EXPERIENCE OF SIGNIFICANT CHANGE

FOR PSYCHODRAMA AUDIENCE MEMBERS

by

SHELLEY G A I L (AZIMA) BUELL

B.A., Simon F r a s e r U n i v e r s i t y , 1991

THESIS SUBMITTED I N PARTIAL FULFILMENT

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF ARTS

in

THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES

Department o f C o u n s e l l i n g P s y c h o l o g y

We a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s a s c o n f o r m i n g

t o t^he ^ e ^ j u i r e d standard

THE UNIVERSITY OF B R I T I S H COLUMBIA

September, 1995

©Shelley Gail (Azima) B u e l l , ] 995

 In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced
degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make it
freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive
copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my
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Department of

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Vancouver, Canada

Date L pfcjL. 1 M . [<? 0. <T

DE-6 (2/88)
 11

ABSTRACT

P s y c h o d r a m a i s an a c t i o n f o c u s e d g r o u p t h e r a p y t h a t w o r k s

with p s y c h o l o g i c a l c o n f l i c t through enacting the problem.

B a s e d on t h e t h e o r y o f J . L . M o r e n o , t h i s t h e r a p y i s

comprised o f an e x t e n s i v e r e p e r t o i r e o f t h e r a p e u t i c

techniques. Audience members p l a y a c r u c i a l r o l e i n t h e

i n t e g r a t i o n p h a s e f o l l o w i n g an e n a c t m e n t a n d Moreno b e l i e v e d

t h a t t h e r a p e u t i c b e n e f i t s o c c u r r e d f o r b o t h p r o t a g o n i s t s and

audience members. Although the audience i s one o f M o r e n o ' s

f i v e instruments, almost no r e s e a r c h has f o c u s e d exclusively

on t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f a u d i e n c e members. This study explored

t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f s i g n i f i c a n t change f o r s i x psychodrama

audience members. T r a n s c r i p t s o f i n t e r v i e w s were analyzed

employing Giorgi's (1985) e x i s t e n t i a l - p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l

method r e s u l t i n g i n t h e emergence o f f i v e themes regarding

t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f c h a n g e , t h r e e themes r e g a r d i n g t h e way i n

which audience members made m e a n i n g o f t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e , and

one theme e a c h r e g a r d i n g e v i d e n c e o f change i n d a i l y life,

p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e way i n which the experience evolves across

s e v e r a l w o r k s h o p s , and t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f f a c t o r s

i n f l u e n c i n g change. Results indicated that the experience

was intense, cathartic, and a s o u r c e o f s i g n i f i c a n t change

and p e r s o n a l l e a r n i n g . I m p l i c a t i o n s regarding audiences i n

g e n e r a l and psychodrama a u d i e n c e s s p e c i f i c a l l y are

d i s c u s s e d , and s u g g e s t i o n s f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h a r e

provided.
 i i i

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract i i
Table o f Contents i i i
Acknowledgements v

C h a p e r 1: INTRODUCTION
Context 1
I n t r o d u c t i o n t o Psychodrama 4
Overview 4
Psychodrama R o l e s 7
Phases o f Psychodrama . 9
Therapeutic Techniques 10
Background t o t h e Research Problem 13
Research Question 15
Approach t o t h e Question 16
Summary 16

C h a p t e r 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Introduction 17
A u d i e n c e Members 17
Greenberg's Study 17
H o f r i c h t e r ' s Study 19
Widlocher and T e l l i e r ' s Study . 21
Baum's S t u d y 21
Summary o f A u d i e n c e Member R e s e a r c h 23
Therapeutic Benefits 24
Catharsis 31
Outcome R e s e a r c h 42

C h a p t e r 3: METHODOLOGY
Introduction 48
Research Q u e s t i o n and Methodology 48
Co-researchers 53
Selection of Participants 54
Recruitment of P a r t i c i p a n t s 54
Demographic I n f o r m a t i o n 55
Procedure 57
Data A n a l y s i s 59
Personal Biases 60
L i m i t a t i o n s Of The S t u d y 64
R e l i a b i l i t y and V a l i d i t y 67

C h a p t e r 4: RESULTS
Introduction 70
Themes 72
Exhaustive Descriptions 73
Sense o f B e i n g F u l l y P r e s e n t 73
S h i f t from T h i n k i n g t o F e e l i n g 73
Experience of Highly Intense, All-Encompassing
Feelings 77
Sense o f V u l n e r a b i l i t y and Embarrassment . . 80
S h i f t out of Intense Personal Experience . . 83
 iv

Making Meaning of t h e Experience 84

P e r c e i v e d Need t o I n t e g r a t e E x p e r i e n c e . . . 84
S e n s e o f E m e r g i n g P e r s o n a l Themes f o r
F u t u r e Work 85
E x p e r i e n c e o f F u n d a m e n t a l Change 87
E v i d e n c e o f Change i n D a i l y L i f e 91
Awareness o f Changed S t y l e o f I n t e r a c t i o n . . 91
Psychodrama P r o g r e s s i o n 94
Sense o f E v o l u t i o n o f Psychodrama E x p e r i e n c e s 94
Additional Contributing Factors 98
A s s e s s m e n t o f O t h e r F a c t o r s I n f l u e n c i n g Change 98
Essential Structure 101

C h a p t e r 5: DISCUSSION
Discussion of Major Findings 107
N a t u r e o f A u d i e n c e Member C a t h a r t i c E x p e r i e n c e s 1 0 7
Other Therapeutic B e n e f i t s 112
P e r c e i v e d Need t o I n t e g r a t e t h e E x p e r i e n c e . 112
Gender R e l a t e d Issues 114
Previous Research 115
Implications 115
Future Research 119
Summary 121

References 123

Appendix A 129

Appendix B 130

Appendix C 131

Appendix D 133
 V

Acknowledgements

I w i s h t o e x p r e s s my h e a r t f e l t t h a n k s t o t h o s e who have

h e l p e d make t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f t h i s p r o j e c t p o s s i b l e . If

t h e r e i s a God, she w o u l d be t h e f i r s t one t o thank because

i n many ways i t f e e l s l i k e a m i r a c l e t h a t t h i s has a l l come

together. A c t u a l l y , t h e E t e r n a l F o u n t a i n was always a

s o u r c e o f r e p l e n i s h m e n t - when I remembered t o b r i n g my cup.

I would a l s o l i k e t o t h a n k my c o m m i t t e e members f o r

their s u p p o r t and g u i d a n c e . F r a n k E c h o l s p r o v i d e d much

n e e d e d h a n d - h o l d i n g a t a few c r i t i c a l moments a n d was

i n s t r u m e n t a l i n a s k i n g q u e s t i o n s t h a t h e l p e d me better

understand q u a l i t a t i v e methodology. Pat V e r r i o u r provided

enthusiasm, s u p p o r t and g r e a t r e f e r e n c e s . M a r v Westwood

p r o v i d i n g on-going support, f l e x i b i l i t y and encouragement.

