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Petroleum assessment of Berkine–Ghadames Basin, southern Tunisia

Article  in  AAPG Bulletin · March 2016

DOI: 10.1306/01141612083

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Petroleum assessment of AUTHORS

Berkine–Ghadames Basin, Mohamed Naceur Aissaoui ~ Repsol

Mauritania, Ilot M-N°61, Nouakchott,
Mauritania; naissaoui@repsol.com
southern Tunisia Mohamed Naceur Aissaoui is an explorationist.
His interests include geophysical and geological
Mohamed Naceur Aissaoui, Mourad Bédir, and interpretation, seismic processing, and regional
Hakim Gabtni hydrocarbon prospectivity. He received his
diploma of engineer in geophysics from the
Algerian Petroleum Institute in 1977. The same
year, he joined Eni, an Italian hydrocarbon
ABSTRACT company, and in 2006 he left Eni and integrated
Hydrocarbon exploration in the Berkine–Ghadames Basin in the new venture team of the Repsol Spanish
hydrocarbon company. He is presently the
southern Tunisia has generally followed global economic trends. In
country manager of Repsol in Mauritania.
recent years, improvements in seismic data acquisition combined
with experience gained in log interpretation in low-resistivity res- Mourad Bédir ~ Georesource
ervoirs have resulted in oil and gas discoveries in the Upper Silurian Laboratory, Centre of Water Research and
Acacus Formation, enriching the hydrocarbon potential of the Technology, Borj Cederia, Technopark, B.P.
Berkine–Ghadames Basin in southern Tunisia. Presently, the Tu- 273, Soliman 8020, Tunisia; bedmour@
yahoo.fr
nisian daily oil production is approximately 43,000 bbl, about half of
which comes from the fields located in southern Tunisia and is Mourad Bédir is a doctor/professor, researcher,
produced from the Acacus Formation. The Berkine–Ghadames Basin and lecturer in geosciences at Georesource
Laboratory at the Centre of Water Research and
is an intracratonic basin formed during the Pan-African Orogeny. It
Technology of Borj Cedria Technopark. He
covers an area of approximately 350,000 km2 (135,135 mi2) and earned his master’s degree in 1985, his Ph.D.
extends into Algeria, Libya, and Tunisia. The sedimentary section in 1988, and state doctorate in geology/
within the basin ranges from Cambrian to present and is approx- geophysics in 1995 from the University of Tunis
imately 7000 m (23,000 ft) thick in the depocenter. The basin has El Manar. He was head of the Georesource
experienced several tectonic events, which have modified its ar- Laboratory from 1998 to 2006 and general
chitecture and affected the petroleum systems and hydrocarbon director of the Centre of Water Research and
pathways. In this study, the main elements of the petroleum geology Technology from 2005 to 2011. He specializes in
petroleum and hydrogeology basin exploration
systems are described. With the geochemical modeling results, the
and reservoir seismic sequence stratigraphy,
petroleum potential, hydrocarbon generation, expulsion time, and wire-line logging, and seismic tectonics of
quantity of hydrocarbon are assessed. The main petroleum systems carbonate and siliciclastic deposits. He has
are also defined. They are represented by the Silurian Tannezuft hot conducted several research and development
shale source rock with Ordovician Djeffara and Silurian Acacus programs and consulting. He is the author of
reservoirs, by Silurian Tannezuft hot shale with Kirchaou reservoirs, several international publications and a
and by the Devonian Aouinette Ouinine Formation Member III reviewer in international journals.
source rock with Kirchaou reservoirs. The hydrocarbon traps in the Hakim Gabtni ~ Georesource Laboratory,
area are mainly structural types. The study describes and emphasizes Centre of Water Research and Technology,
the hydrocarbon migration pathway mechanism from source rocks Borj Cederia, Technopark, B.P. 273, Soliman
to traps. To predict and derisk future drilling locations, fairway 8020, Tunisia; gabtni_hakim@yahoo.ca
maps are generated for the three plays: Ordovician, Silurian, and Hakim Gabtni is senior geophysicist scientist
and associate professor at the Centre of Water
Research and Technology (Tunisia). He earned
a B.S. degree in geology/geophysics in 2000,
Copyright ©2016. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. All rights reserved.
master’s degree in 2002, Ph.D. in 2006, and
Manuscript received May 18, 2012; provisional acceptance July 11, 2012; revised manuscript received
December 12, 2014; revised manuscript provisional acceptance April 20, 2015; 2nd revised manuscript
HDR in 2012 from Tunis El Manar University.
received October 12, 2015; final acceptance January 14, 2016. His interests include gravity and aeromagnetic
DOI:10.1306/01141612083

AAPG Bulletin, v. 100, no. 3 (March 2016), pp. 445–476 445

 investigations of sedimentary basins, integrated
potential geophysical techniques, and
petroleum seismic for three-dimensional
modeling of complex geological features and
application of microgravity, seismic refraction,
and electrical resistivity tomography for near-
surface geology. He is the author of several
papers in international journals.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We extend our gratitude to the reviewers,
without whom this paper would not have
been completed. We are grateful to D. A.
Pivnik, F. Plants, and S. D. Harker. Thanks
are extended to colleagues in Repsol,
who provided useful suggestions and
recommendations, with special thanks to
A. Chambers, A. Vayssaire, B. Black, and
H. Abdallah. Thanks are also due to Repsol
for permission to publish this paper.
EDITOR’S NOTE
Color versions of Figures 1–2, 4–15, 17–24,
26–39, and 41 can be seen in the online
version of this paper.
446 Petroleum Assessment of Southern Tunisia
Triassic. Although the paper focuses on southern Tunisia, an attempt
is made to introduce Libyan and Algerian knowledge to evaluate the
basin in a regional context.
INTRODUCTION: EXPLORATION IN THE
BERKINE–GHADAMES BASIN
The first exploration phase in southern Tunisia’s Berkine–
Ghadames Basin (Klett, 2000) began in the late 1950s. The
drilling of the well El Borma-1 (EB-1; Figure 1) in 1964 led to
the first discovery in the area within the Middle–Upper Triassic
Kirchaou Formation sandstone. The giant El Borma field to date
has produced more than 1 billion bbl of oil and is currently pro-
ducing approximately 5500 bbl/day of oil.
Following the success at El Borma, a second exploration phase
started in 1976 in the neighboring areas targeting the Triassic
sandstone reservoirs. This effort resulted in the discovery of sev-
eral medium- to small-sized fields such as Makhrouga (1980; 70
million bbl of oil in place; Figure 1).
Encouraged by the exploration success in the Upper Silurian
Acacus Formation in Libya and Algeria, Eni Tunisia (formerly
AGIP) was awarded the Jenein exploration block located in the
study area. This started the third exploration phase. In 1996,
Eni re-entered the Oued Zar-1 well (OZ-1; Figure 1) and tested
the Upper Silurian Acacus reservoirs (Aissaoui et al., 1996).
The well flowed approximately 2500 bbl/day of 42° API oil
from two intervals. This was the first commercial discovery in
the Acacus Formation in Tunisia.
During the last 10 yr, several oil and gas discoveries in the
Acacus Formation enriched the hydrocarbon potential of Tunisia
and established the Acacus Formation as a primary petroleum
objective in Berkine–Ghadames Basin in southern Tunisia.
Presently, the Acacus Formation is producing oil and gas
from many fields in southern Tunisia with a cumulative daily
production of approximately 25,000 bbl of oil equivalent.
The present study is based on a large database including
70 wells, 3200 km (1990 mi) of two-dimensional (2-D) interpreted
seismic lines, and maps.
REGIONAL SETTING AND BASIN EVOLUTION
The Berkine–Ghadames Basin is one of many intracratonic basins of
the North African Saharan platform; it is a large sag basin encom-
passing more than 350,000 km2 (135,136 mi2) (Montgomery,
1994; Gauthier et al., 1995; Echikh, 1998; Klett, 2000; Dardour
et al., 2004; Holt et al., 2010). The basin is bounded to the north by
the Telemzane arch, to the east by the East Margin structure
running parallel to the Hun Graben, and to the west by the Amguid

