXE..: port A closed
Degree of protection IP 30
Ambient temperature 1...40 °C
Mounting position upright to 85° inclined
Leakage rate 0%
Medium temperature 1...95 °C
Valve body brass
Flap special rubber N.B.R.
Actuator and valve come ready assembled. The actuator is replaceable.
Range overview throughport valves MVE22..
Thread DN kvs ∆pv max ∆ps Auxiliary switch Type reference Price
[Zoll] [mm] [m³/h] [kPa] [kPa]
Rp 1/2 15 2.5 70 210 No MVE22.15/180 € 73,50

Rp 1/2 15 2.5 70 210 Yes MVE22.15U/180 € 91,70
Rp 3/4 20 4 70 90 No MVE22.20/180 € 83,70
Rp 3/4 20 4 70 90 Yes MVE22.20U/180 € 102,00
Rp 1 25 6.3 30 70 No MVE22.25/180 € 100,00
Rp 1 25 6.3 30 70 Yes MVE22.25U/180 € 118,00
Step 3, Cable Schedule.

At this point it would be a good idea to become familiar with a cable schedule.
The cable schedule is a list of cables (both power “P” and control “C”) being used
in the plant. When the cable is terminated in a piece of equipment or apparatus the
cable is labelled with a unique number. This allows for both ends of the cable to be
identified without disconnecting the equipment. Voltage drop calculations can also
be automated.
At this point in the design we have selected all the equipment and have their data
sheets. We now know how many cables each field mounted component requires
and we can work the distance from the panel.
Cables to drives and valves in the field must also be identified in the cable
schedule. Remember segregation of cables, i.e. cables of 400V 3-Phase should
not be beside 24V computer communication cables due to possible inducing
Voltage/Current from one cable to another.
Cable From To Description Cable type No. Size Voltage Kw Length Running Starting
No. Cores Current Current
P001 AHU1 MCC1 Damper PVC/PVC/SWA/PVC 3 2.5 110 0.3 70 N/A N/A
Damper drive
D1.02
Step 4, Produce a Control Philosophy.

For anybody to understand or try implementing your systems even remotely similar
to the way you wish it to be implemented, they need to what you want to do. This
document needs to be in clear unambiguous text giving instructions on what you
want and why.
Remember we need to include the control panel interface, field equipment and the
control panel backend.
One section of a control panel would be for example:
Control Panel: MCC No.1

Control Panel Door: Air Handling Unit (AHU No.1)
Door Mounted Equipment.
1 No. Cubical Label Titled: “Air Handling Unit No. 1”
1 No. Electrical Isolator with Door Interlock.
1 No. Emergency Stop
1 No. Green Run Light c/w Label “Run”
1 No. Red Stop Light c/w Label “Stop”
1 No. Amber Tripped Light c/w Label “Tripped”
1 No. Green Push Button c/w Label “Start”
1 No. Red Push Button c/w Label “Stop”
1 No. Audio Buzzer alarm, linked to the tripped light c/w mute button.
Air Handling Unit No. 1
RUN STOP TRIPPED
START STOP BUZZER
EMERGENCY
STOP
ISOLATOR
Back Plate equipment

1 No. Star-Delta Starting Contactor arrangement 6kw Motor.
1 No. Klixon for motor.
1 No. Duty selector relay linked to main control section.
Field Equipment
1 No. Emergency Stop
1 No. Panel filter pressure switch “Opens on blocked”, P1.01.
1 No. Bag filter pressure switch “Opens on blocked”, P1.02.
1 No. Air-flow switch “Closes on air flow detected”, P1.03.
Control Philosophy
The control panel section is to allow the user operate and control the Air Handling
Unit No. 1 equipment. The Air handling unit has a field mounted consisting of 1 No.
Panel filter P1.01 and 1 No. Bag filter P1.02. If either filter trip to the open position
indicating they are blocked the AHU must stop the air flow supplied via fan
MO1.01………
This information must be clear so everybody knows what is expected to happen

and what they are expected to provide. A lot of this information is where the
overlapping knowledge is fleshed out. Some components must be defined.
This information can be given to the Control Panel Supplier so they can build the
control panel and the Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC’s) so they can
construct the ladder logic. The information is also placed in the Operation and
Maintenance manual.
It is important to note that if you specify a Control Philosophy focusing on the
nuances of one specific brand of equipment it is possible for the system to become
brand specific. If you were a consultant engineer it is always good practice to have
your Control Philosophy in a form that many contractors could tender for. Going
down the brand specific way could cost more in the long term unless it is to comply
with the client’s wishes or a legacy system in the building.
Step 5, Timetable or project Gantt Charts.

Timetables for projects form an important aspect of the work. They show when
certain items of work are to be completed and in what order.
The P&ID drawing, I/O list, Cable Schedule, Control Philosophy and Timetable
need to be updated through out the course of the project but allows all
stakeholders/teams communicate together using the same documentation.
At the end of the project the above documents can also be used as part of the
Operation and Maintenance Manual. In some cased the O&M manual could
require an expenditure of 1% of the cost of the project? So reuse is the name of
the game.
Chapter 3, Introduction to Control Theory

Introduction
Your body temperature, unless you are ill, remains almost constant regardless of
whether you are in a cold or hot environment. To maintain this constancy your
body has a temperature-control system. If your temperature begins to increase
above the normal you sweat, if it decreases you shiver. Both these are
mechanisms which are used to restore the body temperature to its normal value.
This control system is maintaining constancy of temperature.
If you go to pick up a pencil from a bench there is a need for you to use a control
system to ensure that your hand actually ends up at the pencil. This is done by
observing the position of your hand relative to the pencil and making adjustments
in its position as it moves towards the pencil. This control system is controlling the
positioning and movement of your hand.
One way to control the temperature of a centrally heated house is for a human to
stand near the furnace on/off switch with a thermometer and switch the furnace on
or off according to the thermometer reading. That is a crude form of control system
using a human as a control element.
The more usual control system has a thermostat that automatically, without the
intervention of a human, switches the furnace on or off. This control system is
maintaining constancy of temperature.
Control systems are widespread, not only in nature and the home but also in
industry. There are many industrial processes and machines where control,
whether by humans or automatically, is required. Control systems can be
considered to fall into two main categories. One is process control where such
things as temperature, liquid level, fluid flow, pressure, etc., are maintained
constant. Thus in a chemical process there may be a need to maintain the level of
a liquid in a tank to a particular level or to a particular temperature. The other form
of control, called a servo system, involves consistently and accurately positioning
some moving part or maintaining a constant speed. This might be, for example, a
motor designed to run at a constant speed or a machining operation in which the
position, speed and operation of a tool is automatically controlled. With in each one
of these systems they can be open loop or closed loop.
Open and closed loop systems

There are two basic forms of control system, one being called open loop and the
other closed-loop. The difference between these can be illustrated by a simple
example. Consider an electric fire which has a selection switch which allows a 1
kW or a 2 kW heating element to he selected. If a person used the fire to heat a
room, he or she might just switch on the 1 kW element if they want the room to be
at not too high a temperature. The room will heat up and reach a temperature
which is only determined by the fact the 1kW element was switched on and not the
2kW element. If there are changes in the conditions, perhaps someone opening a
window, there is no way the heat output can be adjusted to compensate. This is an
example of open-loop control in that there is no information fed back to the element
to adjust it and maintain a constant temperature.
The heating system with the electric fire could be made a closed-loop system if the
person has a thermometer and switches the 1kW and 2kW elements on or off to
maintain the temperature of the room constant. In this situation there is feedback,
the input to the system being adjusted according to whether its output is the
required temperature. This means that the input to the switch depends on the
deviation of the actual temperature from the required temperature, the difference
between determined by a comparison element - the person in this case. The figure
below illustrates these two types of systems.
To illustrate further the differences between open and closed loop systems,
consider a motor. With an open-loop system the speed of rotation of the shaft
might be determined solely by the initial setting of a knob which affects the voltage
applied to the motor. Any changes in the supply voltage, characteristics of the
motor as a result of temperature changes or shaft load, will change the shaft speed
and not be compensated for. There is no feedback loop. Whereas with a closed-
loop system the initial setting of the control knob will be for a particular shaft speed
and this will be maintained by feedback, regardless of any changes in supply
voltage, motor characteristics or load. In an open loop control system the output
from the system has no effect on the input signal. In a closed loop control system
the output does have an effect on the input signal, modifying it to maintain an
output signal at the required value.
Open-loop systems, have the advantage of being relatively simple and

consequently low cost with generally good reliability. However, they are often
inaccurate since there is no correction for error. Closed-loop systems have the
advantage of being relatively accurate in matching the actual to the required
values. They are, however, more complex and so more costly with a greater
chance of breakdown as a consequence of the greater number of components.
In the figure below there are two flood light circuits. The top one is a simple
floodlight which is activated by a switch. This would be an open loop system. The
lower sketch shows the live going through a PIR sensor before entering the
floodlight. This PIR sensor detects if someone is there to activate the light. Thus
acting as a feed back circuit.
Flood
Light
Fuse Switch
L
N
Flood Feed back