Thank y o u f o r y o u r g u i d a n c e , y o u r s k i l l f u l m i d w i f e r r y and

your psychodrama e x p e r t i s e . You i n i t i a t e d my passion for

t h i s dynamic form of t h e r a p y .

My f r i e n d s and f a m i l y have been incredibly

u n d e r s t a n d i n g , p a r t i c u l a r y a t t i m e s when I w e n t down my path

k i c k i n g and screaming. My o f f i c e mates p r o v i d e d v a l u a b l e

s u p p o r t , l a u g h s p a c e , c r y i n g t o w e l s , an o p p o r t u n i t y t o

d i s c u s s i d e a s and an o c c a s i o n a l s o j o u r n t o t h e tropics.

Thank y o u M a j i d f o r y o u r l i b r a r y and f o r m a t t i n g h e l p and the

t i m e s I came home t o a c l e a n h o u s e a n d a h o t m e a l . And

t h a n k y o u Naomi f o r l e t t i n g me do "mommy s t u f f " i n between

 vi

the "university stuff". Y o u r s m i l i n g p i c t u r e was a constant

inspiration. I also appreciate the l i t t l e havens provided

b y my f r i e n d s - g o o d f o o d , g o o d w i n e a n d g o o d company d u r i n g

the ending; the long dark journey of the soul part of t h i s

endeavour.

I w o u l d a l s o l i k e t o t h a n k Adam B l a t n e r f o r h i s

mentoring. A l o t of valuable processing came o u t o f t h e

many e - m a i l p o s t i n g s you took t h e time t o send. I w o u l d be

honored t o p l a y t e n n i s w i t h you any t i m e . I appreciate the

i n p u t from you and o t h e r p s y c h o d r a m a t i s t s who h a v e

e n c o u r a g e d me t o c a r r y on w i t h f u r t h e r t r a i n i n g a n d g i v e n me

a sense o f psychodrama community.

Finally, I w o u l d l i k e t o t h a n k t h e a u d i e n c e members who

participated i n this study f o r t h e i r deep s h a r i n g i n such a

p e r s o n a l way. I h a v e b e e n e n r i c h e d b y my c o n t a c t w i t h each

one.
 1

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of t h i s chapter i s t o provide background t o

the research question being addressed i n t h i s study. This

will c o n s i s t o f an o v e r v i e w o f psychodrama, including:

c o n t e x t , t h e o r e t i c a l framework, phases o f psychodrama,

psychodramatic techniques and r o l e s , and a d e f i n i t i o n o f

terms. The r a t i o n a l e f o r t h i s study w i l l be g i v e n , t h e

research question w i l l be i d e n t i f i e d a n d t h e a p p r o a c h t o t h e

research question w i l l be o u t l i n e d .

Context

The immense i n f l u e n c e a g r o u p e x e r t s i n s h a p i n g i t s

members i s b o t h c u l t u r a l l y a n d h i s t o r i c a l l y well

established. Many a n c i e n t r e l i g i o u s r i t u a l s , including

efforts to bring forth rain, good h a r v e s t s , good c r o p s , and

fertility, o c c u r r e d i n a group c o n t e x t (Siroka, 1978).

Later, religious rituals such as t h e naming o f c h i l d r e n ,

r i g h t s o f passage, b u r i a l s and h o l i d a y c e l e b r a t i o n s were

a l s o community e v e n t s . Rabbis, priests, imams, a n d

s p i r i t u a l teachers are respected leaders of congregations,

and v a l u e s a n d a t t i t u d e s o f t h e c o l l e c t i v e congregation

s h a p e s t h e t h i n k i n g o f i t s i n d i v i d u a l members.

On a more s e c u l a r l e v e l , t h e i n t i m a t e i n t e r a c t i o n

between s e l f i d e n t i t y and t h e group has been a s u b j e c t o f

contemplation f o r p h i l o s o p h e r s such a s W i l l i a m James (1964),

and Charles Cooley (1902). S o c i a l p s y c h o l o g i s t s such as

 2

Burnstein, Fiedler, Pruitt, Z a j o n c , Zimbardo and Sherif

(Baron & Byrne, 1987) h a v e e x a m i n e d how a group influences

t h e b e h a v i o u r a n d a t t i t u d e s o f an i n d i v i d u a l o r o t h e r

groups. Personality theorists, particularly Ericson and

A d l e r , h a v e e x a m i n e d t h e many f a c t o r s , including social

influences, i n v o l v e d i n the shaping of p e r s o n a l i t y (Monte,

1987; Rychlak, 1981).

The i n f l u e n c e o f a c t o r s upon t h e i r a u d i e n c e i s yet

a n o t h e r e x a m p l e o f t h e way t h a t one group c a n sway o r

i n s p i r e another. A r i s t o t l e recognized the powerful

c a t h a r t i c e f f e c t o f drama and saw t h e r o l e o f t h e t h e a t r e as

one of h e a l i n g (Siroka, 1978). S.H. Butcher translates

A r i s t o t l e as follows:

T r a g e d y , t h e n , i s an i m i t a t i o n o f an a c t i o n t h a t i s
s e r i o u s , c o m p l e t e , and o f a c e r t a i n magnitude; i n
language e m b e l l i s h e d w i t h each k i n d of a r t i s t i c
ornament, t h e s e v e r a l k i n d s b e i n g found i n s e p a r a t e
p a r t s of the p l a y ; i n the form of a c t i o n , not of
n a r r a t i v e ; t h r o u g h p i t y and f e a r e f f e c t i n g t h e p r o p e r
p u r g a t i o n of t h e s e emotions ( c i t e d i n Greenberg, 1968).

The a u d i e n c e ' s p a r t i n drama c o n t i n u e s t o be an

important t o p i c today. "The s t u d y o f t h e drama i s t h e study

of how t h e s t a g e c o m p e l s i t s a u d i e n c e t o be i n v o l v e d i n i t s

actual processes. The s p e c t a t o r i n t e r p r e t s and so

c o n t r i b u t e s t o and finally becomes t h e p l a y " (Styan, 1975,

p.4).

Group p s y c h o t h e r a p y i s y e t a n o t h e r a r e n a where t h e

beneficial i n f l u e n c e o f a g r o u p upon t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s

important. B e g i n n i n g i n t h e e a r l y 1900's, psychotherapy

 3

b e g a n t o be p r a c t i s e d i n a g r o u p setting. Some c o n t r o v e r s y

a b o u t t h e f o u n d e r o f g r o u p p s y c h o t h e r a p y e x i s t s ; many

a t t r i b u t e the b e g i n n i n g t o Joseph Hersey P r a t t , a Boston

i n t e r n i s t who worked w i t h groups of t u b e r c u l o s i s patients

(Bloch & Crouch, 1985; M u l l a n & Rosenbaum, 1 9 7 8 ) . Others,

p a r t i c u l a r l y people w o r k i n g w i t h psychodrama, a t t r i b u t e the

o r i g i n t o J . L . M o r e n o ( G r e e n b e r g , 1968; Moreno, 1966).