El Biod high. To the south, the Berkine–Ghadames
Basin is separated from the Murzuk and Illizi basins by
the Gargaf and Ahara highs, respectively (Figure 2).
On a regional scale, the Paleozoic cycle is well
developed in southern Tunisia, Algeria, and western
Libya. It follows the pan-African Precambrian–
Cambrian orogeny (600 Ma) (Boudjema, 1987;
Gauthier et al., 1995, 2003; Craig et al., 2008), which
is interpreted as a regional east–west compression
resulting from collision between the West Africa
stable craton and a mobile zone farther east, which is
considered to be an active margin.
This cycle is made of three major shortening
phases (Taconic, Caledonian, and Hercynian compres-
sions) separated by extensional phases (Cambrian,
Silurian, and Permian) (Guiraud and Bosworth, 1999;
Guiraud et al., 2005; Gabtni et al., 2006).
The basin’s history is dominated by the tectonic
activity of the structural elements outlined above,
which were active from the Cambro–Ordovician
until the Cretaceous. An orogenic phase (Austrian)
accompanied by erosion at the end of the Early
Cretaceous produced, or at least accentuated, the
characteristics of some structures (Bishop, 1975).
Figure 3 shows reduction in thickness of the Cambrian
interval over the Atchan and Ahara structural ele-
ments that bound the Berkine–Ghadames Basin.
Figure 1. Southern Tunisia lo-
cation map. CEM-1 = Chaabet El
Mediouni-1; CS-1 = Chouech Es
Saida-1; DH-1 = Debech-1; EB-1 =
El Borma-1; EBNE-1 = El Borma
Nord Est-1; EBP-1 = El Borma
Profond-1; EC-1 = Echouech-1;
EC-2 = Echouech-2; HZ-1 =
Hamadet Zamah-1; LA-1 = Larich-
1; LA-2 = Larich-2; MG-1 =
Michiguig-1; OK-1 = Oued
Krebzab-1; OZ-1 = Oued Zar-1;
RA1-Bis = Rmel Abiod 1-Bis;
RR-1 = Rhourde Rezala-1.
During the Silurian and Devonian the same re-
gional uplift elements of the Cambro–Ordovician
were active, and limited sedimentation characterized
these areas (Figure 4).
During the Carboniferous, the Hercynian orog-
eny dramatically affected the Berkine–Ghadames
Basin. Compressional movements and associated
uplift occurred (Gabtni et al., 2006, 2012; Dhaoui
et al., 2014). All the preexisting highs were re-
activated and remained as positive features. The
Paleozoic sediments in southern Tunisia were pro-
gressively truncated from south to north (Figure 5).
During the Mesozoic, the opening of the Tethys
and North Atlantic oceans was associated with ex-
tensional faulting and subsidence as recognized in
central Africa (Guiraud, 1998) and in the Atlassic
Tunisian margin (Bédir et al., 1992, 2001; Bédir,
1995; Bouaziz et al., 2002; Melki et al., 2012).
Stratigraphic thickness variations of the Triassic across
faults have been identified (Figure 6). Hydrocarbons
are trapped against faults within the Middle–Upper
Triassic sandstone levels (e.g., Bir Rebaa, Hassi Berkine
fields, and others located out of the study area in the
Algerian sector of the basin).
In the Tunisian North African margin, two
compressional events followed the Triassic rifting
(Bédir et al., 2000; Soussi, 2002; Azaı̈ez et al., 2007;
Aissaoui et al. 447
Figure 2. Saharan platform
structural domains at present
time.
Tanfous Amri et al., 2008). The Austrian event at the
end of the Early Cretaceous (Aptian–Albian) (Bédir,
1995; Zouaghi and Bédir, 2005; Zouaghi, 2008) and
the Pyrenean–Alpine and Atlassic orogenies in the
Late Cretaceous–Pleogene have been distinguished
(Bouaziz et al., 2002; Khomsi et al., 2006, 2009).
In the Berkine–Ghadames Basin, the compres-
sional events are expressed by intense folding, trans-
pression, and structural inversion generally along the
older trends (e.g., El Borma fault trend along which is
located El Borma field; Figure 7).
PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF SOUTH TUNISIA
The petroleum geology of the Berkine–Ghadames
Basin in the Libyan sector has been discussed in sev-
eral publications (Echikh, 1998; Abugares, 2000; Klett,
2000; Sikander, 2000; Yahi et al., 2001; Craig et al.,
2008; Galeazzi et al., 2010). Operating companies
have carried out extensive work, but unfortunately,
few publications are available in the Tunisian sector
(Ghenima, 1995; Aissaoui et al., 1996; Acheche et al.,
2001). The present paper describes the principal
448 Petroleum Assessment of Southern Tunisia
elements of the petroleum system of southern Tunisia
and tries to guide future exploration in the area.
Reservoirs
Several reservoirs have been defined in the Mesozoic
and the Paleozoic clastic sequences in southern Tu-
nisia (Figures 8, 9). These include the Middle–Upper
Triassic fluviodeltaic sandstone Kirchaou Formation,
the Devonian Tadrart braided river deposits, the
Ouan Kasa and Tahara deltaic deposits, the Upper
Silurian deltaic deposits of the Acacus Formation, and
the Upper Ordovician fluvial to marine sandstones of
the Djeffara Formation.
A detailed reservoir description is, however, out of
the scope of this paper, and emphasis will be placed only
on the main proven hydrocarbon-bearing reservoirs in
southern Tunisia, which are the Ordovician Djeffara, the
Silurian Acacus, and the Triassic Kirchaou Formations.
Upper Ordovician Djeffara Reservoir
The Djeffara Formation was deposited after the
Taconian event (Late Ordovician). The formation

is distinguishable from the underlying deposits of
Bir Ben Tartar Formation by its significantly lower
gamma-ray values. Presently, the only core available
in the Djeffara is in the well AMIC-1 (Figure 1).
However, the 1 m (3 ft) cored is not useful for
sedimentological purposes, because it contains
Figure 3. Cambrian isopach
map, showing the old structural
elements of Atchan, Thiemboka,
and Ahara areas. Thickness is
expressed in meters.
only fractured, extremely compact fine-grained
sandstones without depositional structures. By
analogy to what has been observed in Algeria
(upper part of Grés Oued Saret), this formation is
likely an accumulation of storm deposit layers
(Soua, 2013).
Figure 4. Regional schematic
cross section showing the activity
of the Ahara and Atchan highs dur-
ing the Early to Middle Devonian.
ACH-1 = Acheb-1; BRN-1 = Bir
Rebaa Nord-1; EB-133 = El Borma-
133; ET-1 = Erg Tiouline-1; Fm. =
Formation; HAD-1 = Haiadh-1;
IRLS-1 = Iralene Sud-1; MDB-1 =
Mederba-1; OT-1 = Oued Tissit-1;
OZ-1 = Oued Zar-1.
Aissaoui et al. 449
Figure 5. North–south struc-
tural cross section showing the
Hercynian effect on the Paleozoic
series in southern Tunisia.
ADM-1 = Adam-1; EM-1 =
Est Makhrouga-1; L. = Lower;
MG-1 = Michiguig-1; M. =
Middle; OZ-1 = Oued Zar-1;
TE-1 = Tebour-1; U. = Upper.