Light
Fuse Switch
PIR
SENSOR
Basic elements of a closed-loop system

The figure below shows the general form of a basic closed-loop system. It consists
of the following elements:
Comparison element.
The comparison element compares the required or reference value of the variable
condition being controlled with the measured value of what is being achieved and
produces an error signal. It can be regarded as adding the reference signal, which
is positive, to the measured value signal, which is negative in this case.
Error signal = reference value signal - measured value signal
Control element
The control element decides what action to take when it receives an error signal.
Correction element
This sends a signal to the process to produce a change which corrects the
controlled condition.
Process element
The process is what is being controlled.
Measurement element
The measuring element produces a signal related to the variable condition being
controlled.
With the closed-loop system illustrated below for a person controlling the
temperature of a room, the various elements are:
Controlled variable the room temperature.
Reference value the required room temperature.
Comparison element the person comparing the measured value with the
required value of the temperature.
Error signal the difference between the measured and required

temperature.
Control unit the person.
Correction unit the switch on the fire.
Process the electric fire.
Measuring device a thermometer.
The figure shows an example of a simple control system used to maintain a

constant water level in a tank. The reference value is the initial setting of the lever-
arm arrangement so that it just cuts off the water supply at the required level.
When water is drawn from the tank the float moves downwards with the water
level. This causes the lever arrangement to rotate and so allow water to enter the
tank. This flow continues until the ball has risen to such a height that it has moved
the lever arrangement to cut off the water supply. It is a closed-loop control system
with the elements being:
Controlled variable water level in tank.
Reference value initial setting of lever position.
Comparison element the lever.
Error signal the difference between the actual and initial

setting of the lever positions.
Control unit the pivoted lever.
Correction unit the flap opening or closing the water supply.
Process water in the tank.
Measuring device the floating ball and lever.
The figure below shows a simple automatic control system for the speed of rotation
of a shaft. The potentiometer is used to set the reference value, i.e. what voltage is
supplied to the differential amplifier as the reference value for the required speed
of rotation. The differential amplifier is used both to compare and amplify the
difference between the reference and feedback values, i.e. it amplifies the error
signal. The amplified error signal is then fed to a motor which in turn adjusts the
speed of the rotating shaft. The speed of the rotating shaft is measured using a
tacho-generator, connected to the rotating shaft by means of a pair of bevel gears.
The signal from the tacho-generator is then fed back to the differential amplifier.
A feedback loop is a means whereby a signal related to the actual condition being
achieved is fed back to modify the input signal to the process. The feedback is said
to be negative feedback when the signal which is fed back is used to reduce the
difference between the reference value and the actual value of the controlled
variable.
With negative feedback
error signal = reference value - feedback signal
Positive feedback occurs when the signal fed back increases the difference
between the reference and actual values, i.e.
error signal = reference value + feedback
With control systems the feedback signal is combined with the reference value at
the comparison element. This is denoted by the symbol shown in the figure below
with the reference value being marked as a positive signal and the feedback signal
as negative when there is negative feedback and positive when positive feedback.
Modelling a Feedback Loop

The figure below shows a closed-loop motor speed control system in generalised
form, using the symbols almost universally adopted. Here, a voltage corresponding
to a measure of the actual speed ς is compared with a reference voltage, r. The
difference between these two voltages is then amplified and applied to the motor,
hence generating a control action tending to maintain the speed at a value
determined by the reference input.
Let us assume that the motor is modelled by a gain G, the constant of propor-
tionality relating the input voltage to output speed. That is,
Ω = v×G
A generic control loop
This implies that any change in voltage is reflected immediately in a change in

motor speed. No motor can respond instantaneously to a change in applied
voltage, of course, so clearly this model is greatly over-simplified. Nevertheless,
assuming that the system settles down eventually to some steady-state value of
motor speed for a given applied voltage, then the above expression can be used to
model the steady-state condition.
steady _ state _ output Ω ss

G= =
steady _ state _ input vss
The entire analysis of this chapter is subject to this important assumption.

Similarly we can model the velocity transducer by another gain. This time, we
assume that the transducer produces an output voltage proportional to the speed
transducer output voltage = motor speed x H
The output voltage from the transducer is compared with a reference input voltage
r, which is an expression of the desired motor speed. The difference between
these two signals - often known as the error signal - becomes the input to the
amplifier, and the amplifier gain K determines what armature voltage should be
applied to the motor. If the speed is too low, the voltage is therefore increased and
vice versa.
The simplest - and very common - form of general closed-loop controller is known
as a proportional controller, and corresponds to a constant gain, K, acting on the
error signal. In the system in the figure above, the amplifier may be thought of as a
proportional controller, producing a control action proportional to the error signal.
Let us assume that the motor control system of the above figure has reached a
steady state, with the motor running at a constant speed ς in response to a
reference input r volts. In order to assess the performance of the closed-loop
system we need to derive a relationship between r and ς in the absence of any
disturbances.
From the figure we can write down immediately
e = r − HΩ
and
Ω = KGe
hence
Ω = KG (r − H Ω)
Ω = KGr − KGH Ω
changing _ the _ equation
Ω = (1 + KGH ) = KGr
or
KG
Ω= ×r
1 + KGH
KG
Hence the expression corresponds to the closed-loop-gain of the
1 + KGH
complete feedback system - that is, the factor relating the output (speed) to the
reference input in the steady state. The quantity KG is often referred to as the
forward path gain, while KGH is known as the loop gain. Note that the closed loop
gain can therefore be written as
forward _ path _ gain

1 + loop _ gain
It is often more convenient to work with a modified version similar to the above
figure in order to obtain an expression directly relating the actual speed to the
desired motor speed, rather than to a reference input voltage. In this case we can
imagine an input 'desired speed' variable, which is then multiplied by a gain exactly
equivalent to that of the transducer, in order to give an appropriate reference input
voltage, as shown below (a). This procedure models the fact that in general the
comparison between desired and actual values of a controlled variable will be
made in terms of signals representing these measures - an analogue voltage, for
example - and not the numerical values themselves. The additional scaling factor
H is introduced to reflect this.
Now, it makes no difference whether the gain H is applied before or after the
comparator, so long as it is applied to both the signals being compared. Figure (a)
can therefore be re-drawn in the equivalent form of Fig. (b). This is known as the
unity feedback form of the closed-loop system, and is an extremely useful concept
in the modelling process. Remember, however, that we are assuming here that G
and H are pure gains, modelling the steady-state condition.
One further simplification of the unity feedback model can be made. At the design
stage it is often convenient to assume that H = 1 in Fig. (b). This allows design
calculations - such as determining an appropriate value of controller gain K - to be
carried out more simply. When the system is implemented, an appropriately
modified value of K can be used, reflecting the various scaling factors involved in
the practical system.
The preceding general analysis can now be used to illustrate some of the major
features of feedback control. Let us begin by investigating the steady-state error,
defined as the difference between desired and actual output when the output has
reached a steady, constant value. The unity feedback model of (b) makes it
particularly easy to relate closed-loop static gain to steady-state error. The error
may be calculated easily from the closed-loop gain.
Example D
A motor speed control loop can be modelled in unity-feedback form by the figure
above. Express the steady-state error as a percentage of desired speed if the
controller gain K is
(i) 1; (ii) 5; and (iii) 10
Solution D
The unity feedback loop with H = 1 has a closed loop gain of
Ωo KG
=
Ωi 1 + KG
where
G=5
as given in the diagram.
Hence with the given values of K, the closed-loop system has a gain of
5
(i) = 0.83 ;
6
25
(ii) = 0.96 ; and
26
50
(iii) = 0.98
51
1 − 0.83
The percentage error for K = 1 is therefore ×100% = 17% .
1
Similarly, we have steady-state errors of 4% and 2% approximately for K = 5 and

10 respectively.
This example illustrates an important general feature of feedback control systems:

assuming that a steady state is eventually reached, the steady-state error is
reduced as the controller gain (or indeed, the loop gain in general) is increased.
Sensitivity of Closed-loop Gain to Changes in Parameters

One of the aims of control system design is that the control system should not be
too sensitive to changes in the parameters of individual components. After all
process parameters can drift with time - or may pot be accurately known in the first
place. Ideally, a control system should continue to satisfy specifications even if this
is the case, so the effects of uncertainties or changes in the parameters of the
various components are of great importance. To examine such effects in general
terms, consider again the initial figure in this section and the closed-loop gain
relating output speed to input reference voltage.
As derived earlier, the fundamental relationship is:
Ω KG
=
r 1 + KGH
Now, if the loop gain is large, that is, KGH >> 1, this reduces to
Ω KG 1
=
r KGH H
In other words, the precise values of K and G have little effect on the closed-loop
gain, providing the loop gain is sufficiently large. The feedback loop is relatively
insensitive to variations in forward path gain. This is not so for variations in the
transducer gain, however. For high loop gain we have
Ω 1
r H
and hence a 10% variation, say, in H to a new value of 1.1 H will result in a new
closed-loop gain of approximately
Ω 1 0.9
=
r 1.1H H
That is, a change in transducer gain of about 10% leads to a change in closed-loop
gain also of about 10%. In general a given percentage variation in feedback path
gain results in a percentage variation in closed-loop gain of approximately the
same magnitude (assuming KGH >> 1). This accords with what we might have
expected intuitively. The transducer measures the output of the process being
controlled, and the control loop cannot reduce error below that introduced by the
measuring process itself. So if transducer gain fluctuates by 10%, introducing error
into the measurement, the loop cannot compensate, and the effective closed loop
gain also varies by a comparable amount.
Open loop transfer function

There are many situations where the transfer function is required for a number of
elements in series, with no feedback loop. Consider three components in series, as
shown below. It is an open-loop system since there is no feedback loop.
For element 1 the transfer function G1 is the output θ1 divided by the input θi. Thus
θ1
G1 =
θ2
For element 2 the transfer function G2 is the output θ2 divided by its input θ1. Thus
θ2
G2 =
θ1
For element 3 the transfer function G3 is the output θ0 divided by its input θ2. Thus
θ0
G3 =
θ2
The overall transfer function of the system is the output θ0 divided by the input θi,
But this can be written as
θ 0 θ1 θ 2 θ 0
= × ×
θ i θ i θ1 θ 2
Hence, for the open-loop system transfer function = G1 x G2 x G3
The overall open-loop transfer function is the product of the transfer functions of
the individual elements. This applies however many elements there are connected
in series.
Example F
The measurement system used with a control system consists of two elements, a
sensor and a signal conditioner as shown below. If the sensor has a transfer
function of O.1mA/Pa and the signal conditioner a transfer function of 20, what will
be the overall transfer function of the measurement system?
Answer F
The sensor and the signal conditioner are in series so the combined transfer
function of the two elements is the product of the transfer functions of the individual
elements.
Transfer function = 0.1 X 20 = 2mA/Pa
System representation
As I mentioned in previous lectures a number of elements may be connected
together to form a system; it will then be necessary to know the overall effect, i.e.
the relationship between the signal coming out of the system and that going in. It is
convenient to represent the system by a block diagram, each block representing
some function of the apparatus, rather than some component. Hence the
electromagnetic movement shown to the right may be broken down into the
following functions:
Multi-element, Multi-loop closed loop transfer function