G a z d a (1975) r e c o n c i l e s t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s by s t a t i n g that

"much o f t h e d i s a g r e e m e n t over t h e h i s t o r i c a l development of

group p s y c h o t h e r a p y a p p a r e n t l y stems from v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e

d e f i n i t i o n g i v e n t o group psychotherapy" (p. 7 ) . Regardless

o f who t h e a c t u a l f o u n d e r was, t h e names a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i t s

e a r l y development i n c l u d e J.H. P r a t t , E.W. Lazell, L.C.

Marsh, T. Burrow, A l f r e d A d l e r , and J . L . Moreno (Gazda,

1975; Moreno, 1966). I n 1932 J o s e p h L. M o r e n o c o i n e d t h e

t e r m g r o u p p s y c h o t h e r a p y and p s y c h o d r a m a was his particular

method o f practice.

The l a t t e r two i s s u e s , i . e . " a u d i e n c e " and "group

p s y c h o t h e r a p y " a r e two crucial components i n t h i s study.

Specifically, t h e aim of t h i s study i s to i n v e s t i g a t e the

e x p e r i e n c e of s i g n i f i c a n t change f o r psychodrama audience

members. " S i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e " d e n o t e s an i n t e r n a l shift

c o n s i d e r e d t o be i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e p e r s o n e x p e r i e n c i n g i t .

The p e r s o n p e r c e i v i n g t h i s c h a n g e was l e a v i n g the experience

i n some way d i f f e r e n t t h a n when t h e y came. This could

i n c l u d e a combination of c o g n i t i v e s h i f t s or different
 4

perspective; affective s h i f t s or r e - i n t e g r a t i o n of f e e l i n g s

w h i c h had b e e n s u p p r e s s e d or repressed; or a fundamental

shift in self-definition. How i s t h a t change experienced?

What l e a d s up t o t h e e x p e r i e n c e , i s there a triggering

event, and what h a p p e n s afterwards?

I n t r o d u c t i o n t o Psychodrama

Overview

P s y c h o d r a m a i s an a c t i o n m o d a l i t y i n group therapy that

i n v o l v e s the enactment of a person's c o n f l i c t f o r the

purpose of emotional problem s o l v i n g ( B l a t n e r & B l a t n e r ,

1988b) Problem s o l v i n g i s f a c i l i t a t e d through increasing

a w a r e n e s s , s p o n t a n e i t y and creativity. Moreno d e f i n e s

s p o n t a n e i t y as t h e r e s p o n s e a p e r s o n makes t h a t contains

"some d e g r e e o f a d e q u a c y t o a new s i t u a t i o n or a degree of

n o v e l t y t o an o l d s i t u a t i o n " ( c i t e d i n Greenberg, 1974).

Blatner (1985) d e s c r i b e s t h e q u a l i t y o f r e s p o n s e as "an

openness of mind, a f r e s h n e s s of approach, a w i l l i n g n e s s t o

take i n i t i a t i v e , and an i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e e x t e r n a l

realities and the i n t e r n a l i n t u i t i o n s , emotions, and

rational functions".

Although n o t an "all o r n o t h i n g " phenomenon, spontaneity

c a n be f u r t h e r understood by e x p l o r i n g the d i a l e c t i c between

s p o n t a n e i t y and robopathy, i t s ' opposite. "Behaviour that

i s automatic, habitual, fixated, compulsive, rigid,

stereotyped, or p r a c t i c e d to the p o i n t of s t e r i l i t y i s the

o p p o s i t e of s p o n t a n e i t y " ( B l a t n e r .& B l a t n e r , 1 9 8 8 a , p. 66).

 5

A t t i t u d e s of c u r i o s i t y , p l a y f u l n e s s , excitement, and

w i l l i n g n e s s to take a c t i o n help spontaneity develop and

grow. B l a t n e r & B l a t n e r (1988a) p r o p o s e t h a t Moreno w o u l d

have reworked F r e u d ' s t h e r a p e u t i c g o a l of "where t h e r e i s

id, l e t t h e r e be ego" (where t h e r e a r e p o c k e t s of the

unconscious, l e t t h e r e be consciousness) to "where t h e r e i s

a c o n s t r i c t i o n of s p o n t a n e i t y , l e t t h e r e be spontaneity".

Fine (1978) c o n c u r s and s t a t e s t h a t "the p r i m a r y goal of

therapy i s t o r e c l a i m o n e ' s i n n a t e a b i l i t y t o meet e a c h

moment i n a f r e s h , o p t i m a l l y a d a p t i v e way - i n short, to be

spontaneous" (p. 429).

Increased s p o n t a n e i t y and c r e a t i v i t y are nurtured i n an

atmosphere of shared "encounter", an i n d i v i d u a l ' s encounter

w i t h h i s o r h e r r e a l s e l f and the r e a l s e l v e s of others

(Martins, 1990). E n c o u n t e r d e n o t e s an a u t h e n t i c q u a l i t y of

meeting, devoid o f o u r d a i l y mask o r p e r s o n a . This idea i s

s i m i l a r to the "I-Thou" r e l a t i o n s h i p d e s c r i b e d by Martin

Buber, a contemporary of Moreno's. Buber d e s c r i b e s the I-

Thou r e l a t i o n s h i p a s one i n which the " I " t r e a t s the "thou"

as a s u b j e c t r a t h e r t h a n an o b j e c t . In o t h e r words, the I

sees the o t h e r from the o t h e r ' s frame or reference:

A m e e t i n g o f two: eye t o e y e , f a c e t o f a c e .
And when y o u a r e n e a r I w i l l t e a r y o u r e y e s o u t
and p l a c e them i n s t e a d o f m i n e ,
and y o u w i l l t e a r my e y e s o u t
and w i l l p l a c e t h e m i n s t e a d o f y o u r s ,
t h e n I w i l l l o o k a t you w i t h y o u r eyes
and y o u w i l l l o o k a t me w i t h m i n e . ( M o r e n o , 1964)
 6

M o r e n o f o u n d e d p s y c h o d r a m a i n 1 9 2 1 , a p e r i o d when

F r e u d ' s p s y c h o d y n a m i c a p p r o a c h was s t r o n g l y e n t r e n c h e d i n

psychiatry. Moreno b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e u n c o n s c i o u s c a n be

b e t t e r a c c e s s e d t h r o u g h a c t i o n as opposed t o " t h e t a l k i n g

cure" and t h a t t h e i n t e r p e r s o n a l f i e l d , where difficulties

most o f t e n a r i s e , c a n be b e t t e r e x p l o r e d i n a group context.