The petrophysical characteristics of the Djeffara
Formation are in general poor. Average porosity is
low, ranging between 5% and 10% with permeability
between 0.01 to 70 md.
On the northern edge of the Telemzane arch,
north of the Saharan platform (out of the study area),
the Ordovician reservoir is composed mainly of
quartzitic sandstone of the Hamra Formation, which
could be the equivalent of the Kasbah Leguine For-
mation present in the study area (Soua, 2013).
Average thickness of the Hamra Formation
ranges from 20 to 50 m (66 to 164 ft). Gas and
condensate and oil are being produced within this
formation at Franig, Baguel, Tarfa, and Sabria fields
located in the northern margin of the Saharan
Platform, outside the study area.

Figure 6. Two-dimensional
seismic line in the Algerian sector
of the Berkine–Ghadames Basin
showing the Mesozoic exten-
sional phase. H. Unconformity =
Hercynian unconformity.

450 Petroleum Assessment of Southern Tunisia


In 1979, the well Sabria West-1 tested 900
BOPD of 40° API oil from the Hamra Formation. The
well El Franig-1 flowed, from the same reservoir, gas
and condensate with average rates of 6.4 MMCFGD
and 980 BCPD, respectively.
In the study area (Figure 1), the well Larich-2
(LA-2) tested gas from the Djeffara reservoir at a daily
rate of 2.3 MMCF, and the well Oued Zar-1 (OZ-1)
flowed oil at a daily rate of 680 bbl.
However, because of its significant depth (>4000 m
[13,125 ft] in the well OZ-1), its poor petrophysical
characteristics, and its limited petroleum potential in
the study area, the Djeffara Formation is considered
as a marginal reservoir.
Upper Silurian Acacus Reservoirs
The Acacus Formation is Upper Ludlovian to Pridolian
in age. It conformably overlies the Tannezuft shale
and is unconformably overlain by the sandstone of
the Lower Devonian Tadrart Formation (Aissaoui
et al., 1996). The Acacus Formation comprises
sandstone layers separated by shaly interbeds with
a progradational trend from south–southeast to
north–northwest (Arduini et al., 2000). Tectonic
activity that affected the region during the Caledonian
Figure 7. Seismic line showing
the structural inversion along the
El Borma fault during Late Cre-
taceous. Hercyn. Unc. = Hercy-
nian unconformity.
phase (Silurian to Middle Devonian) was responsible
for facies variations within the Acacus Formation,
passing from sand deposited in a mouth bar area to
thin bedded alternating sandstone and shale de-
posited in a shelf area (Figure 10). The maximum
thickness of 900 m (2953 ft) is reached in the
northwestern part of the study area. Toward the
north, the Hercynian orogeny has eroded progressively
the Acacus Formation (Figure 11).
The hydrocarbon potential of the Upper Silurian
sandstone was re-evaluated in 1990 in southern
Tunisia, following new log interpretation in low-
resistivity reservoirs (Figure 12).
The average porosity of the Acacus reservoirs
ranges from 10% to 28%. However, even if the overall
porosity is good, permeability is commonly adversely
affected by authigenic mineralogy, specifically the
abundance of iron-rich chloritic clays (Arduini et al.,
2000).
The Acacus Formation contains multiple reser-
voir levels associated with intercalated shale seals.
Based on log interpretation, the Acacus Formation is
subdivided into three members: A, B, and C, with
the C Member being the youngest. Each member is
subdivided into several reservoir levels (Figure 13).
The uppermost A1 level of the A Member constitutes
Aissaoui et al. 451
Figure 8. Southern Tunisia Mesozoic
general stratigraphy. FM = Formation;
HERCYN. UNC. = Hercynian unconformity;
QUAT = Quaternary.

452 Petroleum Assessment of Southern Tunisia

Figure 9. Southern Tunisia
Paleozoic general stratigraphy.
AOI = Aouinette Ouinine For-
mation Member I; AOII =
Aouinette Ouinine Formation
Member II; AOIII = Aouinette
Ouinine Formation Member III;
AOIV = Aouinette Ouinine For-
mation Member IV; HERCYN.
UNC. = Hercynian unconformity;
MISSISSIP. = Mississippian;
PENNSYLV. = Pennsylvanian.

Aissaoui et al. 453

Figure 10. Cored Acacus A1 and A3 levels.

the main oil-producing reservoir of many fields in the
study area. About 40% of the production in the study
area comes from the A1 level.
Since 2000, the Acacus reservoirs have proven to
be more prolific oil producers than the Ordovician
and Triassic reservoirs. Between 2000 and 2014,
about 30 discoveries in southern Tunisia have been
made in the Acacus reservoirs.
Middle–Upper Triassic Kirchaou Reservoirs
The petroleum exploration history of the Middle–
Upper Triassic Kirchaou Formation in the North
African Saharan platform began in Algeria with the
discovery of the giant Hassi Rmel gas field in 1956.
The Kirchaou Formation was subsequently con-
firmed as a main petroleum target in southern
Tunisia by the discovery of El Borma oil field in

Figure 11. Thickness map of

the Upper Silurian Acacus For-
mation. CEM-1 = Chaabet El
Mediouni-1; CS-1 = Chouech Es
Saida-1; EB-1 = El Borma-1;
EC-1 = Echouech-1; GD-1 =
Garet Dawed-1; LA-1 = Larich-1;
MG-1 = Michiguig-1; NKL-1 =
Nakhil-1; OZ-1 = Oued Zar-1;
RTM-1 = Ritma-1; SN-1 =
Sanrhar-1.

454 Petroleum Assessment of Southern Tunisia


1964 and Larich and Makhrouga oil fields in 1980
(Figure 1).
The Kirchaou Formation is of Ladinian to Carnian
age and unconformably overlies the deformed Paleozoic
section above the Hercynian unconformity. The for-
mation shows complex sedimentology and geometry
Figure 12. Logs in oil well in
southern Tunisia showing low
resistivity reading in the Acacus A
oil zones. FM. = Formation;
OFA = optical fluid analyzer.
inherited from the Hercynian paleotopography com-
bined with a still active fault system and effusive vol-
canism in some places in the basin (Boudjema, 1987).
In Tunisia, the formation is subdivided into two
main sequences called argilo-Gréseux and Gréseux.
The two sequences are interpreted as the cyclic
Figure 13. Geosection over
an unnamed field in southern
Tunisia, oil and gas bearing in the
Acacus Formation.
Aissaoui et al. 455
Figure 14. Thickness map of the Middle–Upper Triassic Kirchaou Formation. BZ = Bir Zobbes; DB = Dhehibat; DEK = Dekamis; DH =
Debech; EBN = El Borma Nord; EC = Echouech; FM = Formation; HR = Hadjer; KE = Keskessa Est; LD = Lessoud; MR = Makhrouga; OS =
Oued Siah Sraia; OZ-1 = Oued Zar-1; PDG = Djebel Grouz; PGA = Pekten Guelb Ahmar; RH = Rhezine; SAN = Sidi Aoun; SB = Garet ben
Sabeur; SN = Sanrhar; TR = Tiaret; TT = Bir Ben Tartar.

superimposition of low-sinuosity sandy channeled
systems, passing laterally and upward to flood plain
siltstones and mudstones with occasional dolomite
layers. Systems of northeast–southwest relative highs
and troughs guided the main fluvial pathways (Ben
Yagoub, 1998). The formation thins and shales out to
the north along the Matmata high. Its thickness in-
creases generally from west to east and can reach
265 m (870 ft) in the basin area (Figure 14).
Further subdivision of the Kirchaou Formation
has been defined in the El Borma field to better de-
lineate the reservoir quality and productivity. From

Figure 15. El Borma field

structural cross section. Fm. =
Formation; OWC = oil water
contact.