Consider the closed-loop system shown in Fig. 2.11. The transfer function for the
entire system can by obtained by firstly determining the transfer function for the
three elements in series. Since these have transfer functions G1, G2 and G3, then
their combined transfer function is
T.F. of series elements = G1 x G2 x G3
The closed-loop system shown above can now be replaced by an equivalent

simpler system, as shown below. It is now just a single element with a transfer
function of G1 x G2 x G3, and a feedback loop with a transfer function H. The overall
transfer function for this system is thus
θ0 G1 × G2 × G3
T.F. of system = =
θ i 1 + (G1 × G2 × G3 ) H
Some control systems can have more than one feedback loop, as for example
shown below. This system has two measurement systems to provide feedback. To
obtain the overall transfer function for such a system, the first step is to consider
just one of the loops. Thus for the loop with a transfer function H,, the transfer
function for this combined with the system with transfer function G is
G
T.F. for first loop =
1 + GH1
The system with the two feedback loops can now be replaced by a simpler system
with just one loop, as shown below. The overall transfer function for this system is
thus
G
1 + GH1
T. F. of system =
 G 
1+   H2
1 + GH1 
Rearrange
G
1 + GH1 + GH 2
The figure below is the equivalent system.
Example 1
A position-control system used with a machine tool has an amplifier in series with a
valve-slider arrangement and a feedback loop with a displacement measurement
system as shown. If the transfer functions are as follows, what is the overall
transfer function for the control system?
Transfer functions: amplifier 20mA/V, valve-slider arrangement 12mm/mA,
measurement system 3.0V/mm.
Solution 1
The amplifier and the valve-slider arrangement are in series so the combined
transfer function for the two elements is the product of their separate transfer
functions.
T.F. for the series elements = 20 X 12 = 240mm/V
These elements have a feedback loop with a transfer function of 3.0V/mm. Thus
the overall transfer function of the control system is
G 240
Transfer function = = = 0.333 mm/V
1 + GH 1 + 240 × 3
Effect of disturbances
An important consideration with a control system is the effect of any disturbances.
The closed-loop transfer function derived earlier in this chapter indicates how the
output relates to the set value. Thus in a domestic heating system if the thermostat
setting is changed from 18°C to 20°C then the closed-loop transfer function tells us
how the output of the control system will change. But suppose we do not change
the set value but open a window and let a blast of cold air into the room. How will
the control system output react to this change?
We can describe a control system subject to a disturbance like that described
above by a block diagram of the form shown in below. The disturbance gives an
input to the process element of the control system, in addition to that from the
controller plus correcting unit.
The signal fed back by the measurement system is Hθo. This when combined with
the set value signal of θi means an error signal of
error = θi - Hθo
After the controller plus correction elements the signal becomes
K(θi - Hθo)
This signal has then the disturbance signal d added to it. Hence the signal entering
the process is
K(θi - Hθo) + d
The output θo is thus θo = G[K(θi - Hθo) + d]
θo (1 + GKH) = GKθi + Gd
GK G
and so θ o = θi + d
1 + GKH 1 + GKH
The first term (in red) describes the relationship between the output signal and the
set value, the second term that between the output and the disturbance. The effect
of a disturbance is thus minimised if the controller gain K is increased.
Chapter 4, Digital-to-Analog Conversion
Digital-to-Analog Conversion
When data is in binary form, the 0's and 1's may be of several forms such as the
TTL form where the logic zero may be a value up to 0.8 volts and the 1 may be a
voltage from 2 to 5 volts. The data can be converted to clean digital form using
gates which are designed to be on or off depending on the value of the incoming
signal.
Logic Families
The types of logic devices are classified in "families", of which the most important
are TTL and CMOS. The main families are:
• TTL (Transistor-Transistor Logic), made of bipolar transistors.
• CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) made from MOSFETs
• ECL (Emitter Coupled Logic) for extremely high speeds
• NMOS, PMOS for VLSI large scale integrated circuits.
Data in clean binary digital form can be converted to an analog form by using a
summing amplifier. For example, a simple 4-bit D/A converter can be made with a
four-input summing amplifier. More practical is the R-2R Network DAC.
Four-Bit D/A Converter

One way to achieve D/A conversion is to use a summing amplifier.
From the above sample, the maximum about the would be (1x8+1x4+1x2+1x1=
15)
This approach is not satisfactory for a large number of bits because it requires too
much precision in the summing resistors (resistors by their nature are not
consistent, thus matching is a problem). This problem is overcome in the R-2R
network DAC.
R-2R Ladder DAC

The summing amplifier with the R-2R ladder of resistances shown produces the
output
where the D's take the value 0 or 1. The digital inputs could be TTL voltages which
close the switches on a logical 1 and leave it grounded for a logical 0. This is
illustrated for 4 bits, but can be extended to any number with just the resistance
values R and 2R.
Decimal to Binary(“1”or “0”)
2 Bit Binary 4 Bit Binary 8 Bit Binary

0 00 0 0000 256 Combinations
1 01 1 0001
2 10 2 0010 16 Bit Binary
3 11 3 0011 65,536 Combinations
4 0100
4 Combinations 5 0101 32 Bit Binary
6 0110 4.3million Combinations
7 0111
8 1000
9 1001
10 1010
11 1011
12 1100
13 1101
14 1110
15 1111
16 Combinations
Analog-to-Digital Conversion
The basic principle of operation is to use the comparator principle to determine
whether or not to turn on a particular bit of the binary number output. It is typical for
an ADC to use a digital-to-analog converter (DAC) to determine one of the inputs
to the comparator.
Comparator
The extremely large open-loop gain of an op-amp makes it an extremely sensitive
device for comparing its input with zero. For practical purposes, if
the output is driven to the positive supply voltage and if
it is driven to the negative supply voltage. The switching time for - to + is limited by
the slew rate of the op-amp.
Digital Ramp ADC
Conversion from analog to digital form inherently involves comparator action where
the value of the analog voltage at some point in time is compared with some
standard. A common way to do that is to apply the analog voltage to one terminal
of a comparator and trigger a binary counter which drives a DAC. The output of the
DAC is applied to the other terminal of the comparator. Since the output of the
DAC is increasing with the counter, it will trigger the comparator at some point
when its voltage exceeds the analog input. The transition of the comparator stops
the binary counter, which at that point holds the digital value corresponding to the
analog voltage.
Illustration of 4-bit SAC with 1 volt step size (after Tocci, Digital Systems).
The successive approximation ADC is much faster than the digital ramp ADC
because it uses digital logic to converge on the value closest to the input voltage. A
comparator and a DAC are used in the process.
Figure: The bit-testing sequence used in the successive approximation method.
Resolution (Aside)
(Courtesy of Frank Duignan, school of control systems and electrical engineering).
Consider the situation depicted in the figure below. Ann needs to pass temperature data to person
Bill.
Bulb
Bill
Ann
With a single lamp and switch, Ann can tell Bill whether the temperature is above or below a single
o o
value (for example, below 50 C or above 50 C). With two switches and two lamps, Ann can give
more detailed information.
S1
B1
Bill
S2
B2
Ann
Ann and Bill could agree on the following scheme.
Temperature Bulb2 Bulb1

0-25 Off Off
25-50 Off On
50-75 On Off
75-100 On On
In this case, we could say that the resolution of our system is 25oC.
Question. How many bulbs and switches are needed for a resolution of 1oC over the range
0-100oC?
(End of Aside)
Chapter 5, User Interfaces
Several new user interface technologies and interaction principles seem to define a
new generation of user interfaces that will move off the flat screen and into the
physical world to some extent. Many of these next-generation interfaces will not
have the user control the computer through commands, but will have the computer
adapt the dialogue to the user's needs based on its inferences from observing the
user.
Hardware Operating Programming Terminal Advertising User interface
Generation technology mode languages technology
User types
image paradigm
Mechanical Cloth
Movement of
Joseph Marie weaving None (direct
Punched card loom parts
Jacquard 1801 France hands-on
0
The inventors access to the
-1945 Reading None
Mechanical, Not really themselves hardware was
Pre-history Moving cables blinking lights
electromechanic being "used" the only thing
around and punch
al (Babbage except for that mattered)
cards
1820) calculations.
One user at
Vacuum tubes, TTY,
a time
1 huge machines, Machine typewriter.
"owns" Experts, Computer as
1945-1955 much cooling, language Only used in Programming
machine (but pioneers calculator
Pioneer short mean time 001100111101 the computer
for a limited
between failures. centre.
time only)
Batch
("computer
Transistors; more
as temple" to
2 reliable. Line-oriented Technocrats, Computer as
which you Assembler ADD Command
1955-1965 Computers start terminals professional information
make A,B languages
Historical seeing use ("glass-TTY") computerists processor
offerings to
outside the lab.
get oracle
replies)
Integrated Full screen Specialized
circuits. Timesharing terminals, groups Full-screen
3 Businesses can (online "High-level" alphanumeric without Mechanization strictly
1965-1980 cost-justify transaction languages, characters computer of white-collar hierarchical
Traditional buying processing Fortran, Pascal only. Remote knowledge labor menus and
computers for systems) access (e.g. bank form fill-in
many needs. common. tellers)
Graphical
displays with WIMP
VLSI. Individuals Problem Personal
4 Single user fair resolution. Business (Windows,
can buy their oriented productivity
1980-1995 personal Desktop professionals, Icons, Menus,
own personal languages, (computer as
Modern computers workstations hobbyists and a Pointing
computer spreadsheets tool)
and heavy device)
portables.
"Dynabook"
Wafer-scale
Networked [61],
integration,
5 single user Non-imperative, multimedia
computer-on-a- Computer as Non-command
1996-? systems and possibly I/O, easily Everybody
chip. Individuals entertainment interfaces
Future embedded graphical portable, with
can buy many
systems cellular
computers.
modem.
Table 1
Summary of the generations of computers and user interfaces.
Introduction
Several new user interface technologies and interaction principles define a new
generation of user interfaces that will move off the flat screen and into the physical
world to some extent. Many of these next-generation interfaces will not have the
user control the computer through commands, but will have the computer adapt
the dialogue to the user's needs based on its inferences from observing the user.
History of user interfaces in brief