By enacting scenes from t h e p a s t , present or f u t u r e which

h a v e b e e n , a r e o r may b e p r o b l e m a t i c , the protagonist,

(person p l a y i n g t h e p r i n c i p l e r o l e i n an e n a c t m e n t ) h a s a n

opportunity to redefine, renegotiate, r e v i s e and a c t i v e l y

m a n i p u l a t e t h e i r r o l e ( s ) ( B l a t n e r , 1991). Role distance, or

the a b i l i t y t o separate from one's r o l e , facilitates this

p r o c e s s and i s developed through psychodramatic techniques

such as r o l e r e v e r s a l , where t h e p r o t a g o n i s t steps out of

t h e i r ordinary r o l e i n t o the part of the other person. Role

r e v e r s a l enables t h e protagonist t o experience a new

perspective and i t i s from t h e vantage o f t h i s new

perspective that redefinition, r e n e g o t i a t i o n and r e v i s i o n

occur.

The n o t i o n o f r o l e i s an i m p o r t a n t psychodramatic

concept. M o r e n o saw t h e s e l f a s e m e r g i n g f r o m r o l e s . "Role

p l a y i n g i s p r i o r t o t h e emergence o f t h e s e l f . R o l e s do n o t

emerge f r o m t h e s e l f , b u t t h e s e l f may emerge f r o m r o l e s "

( M o r e n o , 1964, p. 1 5 7 ) . G i v e n t h i s v i e w o f t h e " s e l f " , i t

w o u l d make s e n s e t h a t t h e r a p e u t i c change c a n b e s t be
 7

f a c i l i t a t e d through e n a c t i n g r o l e s and interacting with

others, affording new p e r s p e c t i v e s and new self-definitions.

In t h e psychodrama p r o c e s s , enacted scenes a r e made as

r e a l as p o s s i b l e t h r o u g h t h e use of props and b r i e f i n g t h e

"actors" about the r o l e s they are p l a y i n g , including

physical and v e r b a l mannerisms. In a d d i t i o n to the largely

cognitive changes t h a t can o c c u r t h r o u g h r o l e d i s t a n c e , an

emotional release or c a t h a r s i s may also occur (Blatner 1991,

Kellermann, 1984). I n as much as t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s in a

p a r t i c u l a r enactment are p e r s o n a l l y relevant t o o t h e r group

members, c a t h a r t i c e x p e r i e n c e s and t h e r e w o r k i n g o f role

often e x t e n d t o them a s w e l l (Blatner, 1985; Greenberg,

1968, Moreno, 1964). Audience members i n Baum's s t u d y

(1994) s a i d "There a r e i n s i g h t s g a t h e r e d from t h e experience

and t h e u n i v e r s a l i t y o f themes w i t n e s s e d i n t h e p s y c h o d r a m a "

(p. 44).

Psychodrama Roles

To b e t t e r understand the process of psychodrama, a

r e v i e w of key r o l e s i s required. The various roles i n

psychodrama i n c l u d e : director, protagonist, auxiliary,

double, and audience member. Briefly, the director, a

trained therapist, orchestrates the enactment. The director

is responsible f o r the p r o d u c t i o n of the psychodrama

i n c l u d i n g the f a c i l i t a t i o n of the p r o t a g n i s t ' s e x p r e s s i o n of

c o n f u s e d o r i n h i b i t e d i m p u l s e s and feelings (Davies, 1987).

The p r o t a g o n i s t o r " p a t i e n t " i n more c l i n i c a l s e t t i n g s , i s

 8

the p r i n c i p a l character a r o u n d whom a n e n a c t m e n t revolves.

The protaganist i s o f t e n chosen through group sociometric

techniques s o t h a t t h e i s s u e t o be w o r k e d on i s one w h i c h i s

important t o a u d i e n c e members a s w e l l (Casey, personal

communication; Treadwell, personal communication)

A u x i l i a r i e s a r e members o f t h e g r o u p who a r e a s k e d t o t a k e

on r o l e s r e l e v a n t t o t h e e n a c t m e n t , f o r e x a m p l e t h e m o t h e r ,

s i s t e r and uncle of theprotagonist. Auxiliaries are

c a r e f u l l y p u t i n t o r o l e by t h e d i r e c t o r g u i d i n g t h e

protagonist t o show t h e a u x i l i a r y how t h e p e r s o n t h e y a r e

e n a c t i n g w o u l d move, s p e a k a n d b e h a v e . The d i r e c t o r i s

mindful a b o u t n o t i m p o s i n g t h e i r own o r t h e a u x i l i a r y ' s

p r o j e c t i o n s onto t h e s c e n a r i o , ensuring a s much a s p o s s i b l e

that theauxiliary role i strue t o l i f e f o rthe protaganist.

A u x i l i a r y egos i n c l a s s i c a l p s y c h o d r a m a a r e o f t e n t r a i n e d

therapeutic aides (Davies, 1987).

Doubles a r e members o f t h e g r o u p who t a k e their place

alongside theprotaganist expressing thoughts o r f e e l i n g s

which they perceive as b e i n g present b u t unexpressed by t h e

protaganist. These a u x i l i a r i e s "establish identity with the

patient" a n d move, a c t a n d b e h a v e l i k e them. The

p r o t a g a n i s t and t h e i r double(s) a r e g e n e r a l l y together

d u r i n g t h e a c t i o n p a r t o f t h e enactment.

Finally, audience members a r e t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s o f t h e

g r o u p who a r e n o t p l a y i n g a n a c t i v e r o l e d u r i n g t h e

enactment phase. Although they a r e often inwardly very

 9

a c t i v e , t h e i r e x t e r n a l involvement occurs mainly during the

i n t e g r a t i o n , o r l a t t e r p h a s e when t h e y s h a r e their

experiences which are r e l e v a n t t o the p r o t a g o n i s t .

G r e e n b e r g (1974) d e s c r i b e s t h e r o l e t h a t a u d i e n c e members

play:

When t h e s t a g e a c t i o n i s c o n c l u d e d , t h e a u d i e n c e members
are i n a p o s i t i o n t o help t h e p r o t a g o n i s t gain i n s i g h t
i n t o h i s problem, not by a n a l y z i n g t h e p r o t a g o n i s t i n
t h e manner o f t h e s t e r e o t y p e d p s y c h o l o g i s t d i a g n o s i n g a
c a s e b u t b y s h a r i n g i n c i d e n t s f r o m t h e i r own e x p e r i e n c e s
t h a t may i n p a r t r e s e m b l e t h o s e o f t h e p r o t a g o n i s t . By
doing t h i s they are a i d i n g the protagonist i n another
way, t h r o u g h p r o v i d i n g h i m w i t h t h e s u p p o r t o f k n o w i n g
t h a t he i s n o t a l o n e w i t h h i s p r o b l e m s , t h a t o t h e r s h a v e
l i k e problems, and because o f t h i s m u t u a l i t y a r e able t o
empathize w i t h him and understand h i s s i t u a t i o n .