456 Petroleum Assessment of Southern Tunisia

the top to the base, the formation is composed of five
sandstone levels labeled A, B, C, D, and E (Acheche
et al., 2001). Together the five levels reach a total
thickness of 125 m (410 ft) in some wells in El Borma
field, and the cumulative hydrocarbon net pay in
the five levels reaches 52 m (170 ft) in the field
(Figure 15). The A level is considered as the main
reservoir. The formation has excellent reservoir
properties; its average porosity ranges from 15% to
22%, and permeability can reach 1 d.
Seal Rocks
Among the petroleum system components, the na-
ture of the sealing rocks in the Berkine–Ghadames
Basin is the least studied and understood. The seal of
the Djeffara Formation is the thick shale section of the
base of Lower Silurian. The Acacus reservoirs are
sealed by interbedded shales; however, no capillarity
pressure study has been performed to determine the
hydrocarbon column that can be held by the inter-
calations of shale within the formations. The over-
lying shale and anhydrite of the Upper Triassic
provide an excellent regional seal of the Kirchaou
Formation reservoirs.
Figure 16. Regional trend of transformation ratio (TR) versus depth according to Tissot–Espitalié formula. HI = hydrogen index; TOC =
total organic carbon.
Traps
In the Tunisian sector of Berkine–Ghadames Basin, most
traps in the Paleozoic and Mesozoic section are low-
relief anticlinal structures. Most of the structural closures
were initiated in Hercynian times and continued to grow
with time until Late Cretaceous–Early Cenozoic.
In the Algerian sector, hydrocarbon is found in
some faulted blocks along the El Borma fault trend.
Source Rocks
The hot shale of the Lower Silurian Tannezuft For-
mation and the hot shale of the Upper Devonian
Aouinette Ouinine Formation Member III (AOIII)
are defined as the principal source rocks within the
Tunisian sector of the Berkine–Ghadames Basin.
To evaluate the source rock properties, the
available data from wells were collected, and the
intervals of the Lower Silurian and the Upper Devo-
nian Formations were carefully studied. The data in-
clude total organic carbon (TOC) and Rock-Eval.
The maturity level reached by the sediments was
defined mainly using optical data, vitrinite reflectance
data (Ro), and hydrogen index (HI; expressed in
Aissaoui et al. 457
milligrams of hydrocarbon per gram of TOC). The
Tmax, which is the maximum rate of hydrocarbon
generation occurs in a kerogen sample during pyrolysis
analysis, was used only to outline the regional trend
because of the difficulty in evaluating the evolution of
the organic matter mainly of type II. The Ro value
represents the highest temperature that the source rock
has experienced. It is a key element for identifying
the maximum temperature history of sediments in
sedimentary basins. This means that with a suitable
calibration, Ro can be used as an indicator of maturity
in hydrocarbon source rocks. Generally, the onset of
oil generation is correlated with a reflectance of
Figure 17. Southern Tunisia
Hercynian subcrop map.
458 Petroleum Assessment of Southern Tunisia
0.6%–0.8%, and the onset of gas generation is typically
associated with values of 1.1%–1.3%. However, these
generation windows vary between source rocks with
different kerogen types (vitrinite is typically abundant
in type III kerogen-rich source rocks); therefore, a con-
version to transformation ratio (TR) is applied to create
a kerogen-specific maturity parameter. Typically, vi-
trinite reflectance data are presented in units of % Ro, the
measured percentage of reflected light from a sample
that is immersed in oil (% Ro = % reflectance in oil).
The depletion of HI with maturity was evaluated
regionally, and the reached maturity was computed
as TR (according to the Tissot-Espitalié (1975)
 method). The regional relation of TR versus depth

Abbreviations: E = early mature; HI = hydrogen index; L = late mature; n.m. = not measurable; P = peak oil generation; Ro = vitrinite reflectance data; S2 = hydrocarbons generated by pyrolysis; SPI = source potential index; TOC = total
Source Rock Properties:

II, EP
II, EP
is shown in Figure 16. The original TOC values were

II, P

II, L
Potential, Kerogen,
computed (according to Peters, 1986) for all available

Very good, Type

Very good, Type
Very good, Type

Very good, Type

Good, Type II, P
Maturity
wells.
The interpretation of kerogen type for each
source rock (in terms of original hydrogen index HI)
was done also using cross plots of pyrolysis. A graph of
hydrocarbons generated by pyrolysis (S2, measured in
milligrams of hydrocarbon per gram of rock) versus

0.91–1.00

0.65–0.77
Ro, %

n.m.
n.m
n.m TOC content of the rock (in percent weight [wt. %])
was performed (Langford and Valleron, 1990). The
slope of the regression line gives an average hydrogen
t/m2 tons/ft2

0.04

0.07
0.11
0.02
0.01
SPI,

index (100S2/TOC) (Peters et al., 2006; Yalçin Erik

et al., 2006; Nazir et al., 2011).
The quantitative evaluation of the source rocks
SPI,

0.4

0.7
1.1
0.2
0.1

potential was given by the source potential index (SPI).

The SPI is defined as the maximum quantity of hydro-
min–max

819–838

817–822
822–824

811–822
826–831
Tmax, °F,

carbons (in tons) that can be generated within a column

of source rock under a square meter surface area.
With the help of a modeling exercise the original
min–max
Tmax, °C,

439–440
441–444
437–448
433–439
436–439

SPI values were estimated, and the quantity of ex-

pelled hydrocarbons was evaluated.
To evaluate the reactivity of the organic matter,
an experimental evaluation of kinetic parameters of
Number % mg/g mg/g

239
203
193
364
285
HI,

five samples selected from the Devonian hot shale

Table 1. Hot Shale of the Tannezuft Formation: Average Geochemical Characteristics

sequences of the wells RR-1, CS-1, and EC-2 was

5.78 21.06
4.94 14.10
1.82 4.26
1.28 2.61
4.50 8.70
Thickness, Thickness, Sample TOC, S2,

performed. Results will be shown and discussed in the

next section.

Hot Shale of the Lower Silurian Tannezuft Formation

Located at the bottom of the Lower Silurian se-
3
4
3
4
4

quence, the organic-rich hot shale was deposited

during the eustatic sea level high stand (Soua,
65.5
65.5
65.5
65.5
65.5

2014). The section with its graptolite fauna in-

ft

dicates a cold postglacial climate (Abugares, 2000).