The original user interfaces in industry were designed to allow the designer of the
system to interact with the process. The user/operator would view a pressure
gauge, temperature gauge, level gauge, or control panel light and using their
experience know the value being measured and turn a valve or switch off a motor
at the control panel in response to this. This type of user interface required the
user of the system to know exactly (have an intimate knowledge) of what the
process was doing and how to alter the process.
Pressure gauge
Control panel door
Control panel back plate
Gate Valve
The operator needs to keep

in their head the operation of
the system.
When computers evolved to have monitors to display the information, the operator
needed to be trained on the use of language instructions in order for the system to
work. The screen looked similar to the command prompt screen as shown below.
Some of the early code was written with selections been completed by using
1,2,3,….
(1) Chemical Plant Alarm Menu

(2) Building Services Alarm Menu
(3) Water Treatment Alarm Menu
The screen displays then began to evolve……
Text based screen interface
Graphical based user interfaced Screen
Now we have developed icon based screens that do not need as much operator
training in order to use the system. For example a user can just manipulate for
example (move this directory into this directory).
Moving this example on further we have equipment such as phones and

photocopiers that do not need any training in order to be used……
Mobile Phone/Photocopier Example JMG WAP Service

You have:
To elaborate this point further lets take the mobile 4 C Emails

6 P Emails
phone/photocopier example. How many of you have gone on your 3 C Voice Msg
2 P Voice Msg
SELECT DONE
two day “How to use your mobile phone” or “How to use your
photocopier” training
session? The makers of
Not as much these products have
process designed the user
training
interface to be intuitive
information
needed. to the user. Making it
easy to use and manipulate.
How would you find answering
the call using a list of instructions like
“MPA-(Make Phone Active)” and “AC-
Answer Call”. Or trying to make 16
photocopies using similar type text
instructions and the machine just
standing there because all the
instructions were not in the correct
The operator is
order. They would not be used as
prompted on the much are they are or as quickly and
best operation of easily.
the system.
Windows based applications

You have most likely experienced graphical user interfaces at this stage of your
education. In the image below I show a blank page in the famous Microsoft Word
program. On the above line of the program you can see File, Edit View, Insert,
Format, Tools etc. This layout is consistent for all the Microsoft packages, and
some of the third party packages using the Microsoft Operating System. So less
training is required in order to find your way around the product and use it.
The layout of the PowerPoint Program
The layout of the Outlook Program
The layout of the Third Party Genesis Package by Iconics.
This layout has been used in Apple since 1982 as shown below and had been at
the centre of the computer revolution.
So the point and click has been around a long time and it allows the user of the
system complete tasks without needing to know the specific instructions. All the
functionality is hidden from the user by the designer.
Then below that line there are a number of Icons. Technically of all icons are
buttons with a picture on them (associated with) as shown below. So the buttons
are a very important tool and have ease of use by the user.
Text verses icon/images on buttons

In most languages and cultures an image
Motarbhus Gluaistean
BUS Car
Autobus Auto
Scath Baisti
Umbrella
Parapluie
So what components make up a standard user interface?
Static Text
The static text is used by the designer to give information about what is shown on
the screen. Say the labels on the tanks are static text identifying each. Or Static
text on the buttons or general text around the screen been displayed to the user.
Dynamic Information
Dynamic information is used by the designer so information can be shown to the
operator. Take for example the moving tank level
Dynamic Information
Dynamic Text
Dynamic text is used by the designer so information can be shown to the operator.
Take for example the moving tank level
Dynamic Text
Buttons
The use of the button in interfaces is wide spread. The downward stroke or the
upward stroke can be used to initiate. The designer can also use the double click
to initiate the operation.
By clicking on the
Symbol below we can
call the button routine
In the Genesis package for example the clicking of

a mouse can:
Load a display
Popup Window
Embedded Window
Drag/Drop Load
Download values
Toggle values
Run VB Script
Etc. as show.
This makes the button a very important tool to the
system designer.
The user is forced to use the feature exactly the
way it was designed to be used. “No expertise
implied, or previous knowledge of an instruction
type”
Check Boxes/Radio Boxes

The Check Boxes/Radio Boxes is completed in the same way as a tick would be
made beside a work list. It’s done or not. However in the modern SCADA the
Check Boxes/Radio Boxes have been taken to another level. They highlight
selectable options.
The designer allows the user

Check the box with a tick when
They want the operation to take
Place. Otherwise it is un checked
The check box can perform just as many tasks as the button.
In the example below the check box titled “Click here to view smoke removal
mode” is clicked on and off and you can see the hidden information comes forward
or remains hidden depending on the tick of the check box.
Combo Boxes or Selection Boxes

The combo box is used to offer to the user a list of options the designer will allow
them have. It forces the user to select from these. On well developed screens the
selection are self explanatory see the mask as shown below. How many decimal
places are needed in the display?
Choose XXXXX.XX
XXX.XXX
XX.XXXXXX
Etc
Combo
Box
User forced to
Select from
the selection
List.
So where on an existing control panel door are these types user interface?
Dynamic Information
Air Handling Unit No. 1 Static Text

RUN STOP TRIPPED
START STOP BUZZER
Check Switches
EMERGENCY
STOP
ISOLATOR
Selector switches Dynamic Text

Combo switches
Description Classic Control Panel Door HMI

Static Text The label is displayed on the control panel The HMI can display static text in the form of a
door and does not change during the text statement. This statement has the added
operation of the process. benefit of being divided up into segments.
Each segment allows for exact text to be
displayed but also allows for the text to jump
to another segment and display that static
text. This is similar to hyper-linking within a
web page.
The text is still considered static as it does not
change for the life of the programs operation.
Dynamic Dynamic information is displayed in the form Dynamic information can be displayed in the
Information of lights, counters, hour run displays and form changing text, for example stopped or
segment displays. running. It can be displayed in the form of a
counter or timer value. It can also be
displayed in the form of a bar graph.
More graphics are available on the newer HMI
panels.
Input The input information can be in the form of a Input information can be set up using buttons
Information button or set-point adjuster on the control to turn equipment on or off on the HMI or
panel door. touch screen buttons on the newer HMI
panels.
The system can be setup similar to the mobile
phones with a nested array of different
interfacing screens
Operation The operator needs to be trained on what the Compare the HMI to a panel on the
interface buttons and lights mean in relation to the photocopier or mobile phone. The interface is
process. If a person was taken in off the street storyboarded to ensure the operator can only
they would have difficulty in interfacing with do what the system lets them do. If a
the process photocopier gets jammed it displays ways to
solve the problem i.e. open door 2 then lift tray
7 etc. The mobile phone is similar. When you
are receiving a call the screen changes to ask
if you want to answer or not.
Section 6, Fault finding and maintenance

By now you should he familiar with reading and interpreting schematic diagrams
that detail electrical systems. Our main emphasis so far in course has been on
getting to know about: equipment, systems and diagrams. The ability to read
diagrams and use them to understand the working of plant and machinery will help
when you have to repair and maintain plant.
In the previous lectures we described an actual situation, relating the schematic

diagram to the physical components and their sequence of operation.
Let's look now at fault finding.
Fault finding
Whether faults could have been prevented is not usually of prime importance at the
time they occur. The main thing is to diagnose, repair and restore normal working
as quickly as possible because loss of production, called downtime, is costly in
time, money and effort - all of which can reduce profit. To be able to respond to
any kind of fault call you need to be prepared and organised. That means not only
having the correct tools available, but also the necessary drawings, manufacturer's
information, fault-finding aids and spare parts.
To be prepared for this, you should do your 'homework' on the machine:
1. Study drawings and manufacturer's information.

2. Learn how equipment operates.
Remember- Good preparation and a logical approach are the best ways to help
yourself Faults never happen when it is convenient, and repair is usually wanted
yesterday!
To fault find successfully, you must learn how to think a problem through logically.
Once you've gained the necessary experience, you'll:
1. Be able to find the causes of problems quickly.
2. Have greater skills in making repairs,
3. Gain confidence in your ability to analyse problems, especially when

breakdowns occur.
Remember these six important steps to successful fault finding:

1. Collect the evidence
Having discovered a fault, people often think they have to be seen doing
something. They make a guess and dive straight in without thinking. Don't be
rushed. Be methodical and note down details of what you see, e. g. position of
cylinders, switches etc. This information will be invaluable to you later as you
diagnose the problem.
2. Analyse the evidence

Consider all the evidence logically to ensure that no piece of information has been
missed.
3. Locate the fault

As well as analysing the evidence, you will need to use some of the aids described
below, and perhaps special test equipment to isolate the faulty component.
4. Determine and remove causes

Before making the repair you must ask why the fault has occurred, then find and
remove the cause. If this is not done, the fault ' is likely to happen again.
5. Rectify the fault

Adjustment, repair or replacement must happen ONLY after step 4 has been
completed.
6. Check system
When you have repaired the fault and cause, you must run the system to check
that it is working.
You must use at least the above six steps to be successful.
And after you've gone through these six steps there's something else you should
do. Record what you've done somewhere so other people can see what's gone
wrong and what you have done to put it right.
Remember the cause of the fault may be in a different skill area. It may even have
occurred at a different time.
Chapter 7, SCADA
What is SCADA?
SCADA stands for Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition. As discussed earlier
it is not designed for taking over the millisecond by millisecond running of the
process. Its purpose is to allow the supervisor to have a larger view and high level
control of a large process. The operator can view and change set-points. It is
important to note that it is not solely necessary that the SCADA system be
connected to an engineering project or system. Data Acquisition could also be
financial or commercial and its supervisory proportion could be business rules.
But for this course let’s consider the engineering side.
Say for example: a room temperature. The temperature in a room would be

displayed on the PC. The operator could change the value from 16 degrees to 18
degrees. This instruction is then handed down to the address in the PLC where the
room temperature is being stored and from then on the PLC controls the system to
give 18 degrees. Another example is shown in the diagram below. It shows a
graphical representation of a process where the operator sees the entire system
can turn off/on equipment and view and change set points.
What does a SCADA package do?