Phases o f Psychodrama

The p r o c e s s o f p s y c h o d r a m a b e g i n s w i t h a warm up,

p r o c e e d s w i t h a n enactment a n d ends w i t h a s h a r i n g , o r

i n t e g r a t i o n p e r i o d . The p u r p o s e o f t h e warm up p h a s e i s t o

p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y p r e p a r e psychodrama p a r t i c i p a n t s f o r t h e

t h e r a p e u t i c work w h i c h w i l l take place. Various techniques

are used t o "develop a sense o f s a f e t y , a working alliance,

and some i n c r e a s i n g i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h t h e i s s u e s a t hand"

( B l a t n e r , A. & B l a t n e r , A., 1 9 8 8 a ) . The g r o u p warm-up

culminates i n the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of a particular scenario

which w i l l be e n a c t e d and t h e s e t t i n g o f t h e scene f o r t h e

enactment. S e t t i n g t h e s c e n e means b r i n g i n g t h e

protagonist's issue i n t o the present moment a n d i d e n t i f y i n g

the time, place and people. Part of i d e n t i f y i n g the

characters i n v o l v e s p u t t i n g them i n t o r o l e b y s h o w i n g t h e m
 10

how t o behave. Greenberg d e s c r i b e s the psychodramatic

s i t u a t i o n as one w h e r e t h e " n a t u r a l b a r r i e r s of time, space,

and s t a t e s o f e x i s t e n c e a r e o b l i t e r a t e d so t h a t e v e r y t h i n g

on t h e p s y c h o d r a m a t i c stage occurs i n the present, or i n

situ, i n t h e h e r e and now" (Greenberg, 1974, p. 17)

The middle phase, o r enactment i n v o l v e s a s e r i e s of

techniques ( r e f e r t o t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n ) and g e n e r a l l y

c u l m i n a t e s i n v a r i o u s forms of c a t h a r s i s , o r "emotional,

c o g n i t i v e and a c t i o n a l r e l e a s e s " ( K e l l e r m a n n , 1984). The

final s h a r i n g phase, i s an o p p o r t u n i t y f o r t h e g r o u p as a

whole t o i n t e g r a t e the e x p e r i e n c e i n a meaningful way

through discussion.

All t h r e e phases are c r u c i a l t o the psychodramatic

process. The depth of the e x p e r i e n c e i s enhanced through

a p p r o p r i a t e warm-up o r p r e p a r a t i o n and t h e t h e r a p e u t i c v a l u e

of the e x p e r i e n c e i s enhanced through i t s s y n t h e s i s and

integration. " D i r e c t o r s who s t r i v e f o r both r e l e a s e and

i n t e g r a t i o n w i l l be more e f f e c t i v e t h a n t h o s e who emphasize

release alone" (Kellermann 1984, p. 9)

Therapeutic Techniques

M o r e n o and M o r e n o ( 1 9 6 9 , p. 239) enumerate psychodrama

techniques which may be i n t r o d u c e d by t h e d i r e c t o r to

facilitate t h e p r o c e s s as follows:

1. Soliloquy - monologue o f t h e p r o t a g o n i s t o f t h o u g h t s and

feelings related to a particular event.

 11

2. Therapeutic Soliloquy - s o l i l o q u y t h a t t a k e s p l a c e i n

c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h an enactment i n w h i c h t h e p r i v a t e t h o u g h t s

of t h e p r o t a g o n i s t a r e expressed together with the overt

a c t i o n o f t h e enactment

3. Self-Presentation - p r o t a g o n i s t a c t s out t h e r o l e of

others as he/she p e r c e i v e d them. This could include the

p r o t a g o n i s t p l a y i n g t h e p a r t o f t h e i r mother, f a t h e r ,

sister, or brother.

4. Self-Realization - with t h e a i d of a u x i l i a r i e s , the

protagonist enacts his/her l i f e plans. These l i f e plans may

be q u i t e u n r e a l i s t i c , as i s t h e case w i t h p s y c h o t i c s . This

technique c a n "make i t p o s s i b l e f o r ( t h e p r o t a g o n i s t ) t o

b r i n g h i s / h e r psychodramatic pregnancy t o f u l f i l m e n t and,

o n c e t h e p s y c h o t i c b a b y h a s b e e n c o m p l e t e d , t o be d e l i v e r e d

of i t " (p.88).

4. H a l l u c i n a t o r y psychodrama - p r o t a g o n i s t s (usually

p s y c h o t i c ) a c t o u t t h e i r d e l u s i o n s and h a l l u c i n a t i o n s . In a

s i m i l a r fashion, non-psychotic p r o t a g o n i s t s sometime a c t o u t

t h e i r dreams. (Martins, 1991).

5. Double - a n a u x i l i a r y ego p o r t r a y s a n

aspect/idea/feeling of the protagonist that they perceive t o

be unexpressed.

6. M u l t i p l e Double - s e v e r a l a u x i l i a r y egos p o r t r a y aspects

of t h e p r o t a g o n i s t s . This can i n c l u d e auxiliaries

portraying d i f f e r e n t aspects of the protagonist i n the

c u r r e n t enactment o r p o r t r a y a l o f t h e p r o t a g o n i s t i n
 12

d i f f e r e n t time p e r i o d s , eg. p r o t a g o n i s t as a c h i l d ,

teenager, a d u l t , and e l d e r . I n work w i t h psychotic

p a t i e n t s , m u l t i p l e double a u x i l i a r i e s have a c t e d as v a r i o u s

body p a r t s o f t h e p r o t a g o n i s t .

7. M i r r o r - when t h e p r o t a g o n i s t i s u n a b l e t o r e p r e s e n t

t h e m s e l v e s , o r w i s h e s t o see themselves t h r o u g h t h e eyes o f

anothers, a n a u x i l i a r y ego s t e p s i n and takes their place.

This can occur because t h e p r o t a g o n i s t i s overcome w i t h

e m o t i o n , o r w i t h more c l i n i c a l c a s e s when t h e p a t i e n t i s

c a t a t o n i c o r has j u s t f i n i s h e d a p s y c h o t i c episode o r shock

therapy. In this situation themirror i s "sitting i nfor"

rather than " s i t t i n g alongside" the protaganist.

8. Role R e v e r s a l - t h e p r o t a g o n i s t s w i t c h e s r o l e s w i t h one

o f t h e p e o p l e w i t h whom t h e y are interacting.