The hot shale is widespread in the Tunisian and
Algerian sectors of the Berkine–Ghadames Basin.
20
20
20
20
20
m

In the Libyan sector, it appears to be relatively

thin or absent over some paleohighs such as the
13,658–13,724

11,732–11,798
12,352–12,418
10,240–10,305

southern area separating the Berkine–Ghadame

9203–9269
Interval, ft

Basin from the Murzuk Basin (Echikh, 1998).

The Silurian hot shale is also well established
over the Arabian Gulf (Rub Al Khali area in Saudi
Arabia) (Milner, 1998; Abu-Ali et al., 1999;
2805–2825
4163–4183

3576–3596
3765–3785
3121–3141
Interval, m

Pollastro, 2003; Abu-Ali and Littke, 2005). Car-

bon isotopes correlate hydrocarbons found in Saudi
organic carbon.

Arabia within the Devonian, Carboniferous, and

AMIC-1

Permian reservoirs to the Lower Silurian hot shale

Wells

OZ-1
RA-1
BZ-1
EB-1

Qusaiba Formation (Abu-Ali et al., 2005).

Aissaoui et al. 459

 The Silurian hot shale is the origin of 80%–90%
of Paleozoic-sourced hydrocarbons in North Af-
rica and was also a major factor in petroleum
generation on the Arabian Peninsula (Lüning et al.,
2000).
The thickness of the hot shale in the Berkine–
Ghadames Basin reaches 100 m (328 ft) in the
deepest part of the Algerian sector (Kaced and
Arab, 2012). Toward the north of the study
area, along the Telemzane arch, the Silurian hot
shale is truncated by the Hercynian unconformity
(Figure 17).
In all the studied wells (Table 1), the Silurian
hot shale contains good quality source rock. The
average TOC content ranges between 1.28% and
5.78%.
Based on the interpretation of the graph of
S2 versus TOC, the source rock is characterized by a
type II oil prone kerogen and an original HI of about
500 mg hydrocarbons (HC)/g TOC (Figure 18).
According to the Ro % and Tmax data (Table 1),
this sequence has reached the oil generation peak; in
particular, high maturity values were measured in the
well EB-1 (Ro % = 0.91–1.0).
Figure 18. Cross plot of hy-
drocarbons generated by py-
rolysis (S2) versus total organic
carbon (TOC) of the hot shale of
the Tannezuft Formation sam-
ples. AMIC1 = Amic-1; BZ-1 = Bir
Zobbes-1; EB-1 = El Borma-1;
HI = hydrogen index; OZ-1 =
Oued Zar1; RA-1Bis = Rmel El
Abiod-1Bis.
460 Petroleum Assessment of Southern Tunisia
Espitalié et al. (1985), Peters (1986), and
Langford and Valleron (1990) recommend that the
rock with S2 greater than 5 and 10 mg HC/g rock be
considered as having good and very good source rock
potential. The graph of S2 versus TOC (Figure 18)
shows that about half of the analyzed samples in
southern Tunisia have good petroleum potential,
whereas most of the Libyan samples have very good
potential.
All the data cited above indicate that the hot
shale of the Tannezuft Formation is a good source
rock over the whole study area.
Hot Shale of the Upper Devonian Aouinette Ouinine
Formation Member III
During the Frasnian, organic-rich shales were de-
posited across much of North Africa, most notably in
parts of Morocco, Algeria, southern Tunisia, western
Libya, and the Western Desert of Egypt. They are
estimated to be the origin of approximately 10% of
all Paleozoic-sourced hydrocarbons in North Af-
rica. In wireline logs, the Frasnian hot shales are
marked by high gamma-ray values, commonly in
excess of 300–400 API (Lüning et al., 2003).
 The AOIII Member of the Aouinette Ouinine

Abbreviations: E = early mature; HI = hydrogen index; L = late mature; n.m. = not measurable; P = peak oil generation; Ro = vitrinite reflectance data; S2 = hydrocarbons generated by pyrolysis; SPI = source potential index; TOC = total
Source Rock Properties: Potential,
Formation is Frasnian. It is only present in the

II, EP

II, IE
II, E
II, E
southern part of the study area. It is truncated by the

Kerogen, Maturity
Hercynian unconformity to the north (Figure 17). Its

Very good, Type

Very good, Type
Very good, Type

Very good, Type

Fair, Type III, E
thickness in the study area ranges from 30 to 306 m
(98 to 1004 ft), all of which is organic rich.
In all the studied wells (Table 2), the AOIII
contains very good quality source rock (except for the
well MG-1; Figure 1). The average TOC content
ranges between 0.56% and 2.69%.
t/m2 tons/ft2 Ro, %

n.m.
n.m.
n.m.
n.m.
n.m.
Five samples from the hot shale sequence of the
wells RR-1, CS-1, and EC-2 were evaluated for re-
activity of the organic matter. The kinetic parameters
0.90
0.60
0.94
0.07
0.63
SPI,

are summarized in terms of activation energy and

frequency factor (Table 3). The results indicate
SPI,

9.4
0.7
6.3

a type II source rock. The predicted geological

9
6

temperatures for the oil generation from the

min–max

819–828
815–820
810–820
806–813
797–811
Tmax, °F,

selected samples are in the range of 100°C–150°C

(212°F–302°F), indicating a homogeneous lateral
distribution of organic matter in the source rock.
The interpretation of the graph of S2 versus
min–max
Tmax, °C,

437–442
435–438
432–438
430–434
425–433

TOC indicates the AOIII source rock is charac-

terized by a type II oil-prone kerogen and an
Table 2. Hot Shale of the Aouinet Ouinine Member III: Average Geochemical Characteristics

original HI of approximately 600 mg HC/g TOC

% mg/g mg/g

426
367
393
198
383

(0.6 lb HC/lb TOC) (Figure 19). In addition, the

HI,

graph shows that almost all of the analyzed samples

2.38 8.86

0.56 1.17
2.26 8.83
2.69 11.77

3.10 13.87

in southern Tunisia have a good petroleum po-

TOC, S2,

tential (S2 > 5 mg HC/g rock [S2 > 0.005 lb HC/lb

rock]).
All the data cited above indicate that the hot
shale of the Upper Devonian AOIII, where present,
Number
Sample

14

10

11
9

is a good source rock.

Geochemical Modeling
Thickness, Thickness,

1004
889
886
735
942
ft

To understand the history of hydrocarbon charge

during the evolution of the Berkine–Ghadames Basin,
one-dimensional petroleum system modeling was
306
271
270
224
287
m

performed to provide a picture of hydrocarbon gen-

eration, expulsion, migration, and preservation, both
9459–10,463
9495–10,384

in time and in space from the source rocks into the

Interval, ft

8186–9072
6954–7199
7743–8685

reservoir.
The modeling was performed to assess petroleum
potential, thermal maturity, hydrocarbon generation
2883–3189
2894–3165
2495–2765
1970–2194
2360–2647
Wells Interval, m

history, and quantity of expelled hydrocarbons in

selected points within a sedimentary basin.
organic carbon.

The work integrated the geological model with

the thermal and kinetic models and was calibrated to
MG-1
HZ-1
CS-1
EC-2

RR-1

experimental data.