Most SCADA packages have the following:
• Graphical representation of the process to be controlled
• Trend data against itself or time or another data source
• Alarm if a condition has been achieved.
• Data logging
• Historical information
• Server Database
Graphical representation.
The display shown above is a graphical representation of a specific batch process.

The tank as three ports, two at the top feeding controlled by the valves and one at
the bottom extracting being controlled by the pump. The operator can click on the
switch to get the system to work. This switch is linked to the address in the PLC via
the OPC server to PC Driver to PLC RS232 or RS484 or TCP/IP format input
changing the data from a ‘0’ to a ‘1’. Thus when the operator presses the switch on
the mimic it actually closes a contact in the PLC getting the batch process started.
All the other controls work in the same fashion.
There is one thing showing a graphical representation of the process, it is another

to showing the actual process and over
Trending
A common requirement in industry is to view the trend of the process. Consider
this example:
If a marshmallow product was being manufactured by a company. Normally
everything would be going well, but occasionally the product manufacture failed
causing the marshmallow to shrivel at the end of the process. If this failure
happened a number of times it is possible It would be possible to search through
the history of process during this failure and try identify a common condition that
could explain the cause of the fault. Perhaps it could be the air temperature.
• The parameters to be trended in a specific chart can be predefined or
defined on-line
• A chart may contain more than 8 trended parameters or pens and an
unlimited number of charts can be displayed (restricted only by the
readability)
• Real-time and historical trending are possible, although generally not in the
same chart
• Historical trending is possible for any archived parameter
• Zooming and scrolling functions are provided
• Parameter values at the cursor position can be displayed
Alarms
In a manufacturing process it is possible for something to go out of control.

Perhaps it is a pump failing to start or a heat exchanger over heating. Under these
conditions it is the responsible of the SCADA system to inform the operator by
displaying a warning or by paging the mobile of the operator. The alarm system
would scan the OPC server similar to the way the PLC has a scan cycle and if an
element has gone out of its required range it would take the appropriate action.
Data logging
The details being processed in the Server Database are live values. In some cases
the operator may wish to store this information for historical purposes or for legal
records. Therefore every scan cycle copied into the server database an additional
copy is written to a file where it could be retrieved later. This facility is called data
logging. In the example below it can be seen that data sample snap shots are
stored and can be searched and displayed in the form of a graph. This is still data
logging and also covers the trend graph.
Trend Graph of Data/Time

Data Changes Date/Time
Changes 1
PLC Data:30/12/06: 15:12:20

X0 1
X1 PLC0 Data:30/12/06: 15:12:25
X2 X0 0 1
X3 X1 1 0
Y0 X2 1 PLC0 Data:30/12/06: 15:12:30
01 X3 1 X0 1 0 0
Data:30/12/06: 15:12:20
Data:30/12/06: 15:12:25
Data:30/12/06: 15:12:30
Data:30/12/06: 15:12:35
Data:30/12/06: 15:12:40
Y0 X1 0
1 PLC Data:30/12/06: 15:12:35
01 X2 1 X0 0 0
X3 1
Y0 X1 1PLC 0Data:30/12/06: 15:12:40
01 X2 1X0 0 1
X3 X1 1 0
Y0 X2 1 0
01 X3 1 1
Y0 1
01 1
Historical information
It is important that the data logging material can be viewed using the SCADA
package it self. This facility would let the operator run a simulation using the
historical information as its inputs as if it was real live current data. This could be
used for training or fault finding retrospectively.
Server Database
The server database mentioned here is the real worker behind the SCADA system.
All the data from the connection to the PLC (Address and Data) is populated into
the server database and a work engine (kernel) keeps the database working. The
one in this example is called an OPC server (OLE for Process Control, (OLE
stands for Object Linking and Embedding))
SCADA System Model.
Most SCADA models consist of a PLC, Network Communication method, PC and

PC Software. A simple model is shown below.
PLC Ladder Logic

Address
X001
Data
1
X001 X002
Scan PLC Side
Y001
X002 0 Cycle
M001 21
M002 32
M003 65
Y001 1 X003
END
Y002 0
A snap shot of the scan cycle with ONLY the Address and Data being transmitted from the
PLC communication port with the 2D array flattened as shown below. This is done
by starting in the top left going right and down to the next line, and so on.
Address Data X0.001 1 X0.002 0 X0.003 1 X0.004 1
When transmitting data digitally the data is given a HEADER and all the items in
RS232/484 the array are separated by a delimiter in this case a semicolon ‘;’ and the message
or TCP/IP is ended with a TRAILING command used a the communication level.
HEADER;Address;Data;X0.001;1;X0.002;0;X0.003;1;X0.004;1;TRAILER
Communication
The driver running on the PC accepts the communication © John McGrory
PLC DRIVER message and recompiles it into a 2D layout again
The OPC kernel keeps the data updated and ensures the
data is in set limits, alarming when necessary PC Side
Address Data
Package
SCADA
Genesis
OPC Server
Added Text
X0.001 1
Address
X0.002 0
Data
X0.003 1
X0.004 1
Item by item the address

and data is copied and
populated into the OPC
SERVER Database
Dangers
One of the biggest dangers in using the SCADA system is the operator is remote
from the process. It is therefore possible for a process to be started without all the
necessary safety procedures been taken. An example of this could be an operator
is in a machine maintaining it, as it is currently not operating. The main operator,
who is unaware of this, starts up the process causing injury or worse to the
maintenance operator.
Chapter 8, PID
What Is PID
PID stands for Proportional, Integral, Derivative. Controllers are designed to
eliminate the need for continuous operator attention. Cruise control in a car and a
house thermostat are common examples of how controllers are used to
automatically adjust some variable to hold the measurement (or process variable)
at the set-point. The set-point is where you would like the measurement to be.
Error is defined as the difference between set-point and measurement.
(error) = (set-point) - (measurement)
The variable being adjusted is called the manipulated variable which usually is
equal to the output of the controller. The output of PID controllers will change in
response to a change in measurement or set-point. Manufacturers of PID
controllers use different names to identify the three modes. These equations show
the relationships:
P Proportional Band = 100/gain

I Integral = 1/reset (units of time)
D Derivative = rate = pre-act (units of time)
Depending on the manufacturer, integral or reset action is set in either time/repeat

or repeat/time. One is just the reciprocal of the other. Note that manufacturers are
not consistent and often use reset in units of time/repeat or integral in units of
repeats/time. Derivative and rate are the same.
Proportional Band
With proportional band, the controller output is proportional to the error or a change
in measurement (depending on the controller).
(controller output) = (error)*100/(proportional band)
With a proportional controller offset (deviation from set-point) is present. Increasing

the controller gain will make the loop go unstable. Integral action was included in
controllers to eliminate this offset.
Integral
With integral action, the controller output is proportional to the amount of time the
error is present. Integral action eliminates offset.
CONTROLLER OUTPUT = (1/INTEGRAL) (Integral of) e(t) d(t)
Notice that the offset (deviation from set-point) in the time response plots is now
gone. Integral action has eliminated the offset. The response is somewhat
oscillatory and can be stabilized some by adding derivative action.
Integral action gives the controller a large gain at low frequencies that results in
eliminating offset and "beating down" load disturbances. The controller phase
starts out at –90 degrees and increases to near 0 degrees at the break frequency.
This additional phase lag is what you give up by adding integral action. Derivative
action adds phase lead and is used to compensate for the lag introduced by
integral action.
Derivative
With derivative action, the controller output is proportional to the rate of change of
the measurement or error. The controller output is calculated by the rate of change
of the measurement with time.
dm
CONTROLLER OUTPUT = DERIVATIVE ----
dt
Where m is the measurement at time t.
Some manufacturers use the term rate or pre-act instead of derivative. Derivative,
rate, and pre-act are the same thing.
DERIVATIVE = RATE = PRE ACT
Derivative action can compensate for a changing measurement. Thus derivative
takes action to inhibit more rapid changes of the measurement than proportional
action. When a load or set-point change occurs, the derivative action causes the
controller gain to move the "wrong" way when the measurement gets near the set-
point. Derivative is often used to avoid overshoot.
Derivative action can stabilize loops since it adds phase lead. Generally, if you use
derivative action, more controller gain and reset can be used.
With a PID controller the amplitude ratio now has a dip near the center of the
frequency response. Integral action gives the controller high gain at low
frequencies, and derivative action causes the gain to start rising after the "dip". At
higher frequencies the filter on derivative action limits the derivative action. At very
high frequencies (above 314 radians/time; the Nyquist frequency) the controller
phase and amplitude ratio increase and decrease quite a bit because of discrete
sampling. If the controller had no filter the controller amplitude ratio would steadily
increase at high frequencies up to the Nyquist frequency (1/2 the sampling
frequency). The controller phase now has a hump due to the derivative lead action
and filtering. The time response is less oscillatory than with the PI controller.
Derivative action has helped stabilize the loop.
Control Loop Tuning

It is important to keep in mind that understanding the process is fundamental to
getting a well designed control loop. Sensors must be in appropriate locations and
valves must be sized correctly with appropriate trim.
In general, for the tightest loop control, the dynamic controller gain should be as
high as possible without causing the loop to be unstable.
Fine Tuning "Rules"

This picture (from the Loop Simulator) shows the effects of a PI controller with too
much or too little P or I action. The process is typical with a dead time of 4 and lag
time of 10. Optimal is red.
You can use the picture to recognize the shape of an optimally tuned loop. Also
see the response shape of loops with I or P too high or low. To get your process
response to compare, put the controller in manual change the output 5 or 10%,
then put the controller back in auto.
P is in units of proportional band. I is in units of time/repeat. So increasing P or I,

decreases their action in the picture.
Starting PID Settings For Common Control Loops
Chapter 9, Computerised Control System Architectures