9. Future P r o j e c t i o n - p r o t a g o n i s t p o r t r a y s i n a c t i o n how

s/he thinks his/her future w i l l shape itself.

10. Dream P r e s e n t a t i o n and R e - t r a i n i n g o f the Dream -

p r o t a g o n i s t s enacts a d r e a m a n d / o r makes a n y c h a n g e s s o t h a t

t h e dream t u r n s o u t a s h e / s h e w o u l d h a v e liked.

A d j u n c t i v e methods a r e a l s o n o t e d (Moreno & M o r e n o ,

1969):

11. Hypnodrama - t h e m e r g i n g o f h y p n o t h e r a p y with

psychodrama where t h e p r o t a g o n i s t does an enactment while

hypnotized.
 13

12. Didactic Psychodrama and Role P l a y i n g - as a l e a r n i n g

t o o l during supervision, students portray their

clients/patients s o t h e c a s e s may be d i s c u s s e d .

In a d d i t i o n t o these d e s c r i p t i o n s of t h e r a p e u t i c

b e n e f i t s , a more c o m p l e t e list o f d e f i n i t i o n s may be f o u n d

i n Appendix D.

Background t o the Research Problem

Psychodramatic theory i s c l e a r i n i t s a s s e r t i o n that

a u d i e n c e members: a) a r e a n i m p o r t a n t component o f

psychodrama; and b) r e c e i v e t h e r a p e u t i c b e n e f i t s f r o m their

p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e form o f c a t h a r s i s and i n s i g h t

(Greenberg, 1974). A l t h o u g h both p e r s o n a l and/or

p r o f e s s i o n a l i n s i g h t may o c c u r f r o m w a t c h i n g a l l enactments,

c a t h a r s i s i s engendered t h r o u g h enactments where g r e a t e r

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n occurs. Through i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , u n r e s o l v e d

f e e l i n g s w h i c h may e n g e n d e r a c a t h a r t i c e x p e r i e n c e c a n be

t r i g g e r e d and p r o v i d e t h e r a p e u t i c b e n e f i t s t o audience

members. I n t h i s way, a u d i e n c e members c a n a t v a r i o u s t i m e s

be s e e n a s " p a t i e n t s " receiving therapeutic benefits, or

" a u d i e n c e members" p r o v i d i n g s u p p o r t a n d i n s i g h t t o

p r o t a g a n i s t s d u r i n g t h e s h a r i n g phase o f t h e enactment.

T h e r e a p p e a r s t o be an i m p l i e d o r i m p l i c i t

d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n i n t h e emphasis p l a c e d upon a u d i e n c e

c a t h a r t i c experience i n comparison w i t h t h a t of t h e

protagonist. M o r e n o (1964) i s inconsistent i n h i sreference

t o c a t h a r s i s f o r a u d i e n c e members. F o r example, he n o t e s
 14

t h a t t h e a u d i e n c e c a n be h e l p e d i n p s y c h o d r a m a : "The F i f t h

instrument i s the audience. The a u d i e n c e i t s e l f has a

double purpose. I t may s e r v e t o h e l p the patient, or, being

itself h e l p e d by t h e s u b j e c t on t h e s t a g e , t h e a u d i e n c e

becomes t h e p a t i e n t " (cited i n Pitzele, 1980) a n d y e t he

a l s o notes that "Catharsis moved f r o m t h e s p e c t a t o r to the

actor." ( M o r e n o , 1964 p. 1 5 ) . M o r e n o h a s p e r h a p s b e e n

i n c o n s i s t e n t i n h i s d e s c r i p t i o n o f c a t h a r s i s as i t r e l a t e s

t o a u d i e n c e members b e c a u s e t h e p e r m e a b l e b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n

a u d i e n c e members a n d t h e a c t i o n i s one o f t h e d e f i n i n g

features o f psychodrama.

Yet a lack of c l a r i t y with regard t o audience member

e x p e r i e n c e o f c a t h a r s i s c a n be s e e n t h r o u g h o u t t h e

literature. Descriptions of catharsis f a l l along a

continuum from b e i n g d e s c r i b e d only i n terms o f t h e

protagonist (Blomkvist and R u t z e l , 1994; K e l l e r m a n n , 1984)

to being conceptualized as l e s s i n t e n s e o r secondary f o r

audiences i n comparison w i t h the experience of the

protagonist ( H o f r i c h t e r , 1973; S h a f f e r and G a l i n s k y , 1984)

to being described i n process terms w i t h o u t differentiating

between t h e v a r i o u s psychodrama r o l e s (Blatner & Blatner,

1988a, B l a t n e r , 1985).

It i s this lack of c l a r i t y , o r ambivalence about

a u d i e n c e member e x p e r i e n c e o f c a t h a r s i s a n d c h a n g e that

seems w o r t h y o f c l a r i f i c a t i o n . Further, clarification i s

best obtained b y l o o k i n g a t a u d i e n c e members actual

 15

experience; i ti s d i f f i c u l t t o g l e a n t h e depth and b r e a d t h

of the experience without sharing i n the description of

t h o s e who a r e e x p e r i e n c i n g i t . Hearing that audience

members may h a v e c a t h a r t i c experiences i s d i f f e r e n t from

h e a r i n g words l i k e " I was o v e r c o m e b y my s a d n e s s ; I felt my

grief t o t h e depths o f my b e i n g , I t r u l y u n d e r s t o o d that the

relationship c o u l d n ' t c o n t i n u e t h e way i t was".

Although I r aGreenberg has examined a u d i e n c e attitude

change, Hoffrichter has e x p l o r e d a u d i e n c e experience of

community, and W i d l o c h e r and T e l l i e r have d e s c r i b e d t h e

mutual effects of audience upon g r o u p a n d d i r e c t o r s ; no

s t u d i e s h a v e b e e n done w h i c h f o c u s on t h e t o t a l i t y o f t h e

l i v e d e x p e r i e n c e o f a u d i e n c e members; s p e c i f i c a l l y their

experience of s i g n i f i c a n t change. I t i s this particular gap

i n psychodrama r e s e a r c h t h a t t h i s study addresses.

Research Question

Audience members who p e r c e i v e d s i g n i f i c a n t personal

change which they a t t r i b u t e d to their participation as an

a u d i e n c e member i n a p s y c h o d r a m a w o r k s h o p w e r e a s k e d t o

describe their experience. Specifically, "What i s the

experience of s i g n i f i c a n t change f o r psychodrama audience

members?" Significant c h a n g e was d e f i n e d a s a c l e a r l y felt

internal s h i f t w h i c h was c o n s i d e r e d i m p o r t a n t t o t h e p e r s o n

experiencing i t . I n o t h e r words, t h e y were l e a v i n g t h e

w o r k s h o p i n some way a d i f f e r e n t p e r s o n t h a n when t h e y came.