Aissaoui et al. 461

Table 3. Summary of Kinetic Parameters on Five Samples from the Devonian Hot Shale Sequences

Well, Depth
CS-1, 2315 m CS-1, 2608 m EC-2, 3100 m RR-1, 2528 m RR-1, 2580 m
(7595 ft) (8557 ft) (10,171 ft) (8294 ft) (8465 ft)
E (Cal/mol) (Fraction %) (Fraction %) (Fraction %) (Fraction %) (Fraction %)

38.00 0.10 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.06

39.00 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.03
40.00 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.10
41.00 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.12 0.00
42.00 1.01 0.04 0.00 0.10 0.14
43.00 0.81 0.08 0.00 0.16 0.05
44.00 1.37 0.03 0.25 22.00 0.26
45.00 0.70 0.15 0.34 0.15 0.00
46.00 1.28 0.00 0.00 0.37 0.68
47.00 0.65 0.14 0.00 0.51 0.12
48.00 1.64 0.30 0.00 0.00 0.00
49.00 0.50 0.00 0.00 1.02 0.00
50.00 2.78 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
51.00 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.00 15.24
52.00 5.56 0.00 82.08 13.00 22.33
53.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 20.60 43.98
54.00 52.36 0.00 14.21 33.90 2.10
55.00 8.91 0.00 2.37 14.52 11.90
56.00 17.89 62.22 0.00 6.06 0.90
57.00 0.43 2.16 0.00 5.54 1.42
58.00 1.83 22.09 0.75 0.82 0.00
59.00 0.71 0.00 0.00 1.24 0.18
60.00 0.00 6.76 0.00 0.08 0.15
61.00 0.00 1.09 0.00 0.00 0.00
62.00 1.27 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.38
63.00 4.86 0.00 1.54
Frequency factor (1/sec) 4.384 · 1015 2.079 · 1015 8.990 · 1015 4.090 · 1015 1.710 · 1015

See Figure 1 for well location.

With the data (stratigraphy, lithology, and tec-
tonic evolution) provided by the available wells, a
regional geological model of the Berkine–Ghadames
Basin and its evolution was defined. The two main
sedimentary cycles, Paleozoic and Mesozoic, are
separated by the Hercynian unconformity, which
marks an important erosive event whose effect on the
wells was estimated. The burial history of the basin
was reconstructed using the backstripping tech-
nique. The burial history plots for the well PDG-2
(Figure 20) and well LD-1 (Figure 21) show depth
versus geologic time for all the geological formations
penetrated by the wells.
The present thermal regime was defined by
computing the present heat flow value (expressed in
heat flow unit [HFU]) in the wells from the available
bottom hole temperatures (Figure 22). The average
heat flow values of 1.2–1.4 HFU (Figure 23) are in
agreement with a long stable geological setting. The
increase of the heat flow in the northern area of the
study can be related to the presence of a shallower
basement. The maturity parameters (Figure 24) were
also considered. All these data are key points to re-
construct the thermal history.
The thermal history diagram (Figure 25) shows
an increase of the thermal regime from 1.0 to 1.4

462 Petroleum Assessment of Southern Tunisia


HFU, which could be explained by the Triassic rifting.
From the Triassic until the present time the thermal
regime is assumed to be constant.
Hydrocarbon Maturity, Generation, and
Expulsion
The model, calibrated to the well results, was applied
on selected points, and evolution of maturity and
timing of hydrocarbon generation and expulsion were
simulated for the Lower Silurian Tannezuft For-
mation hot shale and the Devonian Aouinette
Ouinine Formation Member III source rocks, using
the following mean values obtained from the ex-
perimental data: Lower Silurian Tannezuft For-
mation hot shale values are kerogen type II, original
TOC = 5%, original HI = 500 mg HC/g TOC (0.5 lb
HC/lb TOC), and original SPI = 2 t HC/m2 (0.2 tons
HC/ft2), and Upper Devonian Aouinette Ouinine
Formation Member III values are kerogen type II,
original TOC = 3%, original HI = 600 mg HC/g TOC
Figure 19. Cross plot of hy-
drocarbons generated by pyrolysis
(S2) versus total organic carbon
(TOC) of the hot shale of the
Aouinette Ouinine Formation
Member III (AOIII) samples. CS-1 =
Chouech Es Saida-1; EC-2 =
Echouech-2; HI = hydrogen index;
HZ-1 = Hamadet Zamah-1;
MG-1 = Michiguig-1; RR-1 =
Rhourde Rezala-1.
(0.6 lb HC/lb TOC), and original SPI = 10–11 t
HC/m2 (1–1.12 tons HC/ft2).
Maturity maps (expressed as TR) and expelled
hydrocarbons maps have been prepared for both
source rocks at present time and at specific key
moments in the past.
Hydrocarbon expulsion occurred depending on the
amount of generated hydrocarbons, the porosity of the
rock, and the compaction effects. To evaluate the ex-
pulsion with the Rock-Eval data, a cross plot of depth
versus S1/TOC was used (Figure 26), where S1 rep-
resents how many milligrams of free hydrocarbons
can be thermally distilled out of 1 g of sample of source
rock (McCarthy et al., 2011). The ratio S1/TOC is the
indication of the expulsion of the hydrocarbon. An
increase of the ratio means that the generated hydro-
carbon remains in the source rock, and no expulsion
occurs. On the contrary, when the ratio decreases,
the expulsion of the hydrocarbon occurs. In this case
study, the S1/TOC ratio is decreasing at approximately
3200–3400 m (10,500–11,155 ft) depth (Figure 26).
Aissaoui et al. 463
Figure 20. Burial history plot for the well PDG-2. BBT/K. Leguine = Bir Ben Tartar/Kasbah Leguine; LD1 = Lessoud-1.
The basin modeling gave the following results
for the two studied source rocks.
The Lower Silurian Tannezuft Formation hot shale
source rock reached a good level of maturity (TR > 0.1,
minimum value to consider a source rock as mature).
Moving from north to south within the study area, the
maturity level becomes higher. Its present-day maturity
in southern Tunisia ranges from mature for oil in the
north to overmature or gas generating in the south
(Figure 27).
In the study area, the hydrocarbon expulsion oc-
curred mainly in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic ages. In
the deepest part of the Berkine–Ghadames Basin (in
the Algerian sector out of the study area), a Pa-
leozoic phase of expulsion could be recognized.
During Cretaceous up to Eocene (36 Ma), hy-
drocarbon expulsion occurred. The lack or reduction
of sedimentation is the main cause for the inter-
ruption of expulsion after the Eocene.
The quantity of hydrocarbon expelled from the
source rock was considerable and suggests at 36 Ma
464 Petroleum Assessment of Southern Tunisia
(Eocene) hydrocarbon potential values ranging from
0.1 to 2.1 t HC/m2 rock (0.01 to 0.21 tons HC/ft2
rock) (Figure 28).
The Upper Devonian AOIII source rock, as
previously described, has a very interesting petroleum
potential even if its presence is limited in the southern
part of the study area.
At present time, its maturity is ranging from a
TR = 0.1 (very close to the expulsion) to TR = 0.8,
able to expel hydrocarbons over a large part of the
southern part of the study area (Figure 29). The
expulsion process, which occurred at approximately
3200–3400 m (10,500–11,155 ft) in depth, started in
the Late Cretaceous (ca. 100 Ma) and continued until
the Eocene (36 Ma). After the Eocene the expulsion
process was negligible.
The quantity of hydrocarbon expelled from
the source rock suggests at 36 Ma (Eocene age),
hydrocarbon potential values ranging from 0.1 to
2.5 t HC/m2 rock (0.01 to 0.25 tons HC/ft2 rock)
(Figure 30).
Figure 21. Burial history plot for the well LD-1. A. Ouinine = Aouinette Ouinine; C. Intercalaire = Continental Intercalaire; PDG2 = Djebel Grouz-2.
Petroleum Systems and Hydrocarbon
Migration Pathways
Definition of the Petroleum Systems
The definition of the petroleum systems in southern
Tunisia has been achieved through the analysis of
the geological framework and the results of the
geochemical analyses performed on the source rocks
and the available oil samples (Figure 31).
The stratigraphic relations between the source and
the reservoir rocks allow us to define two petroleum
systems, which can be recognized in the Paleozoic
sequences in the Tunisian sector of the Berkine–
Ghadames Basin: Silurian Tannezuft hot shale with
Upper Ordovician Djeffara reservoirs and Silurian
Tannezuft hot shale with Acacus reservoirs (Figures
32, 33). In addition, deposition during the Triassic of
the Kirchaou reservoirs above the Hercynian erosional
surface allowed for two additional petroleum systems:
Silurian Tannezuft hot shale with Kirchaou reservoirs
(Figures 33, 34) and Devonian Aouinette Ouinine
Member III with Kirchaou reservoirs (Figures 33, 35).
Note that although the Paleozoic reservoirs hold
hydrocarbons generated by a single source rock (i.e.,
Tannezuft hot shale), the hydrocarbon accumulations
within the Kirchaou Formation reservoirs were sourced
by the two source rocks (i.e., Silurian and Devonian).
Hydrocarbon Migration Pathways
Migration into Paleozoic Reservoirs
Most of the hydrocarbon generated by the Silurian
hot shale was migrated downward into the un-
derlying Ordovician sandstone. Although the
Silurian–Ordovician petroleum system is con-
sidered valid, the Ordovician reservoirs have
been poorly explored in southern Tunisia be-
cause of their significant depth (3500–5000 m
[11,483–16,404 ft]) and poor petrophysical char-
acteristics. In addition, many gas and condensate
Aissaoui et al. 465
 Figure 23. Heat flow at present time expressed in heat flow unit
(HFU). BZ-1 = Bir Zobbes-1; CS-1 = Chouech Es Saida-1; EC-2 =
Echouech-2; GD-1 = Garet Dawed-1; HZ-1 = Hamadet Zamah-1;
LA-1 = Larich-1; OZ-1 = Oued Zar-1; RA-1Bis = Rmel Abiod-1; RR-1 =
Figure 22. Temperature and vitrinite reflectance calibration
Rhourde Rezala-1.
example in wells Echouech-2 (EC-2) and Laric-1 (LA-1).