Building automation systems are categorised by the functions they perform. They
range from systems that simply monitor building conditions to systems that monitor
environments, control equipment, and apply artificial intelligence to execute
complex control routines in anticipation of future events. Three systems used are
the energy management system, energy management and control system, and
facilities management and control system.
Energy Management System (EMS)

The ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (EMS) encompasses control devices and
systems ranging from simple two-position timer controllers to sophisticated digital
computers. Just about any product that can reduce energy consumption is being
touted as an energy management system. The main difference between true EMS
and glorified time clocks is the ability of the EMS to receive and transmit analogue
input and output signals. Energy cannot be effectively managed without closed-
loop feedback. For instance, an outside air temperature signal tells the EMS when
to fire the boilers or to what degree to modulate a hot-water mixing valve; without
an analogue feedback signal, the system would be operating in an open-loop
fashion. EMS systems are commonly used for monitoring energy demand,
indicating status, and producing alarm responses to status changes in control
conditions.
Energy management and control system

ENERGY MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL SYSTEMS (EMCS) perform control
routines, monitor building conditions, measure energy consumption, and execute
control actions to manage the variables of an HVAC system in accordance with
strict instructions given to the system by the system programmer and building
operator. They are supervisory in nature and are meant to assist building operators
by collecting and evaluating information.
Facilities management and control system (FMCS) and building management

system (BMS)
The FACILITIES MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL SYSTEM (FMCS) and
BUILDING MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (BMS) grew out of the integration of HVAC
control, lighting control, fire and life safety control, and security control systems by
using a common computer to monitor and override the operation of the individual
systems. FMCS’s provide monitoring and control functions as well as supporting
communication between the HVAC control and other systems within the building.
This communication is transmitted digitally, usually by relay contact closures to
alert other systems to a problem that has emerged.
Summary of Energy Saying Strategies

Simple Strategies
1. Reduce fan and pump motor speeds using variable frequency drives.
2. Stage the operation of chillers in multiple chillier systems.
3. Stage the operation of chilled- and hot-water pumps.
1. Stage the operation of cooling tower fans and re-circulation pumps;

modulate the speed: of cooling tower fans based on condenser water return
temperature.
2. Reduce demand on mechanical cooling and beating equipment using
outside-air temperature economisation techniques.
Complex Strategies
3. Reset cooling supply-air temperature to zones based on building demand.
4. (Dual-duct systems) Reset heating supply-air temperature to zones based
on building demand.
5. (Dual-duct systems) Reset hot-water supply temperature to heating coils to
modulate heating supply-air temperature in response to building demand;
modulate the hot-water supply temperature until the hot deck maintains Its
set point with heating valves full open.
6. Reset chilled-water supply temperature to cooling coils to modulate cooling
supply-air temperature in response to building demand; modulate the chilled
water supply temperature until the supply-air temperature reaches set point
with cooling valves full open.
The triangle of automation
CIB
Integrated Integrated
Automation Communications
Environment
Security
HVAC Voice
Text
Energy
Controls Image
Data
Intruder CCTV
Fire detection HVAC Telephone Fax Video
Elevators
Access control Conferencing Telex Conferencing
Electrical
E-Mail
The workstation and field function relationships
Workstation Software Field Panel Software

Alarm processing & annunciation
Fire
Security
Smoke
Global HVAC
supervisory
Metering
function
Peak demand limiting
Time scheduling Stop/Start
Night temperature setback
Boiler/chiller optimisation
Energy
Discriminator control Management
Duty cycling
Dry bulb economiser
Enthalpy control
Lighting control
Optimum stop/start
Direct digital control
OMI Graphic system displays
MMI Tabular reports Operator-Machine Interface (OMI) or
Trends logs Man-Machine Interface (MMI)
Compilers
Utilities Database maintenance Program interpreter
Graphic generators
Maintenance Scheduling
Diagnostic Programs
Communication Modules
Operating Systems
Chapter 10, Automated Systems Integration

Overall Integrated System.
One of the most difficult things to complete in the Building Management System is
the seamless integration of all the systems. This integration means that the
independent fire system, security system, building automation system, phone
system etc. need to be connected together. There are three main ways of
achieving this.
1. Independent systems.
When designing the system ensure that all
of the independent systems can work and
would be able to work together on the one
PC. Then the operator of the system can
simply choose an icon on the screen to
access the system preferred. Unfortunately
this means the operator need to learn
several different software packages and will
have to manually change functions linked
between both systems.
2. Integrated systems.
When designing the system ensure that all
of the separate systems save their data and
that it is accessible through a single OPC
server. Then the SCADA package chosen
can be designed to incorporate all the
screens for all the separate systems. The
operator only needs to view one system
software and difficulties in linking two
systems together are lessened as the data
is shared. This system is hard to implement
as it means having a very intimate
knowledge of each system and having a
very patient contractor and a large financial
budget.
3. Internet View systems.

Most modern components in the building such as the Building
Automation System, Security, Fire, Telephone etc. can now all be
accessed using web based interfaced. This allows all the systems be
used without additional software been needed to be installed only a web
browser. The software operation can be distributed to anyway that has
the user name and password with many sessions open at that one time
or just with one session per service component. Providers should be
able to manipulate their web interfaces to give some consistency but it
could be costly and some manual linking would be needed.
Integration
On the following pages I revise what we are trying to do with systems integration.
The Manual systems has a number of advantages 1) Clients to company treated

as people not machines, 2) if an error is noted one of the staff should notice it.
However the system still works but takes time of the skilled staff from the technical
task by having them write a lot and manual labour date time entries and duplication
of documentation. It can also handle many different data types paper, cards
photographs and hand written legers.
Systems integration manual method

Executive
•System paper based Office Worker
•Relying on word of mouth from below •System paper based
•No work flow •Photo copies
•Photo copies •Received documents to be photocopied and resent
•Received documents to be photocopied and resent •Office idle when not in use.
•Office idle when not in use. •Paper faxes received
•Paper faxes received •Hand written diary entries
•Hand written diary entries •Room temperature too hot or cold
•Room temperature too hot or cold •Date and time hand written
•Date and time hand written •Duplication documentation required
•Duplication documentation required •Technical meetings in person required (time wasted travelling)
•Technical meetings in person required (time wasted travelling) •Information in filling cabinet for all to see
•Information in filling cabinet for all to see
•Sharing of information not possible
Reception Building Maintenance

•Answer incoming phone call and direct it to office worker •What needs to be fixed or repaired
•What is in stock or needs to be ordered in
•Takes message if person not there.
•Keeps a manual log of who is in and out •Duplication documentation required
•Duplication documentation required •Information in filling cabinet for all to see
•Information in filling cabinet for all to see •Sharing of information not possible
•Sharing of information not possible •Date and time of fault log by hand
•Hands faxes to staff •Operation and Maintenance manuals
•Who takes over when on break
Fire system
•Independent operation
•Training of staff
•Who tells who when the fire starts and what happens when the person is out Building Security
•Date and time hand written •Who should be in and out and when
•What has failed and what needs to be repaired •What belongs to the company or not
•Duplication documentation required •What information can staff have access
•Technical meetings in person required (time wasted travelling) •How are visitors checked
•Information in filling cabinet for all to see •Who need to be called in a breach
•Sharing of information not possible
Systems integration streamlined method

Office Worker
•No photocopies, faxes scanned & e-mailed
•Each office adjusts to any staff member temp & VDU
•Electronic diary entries viewable and sharable
Printer •Automatic Room temperature adjustment from VDU
Receptions •Video conferencing no technical meetings in person
Call Centre •Information on server user password required
•Common printer
Reception •Phone integrated to computer
•Incoming phone call routed automatically •Remote access to voice mail.
•Voice mail message on persons phone. •Most communication via e-mail
•In & out log automatic when staff swipe in •Staff outside can work from home
•Only answer calls not auto routed •Wireless connection in office away from desk
•More of a chance to meet visitors •See name and details from server of caller
•Hands free and voice dialling and dictation
•Write own letters and documents distribution of work
Office Server
•On Screen dialling and networking
•All staff set up work space
•Centralised backup Office server
•Centralised Processing © John McGrory Wireless LAN
Phone Lines in Connection
Firewall
Building Maintenance
Phone Hub •IBMS lists equipment to be maintained and repaired
•Date and time of fault log automatically
•Automatic Inventory of building and spares
•Automatic ordering of spares
•All equipment O&M manuals electronic pdf type files
PC with software to •Sharing of information possible
update Phone hub •Anybody can log problems by e-mail or phone
And the firewall •Energy management automatic
Staff working from •Phone, Electricity bills predicted and accounts alerted
Home or away from
desk
Fire system
•Integrated operation notice on VDU generated when fire present
General Notes Switch and Hub •Safety routines pre-programmed
•All access to phone internet and specific files need user to •The specific staff logged in that day are automatically called.
enter password • Services automatically Ambulance and fire
•Date and time of fault log, diary and entrance and exit •Automatic log of what has failed and what needs to be repaired
times automatic
•Sharing of information possible one access level is cleared
•Minimal paper
•Individuals have centralised storage space on sever
Building Security
•Technical meetings via video conferencing (no time
•Magnet door swipe cards-who should be in and out and when
wasted travelling)
•All equipment tagged- what belongs to the company or not
•All calls with caller ID and undesirable calls automatically
•Automatic access to appropriate information
sent to Voice mail
•How are visitors checked and tracked automatically
•Faxes received in electronic form
•Automatically calls logged in staff when in a breach
Executive
•System paperless and work flow process observable Executive
•Can see what is happening and not relying on word of mouth from below Telephone
•Office in use all the time as server access is limited.
•Overall log of who is in and who is out
•Date and time of issues logged automatically
Staff using the integrated WAP services would be made aware of any private or
company e-mails/voice messages.
JMG WAP Service