 16

Approach t o the Question

Because this study explored the l i v e d experience of

significant c h a n g e f o r p s y c h o d r a m a a u d i e n c e members, a

qualitative m e t h o d o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n was chosen.

S p e c i f i c a l l y , an e x i s t e n t i a l - p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l method

(Colaizzi, 1978; G i o r g i , 1985) was c h o s e n b e c a u s e of i t s

emphasis on d r a w i n g o u t a r i c h d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e

e x p e r i e n c e , i n c l u d i n g t h e p e r s o n a l m e a n i n g made b y a u d i e n c e

members. Colaizzi (1978) d e s c r i b e s t h i s m e t h o d a s one w h i c h

"seeks t o e x p l i c a t e t h e essence, s t r u c t u r e , o r form o f b o t h

human e x p e r i e n c e a n d human b e h a v i o u r a s r e v e a l e d t h r o u g h

essentially descriptive techniques including disciplined

reflection"

Summary

Psychodrama i s b o t h a t h e o r e t i c a l framework and t h e

p r a c t i c e o f a dynamic form o f group t h e r a p y . Originated i n

1921 b y J a c o b L. M o r e n o , M.D., this therapeutic modality

engenders c a t h a r t i c e x p e r i e n c e s f o r b o t h p r o t a g o n i s t s and

a u d i e n c e members. The e x p e r i e n c e o f s i g n i f i c a n t change f o r

a u d i e n c e members i s a t o p i c w h i c h h a s n o t b e e n p r e v i o u s l y

i n v e s t i g a t e d and t h i s s t u d y , e m p l o y i n g an e x i s t e n t i a l -

phenomenological methodology, has t a k e n a s t e p towards

f i l l i n g t h i s gap.
 17

CHAPTER I I

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Introduction

The c e n t r a l t a s k of t h i s chapter i s t o review the

l i t e r a t u r e relevant to this study. " A u d i e n c e " and "change"

are the two primary relevant concepts. Although little

research has focussed upon t h e audience s p e c i f i c a l l y , an

overview of r e l e v a n t studies i s presented. This is followed

by an overview of the therapeutic b e n e f i t s of psychodrama

w i t h p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n to the concept of c a t h a r s i s .

Previous p s y c h o d r a m a outcome r e s e a r c h not specific to

a u d i e n c e members i s a l s o reviewed.

Previous P s y c h o d r a m a A u d i e n c e Member R e s e a r c h

Greenberg's Study

I r a G r e e n b e r g c o n d u c t e d a s t u d y i n 19 66 examining

a u d i e n c e member a t t i t u d e c h a n g e f o l l o w i n g a p s y c h o d r a m a

enactment. Greenberg employed a p r e - t e s t / p o s t - t e s t design

c o m p a r i n g a t t i t u d e change of a c o n t r o l group w i t h t h a t of an

experimental group w i t n e s s i n g a psychodrama enactment.

Results of t h i s s t u d y were i n c o n c l u s i v e i n s u p p o r t i n g the

hypothesis t h a t f o l l o w i n g an enactment f a v o u r a b l y portraying

t h e U.S. D r a f t and p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the Vietnam war,

a u d i e n c e members w o u l d assume a more f a v o u r a b l e attitude

than the generally o p p o s i t i o n a l stance taken before the

enactment.
 18

G r e e n b e r g ( 1 9 6 6 ) p o s t u l a t e d t h a t a u d i e n c e members w o u l d

experience high l e v e l s o f a n x i e t y f r o m w a t c h i n g an enactment

concerning a young g i r l contemplating suicide after

d i s c o v e r i n g t h a t she was p r e g n a n t and t h a t her lover had

l i e d t o h e r a b o u t h i s m a r i t a l s t a t u s and had no i n t e n t i o n of

c a r r y i n g t h r o u g h on a f o r m e r p r o m i s e o f m a r r i a g e . He

f u r t h e r p o s t u l a t e d t h a t the audience would wish t o reduce

t h e i r l e v e l o f a n x i e t y and t h a t t h i s would occur through

"cognitive consistency", or agreeing with a credible

protaganist supporting a t t i t u d e s which ran counter to those

h e l d by t h e audience.

Although t h i s study i s r e l a t e d t o a u d i e n c e members, i t

is of l i t t l e value to the current study f o r a number o f

reasons. Firstly, t h e way i n which "audience" and

" p r o t a g a n i s t " a r e c h o s e n and i n v o l v e d i n a drama b e a r s

little resemblance t o c l a s s i c a l psychodrama. The

p r o t a g a n i s t and auxiliaries had a pre-set, practiced, plot

t o e n a c t and the a u d i e n c e were a s s i g n e d their role as

a u d i e n c e members. T h i s , i n e f f e c t , was not a study about

psychodrama.

S e c o n d l y , t h e way t h a t c o n c e p t s s u c h as a n x i e t y and

c a t h a r s i s were o p e r a t i o n a l i z e d i s q u e s t i o n a b l e . Greenberg

assumed t h a t a n x i e t y and c a t h a r s i s would ensue g i v e n the

nature of the e n a c t e d drama and d i d not d e v i s e a means t o

measure whether or not t h i s had i n f a c t occurred. Finally,

this study provides little relevant information about the

 19
e x p e r i e n c e of change f o r a u d i e n c e members. In o t h e r words,

a l t h o u g h t h i s i s one o f t h e few s t u d i e s which has

specifically f o c u s s e d upon p s y c h o d r a m a a u d i e n c e s , i t bears

little relevance t o the current study.

Hofrichter's Study

I n 1973 David H o f r i c h t e r conducted a study e x p l o r i n g the

e x p e r i e n c e o f community d u r i n g t h e s h a r i n g phase o f a

psychodrama enactment w i t h h o s p i t a l i z e d p a t i e n t s a t Somerset

State Hospital. F i v e audience members as w e l l as the

p r o t a g o n i s t were i n t e r v i e w e d i n t h i s p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l study

e x p l o r i n g t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f community d u r i n g t h e s h a r i n g

phase of psychodrama. The r e s u l t s of t h i s study

s p e c i f i c a l l y r e l a t e t o t h e c u r r e n t s t u d y i n as much as they

are a d e s c r i p t i o n of the l i v e d experience of audience

members. A b r i e f o u t l i n e o f t h e themes w h i c h emerged i n

this study follows:

Expanded Horizon and Phenomenal P o p u l a t i o n r e f e r s t o the

e x p e r i e n c e o f h a v i n g o n e ' s p r i v a t e w o r l d o p e n e d up and

e n t e r e d i n t o by a n o t h e r . Hofrichter d e s c r i b e s the sense of

l i b e r a t i o n t h a t i s e x p e r i e n c e d as p e o p l e find "co-inhabitors

i n what had b e e n i s o l a t i o n " (p. 96). Unconditional

Acceptance r e f e r s t o t h e e x p e r i e n c e b y t h e p r o t a g o n i s t o f

being "welcomed b a c k home a f t e r b e i n g away" ( p . 9 3 ) , a n d the

experience of the audience member o f "going out toward the

wandering other". The q u a l i t y of t h i s welcoming/returning

i s one o f n o n - j u d g e m e n t a l and non-critical unconditional

 20

acceptance, w h e r e b o t h t h e shadow and l i g h t s i d e s of the

p r o t a g o n i s t a r e embraced. T h i s p r o c e s s was d e s c r i b e d by

H o f r i c h t e r as "a p e r i o d o f t r a n s i t i o n o r m o d u l a t i o n back

i n t o the group" (p. 93).