discoveries have been uneconomic as demonstrated

by the wells Larich-1 (LA-1), El Borma Deep-1
(EBP-1), and Chaabet El Madiouni-1 (CEM-1)
(Figure 32).
Part of the hydrocarbon expelled from the Si-
lurian hot shale migrated into the Acacus reservoirs
and accumulated in the Oued Zar (OZ), Hammouda
(HMD), Adam (ADM), Hawa (HWA), Nour (NOUR),
Warda (WRD), Ahlem (AHL), Sourour (SOR), and Figure 24. Regional maturity trend in wells RR-1 and EC-2. TR =
other fields (Figure 32). transformation ratio.
The migration mechanism of hydrocarbon from
the hot shale into the Acacus reservoirs is, however,
not well understood. Migration may have occurred
vertically along fault zones and fractures or vertically
through the silty shale of the Tannezuft Formation.

Migration into Triassic Reservoirs

Part of the hydrocarbon expelled from the Silurian
hot shale migrated into the Kirchaou reservoirs Figure 25. Thermal history diagram. HFU = heat flow unit.

466 Petroleum Assessment of Southern Tunisia

 Figure 26. Cross plot of depth
versus milligrams of free hydro-
carbons that can be thermally
distilled out of 1 g of sample of
source rock/total organic carbon
(S1/TOC). CS-1 = Chouech es
Saida-1; EC-2 = Echouech-2;
HZ-1 = Hamadet Zamah-1;
LA-1 = Larich-1; MG-1 =
Michiguig-1; OK-1 = Oued
Krebzab-1; RR-1 = Rhourde
Rezala-1.

Figure 28. Lower Silurian hot shale Tannezuft Formation

Source rock. Expelled hydrocarbon at 36 Ma. CS-1 = Chouech Es
Figure 27. Present-day maturity of Lower Silurian hot shale Saida-1; EB-1 = El Borma-1; EC-2 = Echouech-2; HMD-1 =
Tannezuft Formation source rock. BZ-1 = Bir Zobbes-1; EB-1 = El Hammouda-1; HZ-1 = Hamadet Zamah-1; LA-1 = Larich-1; OZ-1 =
Borma-1; OZ-1 = Oued Zar-1; RA1-Bis = Rmel Abiod 1-Bis. Oued Zar-1; RA1-Bis = Rmel Abiod 1-Bis.

Aissaoui et al. 467

 The Devonian hydrocarbon migrated into the
Kirchaou Formation from Ouan Kasa and Tahara
carrier beds depending on their respective subcrop
relationships, following a secondary migration path
(Figures 33, 35).

Hydrocarbon Exploration Plays in Southern

Tunisia

The three main exploration plays in the study area are

in order of importance the Silurian, the Triassic, and
the Ordovician.

Silurian Play
This play has been proven in southern Tunisia and
is so far the primary and least risky exploration
target. As previously discussed, the Silurian Acacus

Figure 29. Present-day maturity of Upper Devonian Aoui-

nette Ouinine Formation Member III (AOIII) source rock.
CS-1 = Chouech Es Saida-1; EC-2 = Echouech-2; HZ-1 =
Hamadet Zamah-1.

from the Ordovician carrier beds, which subcrop

the Hercynian unconformity. It then migrated
southeastward and accumulated in El Borma (EB),
Debech (DH), Sanrhar (SN), Djebel Grouz (PDG),
Hammouda South East (HMD-SE), and Makhrouga
(MR) fields (Figures 33, 34).
Most of the hydrocarbon generated by the
Devonian AOIII source rock was expelled into the
underlying Ouan Kasa and the overlying Tahara
reservoirs, which act as carriers, whereas a minor part
was expelled directly into the Triassic Kirchaou
Formation (Figure 33). Nevertheless, accumulation in
the above mentioned Paleozoic reservoirs is very rare
in southern Tunisia. The Ouan Kasa reservoir is oil
bearing in just one field in Tunisia, Ech-Chouech-1
(EC-1; Figure 1), whereas hydrocarbon has never Figure 30. Upper Devonian Aouinette Ouinine Formation
been found in the Tahara reservoirs, probably be- Member III (AOIII). Expelled hydrocarbon at 36 Ma. CS-1 = Chouech
cause of the lack of traps and/or lack of seal. Es Saida-1; EC-2 = Echouech-2; HZ-1 = Hamadet Zamah-1.

468 Petroleum Assessment of Southern Tunisia

 Figure 31. Reservoirs and
source rocks of the analyzed
hydrocarbons. CS-1 = Chouech
Es Saida-1; DH-1 = Debech-1;
EB-1 = El Borma-1; EBNE-1 =
El Borma Nord Est-1; EC-1 =
Echouech-1; Fm. = Formation;
HMD-1 = Hammouda-1; LA-1 =
Larich-1; MR-1 = Makhrouga-1;
OZ-1 = Oued Zar-1; PDG-1 =
Djebel Grouz-1; SN-1 = Sanrhar-
1; ZTE-1 = Zemlet Taiara-1.