You have:
4 C Emails
6 P Emails
3 C Voice Msg
2 P Voice Msg
SELECT DONE
The more automated integrated system is faster and allows for information to be
shared and used easier. All purchase and service contracts can be implemented
without the fear of hidden and undocumented complications which are dusted
under the carpet in the manual job.
All documentation is view as a fresh copy and not the 15th fax copy of a document
that is unreadable.
Gives the company a professional impression to the outside world.
Integration is the avoidance of islands of automation which

cannot communicate
Out of 100% effort to integrate the system the following breakdown could be realised.
5% Management of the project.
5% Scanners, printers and bar-coding. (Standard Equipment easy to set up, no design)
5% Interface computer screens for staff and supervisors.
80% Database (Design, unique to this application)
6% Validation checking (Design, unique to this application)
4% Networks (Standard Equipment easy to set up, no design)
Chapter 11, Systems Integration
The word “Systems” describes a set of connected things or parts organised

together. It can be software, hardware, administrative or other.
The word 'integrated' can be interpreted in two different ways. When several
operations or functions or items of data are integrated, the component parts should
not really be distinguishable from the whole if the term 'integrated' is to be used
accurately. This accurate use of 'integrated' is not its meaning when used in CIM.
CIM uses “integration” to mean 'linked'. This difference is illustrated by the example
of the figure below.
Figure(a) shows a machining centre which can be said to integrate a drilling

machine, a milling machine and a boring machine because a machining centre is a
multi-purpose machine. A machining centre's spindle is designed to be able to
resist the thrust forces of drilling and the lateral forces of milling as well as
maintaining the accuracy needed for boring. These capabilities are integrated
within one machine. However, a drilling machine, a milling machine and a boring
machine could also be integrated by having them linked through a work handling
system and a common control system as in a flexible manufacturing system (FMS)
or in a three-machine transfer line, as indicated in Figure(b). But the machining
centre and the FMS are different. Although the FMS links the machines and
provides for the transport of parts, for the transport (or communication) of part data
and the sequencing of information between the machines, it has not truly
integrated the machines. The drilling machine and the boring machine can still be
used as standalone machines. Most 'integration' of this second type involves
linking things which keep the form they had when they were not linked. This is the
integration of CIM. Comparatively little integration is of the complete 'machining
centre' type.
Figure 1.1 Integration (a) single machine

integrates the function of drilling, milling
and boring. (b) three separate machines
are linked in a flexible manufacturing
system
This example has used two types of machining system to illustrate a semantic
point. Subsequent lectures show that CIM is concerned with the integration of
• Computer systems, through networks and suitable interfaces (Industrial

Ethernets, RS232, RS485 etc.)
• Computer system software
• Business processes, activities and tasks
• All company data and information, through databases
• Manufacturing processes and activities, through networks
All working together to better the manufacturing process.
Fig 1.2 Reference model for manufacturing

control system illustrating scope of CIM
In Fig1.2 above we show a reference model for manufacturing control system

illustrating scope of CIM.
In the lobby of IBM Microcontrollers Division in Dublin is a poster and it says “None
of us are greater than all of us” and in the area of Systems Integration that is also
true “No component is greater the full system”.
In the days of old when components needed to be manufactured, an engineer

would design the component and select the material. This design would be handed
over to a manufacturing engineer who would get it machined by the qualified
milling machine operators, lathe operators etc. Each of these
craftsmen/craftswomen would have been trained in how their machined operate
and how the material being used changes depending on how the machining takes
place.
Let’s take an example. If the material to be machined was a plastic bar. It is

handed to the lathe operator and he beings work. He knows if he takes too much
material off the plastic bar in the one cut it will most likely over heat the material
rendering the finished component worthless. This knowledge dictates the time to
machine and thus the product cost.
In today’s modern era a considerable amount of the work now automated is

enormous and as a result this automation needs to be managed and controlled.
The government in the early nineties came up with a strategy which asked the
question what will manufacturing and materials be like in the year 2015. They put
together a task force to investigate this and report back. This strategy was called
Technology Foresight and was managed by Forfas. It included Academics,
Industry, Scientists and anybody from the general public could make comments or
recommendations at the time. All the information was gathered and debated by a
committee. Manufacturing and Materials was only one area other areas such as
the marine, Informatics and health sciences were included.
A simplified result of the Technology Foresight for Manufacturing and Materials is if

a company is to exceed in Ireland in the future it needs to make its products
cheaper, faster from concept-prototype-end product and produce a product with
more flexibility in uses.
Chapter 12, Computer Integrated Manufacture

Islands of automation and software
The example of the flexible manufacturing system-linking machines, which can
also operate as standalone units, is directly analogous to how CIM seeks to link
computer software that has developed as standalone software. In many instances
the standalone software has only been able to run on one computer type or a very
restricted range of computers. Thus the software and hardware have been
isolated. When such computers have been used to control machines, the
combination has been termed an island of automation. When software is similarly
restricted in its ability to link to other software, this can be called an island of
software.
CAD and design

This section presents details of some of these islands, relating them to design
developments in their standalone mode of operation. There are three reasons for
this presentation.
(a) It will enable the integration processes to be better appreciated when
they are covered later.
(b) The link of CAD to CAM was the first step on the road to CIM.
(c) Thirdly, design is the starting point for many other company activities.
Most companies' computing activities - or what were known as data processing

activities - began in the finance department with the processing of the weekly
wages and payroll calculations. Other applications followed with the common
characteristic that they were all implemented through databases. Databases are a
very important part of the CIM picture, but the early commercial databases stayed
fairly self-contained and they had little influence on CAD data structures. Thus the
beginning of CAD can be considered independently.
CAD with analysis will be called computer aided engineering (CAE).
This distinction does not completely remove the confusion which arises from the
word 'design' because 'design' can have many aspects. Some of these aspects are
summarised below.
Conceptual design:
This starts the process of converting ideas into reality, familiarly said to be carried
out on the back of an envelope. If conceptual design is successful, it may lead to a
more formalised design scheme which can be called layout design.
Layout design:
This stage produces a layout drawing showing all the important parts and their
relationships. For large products, each major assembly will also be shown as a
layout. Layout design is supported by drafting.
Drafting:
Once a product has been laid out, the next phase is to determine the shapes of all
the individual parts so they can be manufactured. Many parts will be judged not to
be critical and a detail drawing of the part can be produced directly from the
assembly drawing by a draftsperson. These drawings are not generally called
manufacturing drawings, although this is what they are and they should contain all
the information necessary for a manufacturing engineer to plan for the parts to be
manufactured. Parts that are critical will go through a process of design analysis.
Design analysis:
Design analysis comprises all the calculations necessary to ensure a product
design is optimised in terms of performance, materials used and costs. Analysing
designs for materials usage can involve carrying out various forms of stress
calculations. Cost analyses may involve comparing designs which exploit the
properties of particular materials in particular ways. Performance analysis may
include the evaluation of fluid flows in the spaces not filled by material and the
evaluation of the vibrational behaviour of a product in response to different
excitation frequencies.
Many of these analyses require the solution of equations which mathematically

model the parameters being investigated. The equations can be solved by
mathematical techniques and the algorithms to solve them can be programmed on
a computer. It is this extensive range of programming, which developed as
computers developed, that was initially (and correctly) called computer aided or
assisted design. It might also have been called computer assisted design
analysis (CADA), but this distinction was not necessary before 1960 and has not
been made since. It was the computerisation of (or the computer assistance in) the
creation of geometry that Ivan Sutherland initiated in 1963 and it was this form of
CAD, geometrical CAD, that was also called CAD when it started to appear on the
commercial scene in the 1970s.
Geometrical CAD development was developed by the major aircraft companies

and some car manufacturers by investing significant sums in writing computer
software to handle surface geometry calculations. Aircraft and car manufacturers
both produce products whose external forms have few, if any, flat surfaces or
straight edges. Computers offered significant time savings in the calculations
needed to specify such surfaces. The programs were originally numerical and did
not produce a visual output. However, the improvement in the capabilities of
plotters and visual display units (VDUS) eventually led to these packages being
adapted to produce graphical output, thus becoming a form of CAD system.
CAD Systems and modellers

The amount of CAD systems available to engineers today is enormous. They are
all developed for specific purposes. Lets look a few systems:
Firstly the specification of the geometry of a part, an assembly or a product when

held on a CAD system is known as a model.
There are three main types of modellers for representing geometry:

(a) Wire-Frame
(b) Surface
(c) Solid
(d) Objects Orientated.
Wire-Frame
In wire-frame models, lines (or wires) represent just the edges of a part's geometry
and it is only the edges and the corners (vertices) where they meet which are
represented. The vertices are derived from their 3D co-ordinates. Part geometry is
created in terms of entities such as lines, arcs and circles, which form the edges;
and points, which form the vertices. Some CAD systems only handle 2D geometry,
directly equivalent to the orthogonal projections on a typical drawing.
Figure 2.2 Wire frame drawing

Surface modellers
These have been developed to represent continuously curved surfaces, such as
the geometry of aerofoils, of turbine blades or of car bodies. One main industry
which have taken to this modeling method is computer animation. Everything from
cars to dinosaurs have need depicted with this system. Cross-sections and
longitudinal sections of surfaces are taken and the surface lines of these sections
can be characterised mathematically by polynomials called splines. Alternatively,
the surface can be considered as a series of patches which may have four curved
edges. The surface can be approximated by specifying the corners of the patches
and the slope of the surface in three orthogonal directions at the corners. Other
approaches are also used.
Solid modellers
Solid modellers are true 3D modellers in which both geometry and topology are
defined completely. These models not only have edges and surfaces, they also
know what is solid and what is space. If you take a section through a solid model,
you get a true representation of what you are sectioning with all edges shown. If
you want the cross-section cross-hatched, this can be done because the modeller
knows what is solid and what is space. Equally, because solid models are
complete, they have other information which can be found from them. 'Mass
properties' - centroids, volume, mass, moments of inertia, second moments - all of
them can be calculated from solid models. Most CAD system suppliers now supply
these routines as standard. Interference checking is a similar capability, useful
when arranging solid models of separate parts to form an assembly. This
determines whether any two specified parts are touching, have clearance or
interfere.
The completeness of solid models has led to them being termed product models,
because they now contain more information than just geometry. A product may
comprise a few parts or have many thousands.
Computer power for this modelling type is high but as processing power gets
cheaper this method is becoming very common in industry.
It is now possible to interact, and play with a product in virtual space and debug its
problems without leaving the computer environment. Therefore the end product
would/should require very little changes as a result.
Computer Aided Manufacture