Formation reservoirs were sourced by the Silurian hot several unsuccessful wells drilled in the area. We
shale. The trapping mechanism is provided by gentle note that not all of the successful wells are located
four-way dip closures (Figure 36), and the main risk is on evident structural closures (i.e., the well LA-1
associated with trap definition. In southern Tunisia, could have been drilled in a stratigraphic trap), but
from 1957 to present, approximately 58 exploratory all dry wells seem to be out of closure. In addition,
wells have been drilled targeting the Silurian Acacus in southern Tunisia, at least two different source
play. Of these, 14 wells were drilled off structure and rocks may charge the Triassic reservoirs. Thus, only
were dry; 8 wells had oil shows; and 36 wells, drilled
from 1997 to 2008, were classified as commercial
discoveries (i.e., HMD, ADM, HWA, NOUR, OZ,
WRD, and others; Figure 32). The commercial rate of
success is 62% (Figure 37).
The size of the producing fields ranges from 3
to 15 km2 (1.2 to 5.8 mi2), and the largest field
discovered in southern Tunisia in the Acacus
reservoir has 300 million bbl of oil in place and
recoverable reserves of approximately 100 million
bbl of oil.
Any four-way dip closure at the Acacus level
is associated with a very high chance of success.
However, we consider that the central–eastern part of
the study area is the most prospective sector for the
quality of the source, the reservoir, and the sealing
rocks and the relatively shallow depth of the Acacus
Formation ranging from 2250 to 3250 m (7382 to
10,663 ft) below sea level (Figure 38).
Figure 32. Lower Silurian–Paleozoic petroleum systems.
ADM = Adam; AHL = Ahlem; CEM-1 = Chaabet El Mediouni-1;
Triassic Play EBP-1 = El Borma Profond-1; HMD = Hammouda; HWA =
The Middle–Upper Triassic Kirchaou Formation Hawa; LA-1 = Larich-1; OZ = Oued Zar; SOR = Sorour; WRD =
is considered as a secondary play because of the Warda.

Aissaoui et al. 469

Figure 33. Southern Tunisia:
Kirchaou, Acacus, and Djeffara
hydrocarbon charging model.
prospects located along the Devonian or Silurian oil
migration pathways can have a good chance to be
charged (Figures 34, 35).
Eighty-five new field wildcat wells have been
drilled in the study area, all of which penetrated the
Triassic, although only 45 targeted the Kirchaou
reservoir sandstone. Out of 45, 12 were successful
and productive wells, giving a commercial rate of
Figure 34. Lower Silurian–Kichaou petroleum system.
DH = Debech; EB = El Borma; Fm. = Formation; HMD-SE =
Hammouda-Sud Est; MR = Makhrouga; PDG = Djebel Grouz;
SN = Sanrhar.
470 Petroleum Assessment of Southern Tunisia
success of 27% (Figure 39). The main reasons for the
failures are the difficulty in interpreting low-relief
structures using 2-D seismic lines, artifacts caused
by the static correction problems (Figure 40), and lack
of reflectivity on top of the Triassic reservoir. Taking
into account all those factors, a play map exploration
risk is tentatively presented for the Kirchaou Play
(Figure 41).
Figure 35. Devonian–Kichaou petroleum system. AOI &
II = Aouinette Ouinine Formation Members I and II; AOIII & IV =
Aouinette Ouinine Formation Members III and IV; Fm. =
Formation.
Figure 36. Generally low relief anticlines at Djeffara level are conformable with the shallower Tannezuft and Acacus levels. Fm. =
Formation; Hercyn. Unc. = Hercynian unconformity.
We consider that the northern part of the study
area is the most prospective sector (except where the
source rock is absent) for the quality of the source, the
reservoir, and the sealing rocks.
Ordovician Play
The Ordovician Djeffara reservoir is considered
a secondary and high-risk play because of its
poor reservoir characteristics (mean porosity 5% and
mean permeability of 0.2 md), its significant depth,
and the nature of hydrocarbon trapped (mainly gas in
wells CEM-1, OZ-1, and EBP-1; Figure 1). However,
local tectonism may enhance the permeability via
fracturing the reservoir, thus increasing the pro-
duction rate. In addition, the Djeffara reservoir has
more chance of receiving hydrocarbon charge because
it is directly below the Silurian hot shale source rock.
In Murzuk and Illizi basins, the Upper Ordovician
is a widespread and prolific reservoir. In these areas,
the Upper Ordovician is interpreted as progradational
paleovalley infill deposited following a major glacial
incision (Smart, 2000; Le Heron et al., 2004).
In the study area, 10 wells have penetrated the
Ordovician: 6 of these encountered gas. However,
Figure 37. Silurian Acacus
play result.
Aissaoui et al. 471
Figure 38. Silurian Acacus exploration play risk. HC = hydrocarbons; S. R. = source rock.

472 Petroleum Assessment of Southern Tunisia

 Figure 39. Triassic Kirchaou
play result.

oil has been recently produced in a commercial stratigraphic traps, especially in the western part of
quantity from the Ordovician in the Bir Ben Tartar the study, which is covered by sand dunes.
license located 30 km (19 mi) northeast of the study In addition, geological work has to be per-
area. formed to understand source rock and reservoir
relationships, hydrocarbon charging mechanism,
and migration pathways for specific prospects.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Thematic maps, such as porosity or permeability
This paper synthesizes the Paleozoic and Triassic maps, should be generated when enough data
petroleum systems in southern Tunisia’s Berkine– are available. Detailed analysis of the old wells
Ghadames Basin and shows that the area has re- logs within the Paleozoic section, if performed,
maining hydrocarbon potential. could define new petroleum objectives. Particular
The main petroleum objectives in the study area attention should be paid to the interpretation
are clastics within the Ordovician, the Upper Silurian, of the logs recorded in the Acacus Formation
and the Middle–Upper Triassic intervals. Source because the low resistivity reading in this for-
rocks are identified in the Lower Silurian Tannezuft
mation may conceal the presence of hydrocarbon
Formation and Upper Devonian Aouinette Ouinine
accumulations. Finally, using new hydrocarbon
Formation Member III.
Geochemical modeling was performed to assess production techniques (acidization, hydraulic frac-
petroleum potential, thermal maturity, hydrocarbon turation, etc.) could increase the Ordovician res-
generation history, and quantity of expelled hydro- ervoirs’ deliverability.
carbons in the study area.
Different petroleum systems and plays have been
highlighted, and fairway maps have been tentatively
drafted. These elements are milestones for future
exploration in the area.
However, to better define the main prospective
zones and increase the chance of success, improve-
ment in seismic acquisition and processing is nec-
essary. Three-dimensional seismic coverage is essential
to map the remaining structural and stratigraphic
features.
Detailed and accurate static corrections must
be applied to the seismic volumes. Time-to-depth
conversion maps using accurate velocity fields are Figure 40. Two-dimensional seismic line in El Borma area
fundamental to identify low-relief structural and showing static correction anomalies.

Aissaoui et al. 473

Figure 41. Triassic Kirchaou exploration play risk. AOIII = Aouinette Ouinine Formation Member III; HC = hydrocarbons; S. R. = source rock.
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