Manufacturing is a far larger domain than computer aided manufacturing, and
design is a far larger domain than CAD. Looking at the many types of
manufacturing can substantiate this statement exist. Thus, manufacturing may be
classified under several headings:
Discrete part:
Individual parts are progressively produced from raw material. The individual parts
are then assembled into a product such as a washing machine, a car or a jumbo
jet.
Process manufacture:
A substantial part of the processing of the raw material into product takes place
with the material in fluid form; heat and pressure are often involved. Examples
occur in petrochemical plants, pharmaceuticals, food manufacture, paper and
glass manufacture. The final stages of process manufacturing systems often

involve discrete production methods because the fluid may be canned or bottled
into individual containers or the product itself becomes solid, as with glass.
Mass production:
The continuous production of the same product by machines and processes
dedicated to produce the product. Examples of mass production are growing fewer
and fewer. Some parts of cars and particularly parts of car engines are made on
dedicated machinery. The majority of industry manufactures products using batch
production.
Batch production:
Using processes and equipment to produce a certain amount of one product or
part before re-setting the equipment for a different product or part. Batch
production is used by both discrete part and process manufacturers. A batch for a
process manufacturer may be measured in fluid units rather than in items.
Flexible production:
A refinement of batch production in which different products can be produced
sequentially, i.e. the batch size is one.
Jobbing production:
The production of very small quantities and even one-offs, so multi-purpose
machinery is used.
These classifications of manufacture have associated activities which are

computer aided to a significant degree and come under the heading of CAM:
• Technological planning of the approach and detailed methods of manufacture
• Production scheduling and control of the product's manufacture
• Automated and computer controlled manufacture
(a) Technological planning of the approach and detailed methods of manufacture

Technological, operational and process planning describes the process of
determining how products and parts are to be made. It particularly applies to
discrete part manufacture where there are invariably choices available in the
methods of manufacture and where engineering changes to products are
introduced relatively frequently. The main manufacturing processes involved
are casting, welding, forming, machining and assembly. The figure 2.5 below
shows a planning process diagram
Figure 2.5 Planning Process Diagram
(b) Production scheduling and control of the product's manufacture

Production scheduling is one of the early data processing activities. Since the
1960s the scope of scheduling applications has grown significantly to span
materials management, production management and financial recording, often in a
modular yet integrated package. The term scheduling and control is used
generically here to represent these many facets of production management.
The Figure 2.6 below illustrates a partially computerised implementation which

might have existed in the 1970s. Material control and production control are
substantially separate activities. Material control is closely linked with purchasing to
maintain adequate stocks of most items, but items with long lead times might be
dealt with separately. Stock control might have card-based records of all items held
in stores.
Figure 2.6 Partially Computerised Implementation
(c) Automated and computer controlled manufacture

Automated and computer controlled manufacture covers the engineering aspects
of the operation of automated and computer controlled production machinery,
including NC/CNC machines, automatic workhandling, such as robots and
automatic guided vehicles (AGVs), integrated systems such as flexible
manufacturing systems (FMS) and shop-floor communication.
Flexible Manufacturing Systems (FMS)

An FMS can be summarised as comprising an automated cell of machines that are
quickly or instantaneously adaptable to the processing requirements of a family of
parts. This is achieved by having the tools, machining programmes and parts all
quickly changeable. The philosophy behind this arrangement is the simultaneous
minimisation of lead times for the parts to be processed with the maximisation of
the utilisation of the machines doing the processing. The satisfaction of two
manufacturing efficiency criteria simultaneously does not come without cost. An
FMS requires investments in work handling equipment and more fixtures and
tooling than would be required in less flexible systems.
Another feature is that the systems are (or should be) progressively degradable,
having sufficient redundancy that the loss of a machine or some other element of
the system only reduces its capacity by a proportion of its nominal capacity; one
fault does not stop the system. This again is facilitated by the investments just
mentioned which enable parts to be readily routed to another machine if a machine
develops a fault or it more capacity is required for a particular operation.
A typical flexible manufacturing system for machining prismatic parts such as

castings and forgings comprises a number of CNC machine tools (generally
horizontal-spindle machining centres), a number of pallets with fixtures mounted on
them to hold the parts, a work handling system, machine shuttles to exchange
pallets with the work handling system and the machines, pallet load and unload
stations and in-system storage. An FMS may also have tool-handling systems.
The system comprises two main subsystems,

• The work handling system and
• The machining system.
Work handling systems are most commonly rail carts or automatic guided vehicles
(AGVs). Rail cart systems can include stacker cranes; AGV systems can include
fork-lift trucks. Both types permit access to multi-tier racking for pallet storage.
Rather like the CNC machine tools, work handling systems have potentially
complex control systems. However, the instructions sent to the control system
need only direct items from a present position to a new position. An FMS will often
have passive pallet storage systems, such as pallet stands. With this type of
storage, the work handling system transfers pallets off and onto the stands, so it
manages pallet storage and transport. Those systems with more extensive active
storage, such as an automatic storage (AS) and retrieval system (RS), have a third
subsystem. Those systems with tool handling have a fourth subsystem.
The machining system in its turn has a number of subsystems because each
machine tool has a pallet exchange shuttle and, while it is cutting a part, the tool
operates its own cutting program independently of the remainder of the system. It
is only at the end of a cutting program that it needs to interact with the work
handling system. Most systems are designed with machine shuttles to buffer
machines from the work handling system. The shuttle holds the next part to be
machined and has space to hold the part just completed. On completing a part, the
machine only needs to know that the shuttle has a space to accept a machined
part and that the shuttle has a new part. It then needs to know what that part is.
The workhandling system has the far more significant task in transporting the
pallets around the system to and from a variety of destinations. The same is true
of a tool-handling system, if one is fitted. This description of an FMS has been
given so the integration of its elements can be appreciated.
The Figure below shows a hierarchical control of a typical FMS, showing its
integration into a larger factory system. Note the hierarchy is both a control and a
reporting system. The various controllable devices of the FMS are shown at the
lowest device level and include an AS (automatic storage) /RS retrieval system.
This device may use racking or be based on a carousel configuration. Because
such devices go through a logical sequence, even a known varied sequence, they
are likely to have PLC controllers. The machine tools are shown with a DNC
computer for program storage and for immediate interaction with the scheduler.
Each machine tool would have its local CNC controller.
The control system has been divided into the layers shown to illustrate the
segmentation possible. Not all systems will necessarily use this degree of
segmentation. It does, however, help in setting up the system, in subsequent
Figure 2.7 a hierarchical control of a typical FMS, showing

its integration into a larger factory system
References
The author of these notes wishes to acknowledge the following books were used
during the construction of these lecture notes. Any material referred therein is the
ownership and copyright of the author or publisher.
[1] Bolton W., “Instrumentation & Process Measurement”, published by

Pearson Education.
[2] Bolton W., “Industrial Control & Instrumentation”, published by Pearson

Education.
[3] Hughes, McKenzie I, “Hughes Electrical Technology”, published Longman

Scientific and Technical.
[4] Reading lists Usher, M.J. Sensors + Transducers (McMillan 1985)

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Diploma in Electrical Services Engineering (DT083.

4), Automation Systems

Bachelor of Technology (Electrical Services Engineering)

Lecturer: Dr. John McGrory

Notes from the author.

So let’s get through it and work hard,

TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................................. 3

OBJECTIVES OF THIS MODULE:.............................................................................................................. 6

OPEN LOOP TRANSFER FUNCTION .................................................................................................................. 42

HISTORICAL INFORMATION ........................................................................................................................... 83

CHAPTER 12, COMPUTER INTEGRATED MANUFACTURE .......................................................... 101

Objectives of this Module:

Chapter 1, Introduction to PLC’s (Programmable Logic Controllers)

A programmable logic controller is a device that can be programmed by the user to

The internal structure of a PLC

CPU Memory Unit

CPU reads the Input interface Update CPU Update Output

What does what in the PLC?

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

A typical microprocessor-based CPU will be capable of four basic types of

1. Arithmetic and logic such as add, subtract, AND, and OR.

• SYSTEM ROUTINE MEMORY

System Routine Memory

How the Storage Memory works

Ladder Logic Diagrams

"Ladder" is a graphical system of programming which uses pictures or icons to

Ladder diagrams can be generated in two ways.

Example of Ladder Logic Diagram

LADDER PROGRAMMING SYMBOLS

This is a NORMALLY OPEN contact. It works in the same way as a

This is a NORMALLY CLOSED contact. It works in the same way as

This function allows you to add a normally open contact in parallel.

This function allows you to add a normally closed contact in parallel.

This is used for connecting two rungs together

Make a mental note Make a mental note

Inputs to the PLC are Outputs to the PLC are

Make a mental note Make a mental note

Inputs to the PLC are Outputs to the PLC are

Make a mental note Make a mental note

Switch Switch Switch

MOV K300 D30

Some Address locations can

Example of an SFC/STL programme.

How your programme is processed by the PLC.

Input and Output Processing

Batch Input/Output copying

Chapter 2, Good working practice… DOCUMENT IT.

Real world environment

Acting or impacting on the

Figure 2.1, Real-world system

If the overlapping documentation between the respective stakeholders of the

Over The Fence

Only if all stakeholders know how to

Figure 2.3 Over the fence

Figure 2.4 Different stakeholder’s comprehension of ideas

So how is this documentation achieved….

Step 1 Somebody has completed the mechanical/electrical design, so where

Step 2, I/O List.