The t h i r d theme Oneness w i t h i n I n d i v i d u a l i t y was

e x p e r i e n c e d by 4/6 o f t h e c o - r e s e a r c h e r s and i n v o l v e d the

"communal f e e l i n g o f somehow a l l s h a r i n g t h e same t h i n g s

e v e n t h o u g h we e x p e r i e n c e them i n d i f f e r e n t ways" (p. 94).

H o f r i c h t e r s u s p e c t s t h a t t h i s theme i s c o n t i n g e n t upon t h e

experience of u n c o n d i t i o n a l acceptance and e l a b o r a t e s upon

t h e e x p e r i e n c e as a g r o u p e x p e r i e n c e o f s h a r e d humanity.

The f i n a l theme E x i s t e n t i a l G i v i n g was e x p e r i e n c e d by four

c o - r e s e a r c h e r s and r e f e r s t o a p e r c e p t i o n of "greater

k n o w i n g and f e e l i n g f o r another i n a d e e p e r way because they

have g i v e n o f t h e m s e l v e s " (p. 94). Following along with

t h e theme o f r e d u c i n g shame t h r o u g h sharing, decreasing

i s o l a t i o n through self-disclosure, t h i s theme a l l u d e s t o a

sense t h a t through r e c e i v i n g the p a i n of another, one's own

p a i n i s s h a r e d and lessened.

I n many w a y s , t h i s s t u d y a p p e a r s t o be a d e s c r i p t i o n of

t h e c a t h a r s i s o f i n c l u s i o n and t h e s p i r i t u a l catharsis which

Blatner (1985) d e s c r i b e d . It is difficult t o comment u p o n

t h e s t u d y ; as o u t l i n e d by O s b o r n e ( 1 9 9 4 ) , g e n e r a l i z a t i o n to

others occurs through a p e r c e p t i o n of whether the experience

"fits" f o r the reader.

 21

Widlocher eta l

T h i s 1966 s t u d y was w r i t t e n i n F r e n c h a n d c o n c e r n about

t h e a c c u r a c y o f my u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e a r t i c l e p r e c l u d e s a n

in-depth description. This study i s only p a r t i a l l y r e l e v a n t

i n a s much a s t h e a u d i e n c e was more s e p a r a t e d f r o m t h e

g r o u p t h a n i s n o r m a l l y t h e c a s e i n p s y c h o d r a m a a n d some o f

the b e n e f i t s of p a r t i c i p a t i o n would t h e r e f o r e not apply t o

t h i s group. The " a u d i e n c e " was composed o f a number o f

d o c t o r s a n d p s y c h o l o g i s t s who w e r e l e a r n i n g about

p s y c h o d r a m a a n d g e n e r a l l y d i d n o t t a k e an a c t i v e part.

N o n e t h e l e s s , t h e s t u d y does r e p o r t t h e f a c t t h a t a group o f

10 p r o f e s s i o n a l s o b s e r v i n g t h e e n a c t m e n t s o f t h e m o d e r a t e l y

d i s t u r b e d g r o u p o f 10 - 18 y e a r o l d b o y s o v e r a t h r e e y e a r

period experienced strong feelings a t times; sufficiently

s t r o n g t o r e q u i r e p e r s o n a l p r o c e s s i n g by t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l s

involved.

Baum's Study

S u s a n Baum ( 1 9 9 4 ) i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e p s y c h o d r a m a

e x p e r i e n c e f o r f o u r p r o t a g o n i s t s a n d t w o a u d i e n c e members o f

a psychodrama workshop conducted a t U.B.C b y t h e same

d i r e c t o r s as t h o s e i n t h i s study. Although t h e audience

e x p e r i e n c e d e s c r i b e d i n h e r s t u d y o n l y r e l a t e d t o two.

p e o p l e , w i t h themes s o m e t i m e s o n l y f i t t i n g one p e r s o n s

e x p e r i e n c e , h e r s t u d y i s n o n e t h e l e s s r e l e v a n t t o t h i s one.

The f o c u s o f t h e s e two s t u d i e s i s s i m i l a r ; consequently

 22

convergence o r d i v e r g e n c e o f themes w i l l be an important

means o f a s c r i b i n g v a l i d i t y t o b o t h studies.

A l t h o u g h t h e c u r r e n t s t u d y i s s i m i l a r t o Baum's, t h e

d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e two are noteworthy. Baum d e s c r i b e s

t h e s i g n i f i c a n t e x p e r i e n c e o f a u d i e n c e members; h o w e v e r

audience experience i s p a r t i a l l y described i n r e l a t i o n s h i p

to t h e i r d e c i s i o n n o t t o become a p r o t a g a n i s t . In other

w o r d s , a l t h o u g h Baum's s t u d y e x p l o r e s a u d i e n c e experience,

the experience i s p a r t i a l l y viewed dialectically with

"audience" as one p o l e and " p r o t a g a n i s t " as a n o t h e r . This

study w i l l e x t e n d Baum's s t u d y b y looking in-depth at the

audience change p r o c e s s itself.

In order t o d i s c u s s the convergence and d i v e r g e n c e of

t h e s e two s t u d i e s , an e n u m e r a t i o n o f t h e themes which

emerged i n h e r s t u d y i s r e q u i r e d . T h e s e themes a r e as

follows:

1. T h e r e i s an i n t e l l e c t u a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f w h a t

psychodrama i s .

2. P a r t i c i p a n t s have a r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e director

b e f o r e the psychodrama.

3. T h e r e i s a n e e d f o r t r u s t and safety i n the director.

4. There i s a need t o f e e l t r u s t w i t h t h e group which i s

not y e t experienced.

5. T h e r e i s a f o c u s on o b s e r v i n g t h e p s y c h o d r a m a s t o b e t t e r

understand o n e ' s own i s s u e and d e v e l o p i t into a

psychodrama.
 23

6. T h e r e i s a f o c u s o n p l a n n i n g what one w o u l d do a s a

protagonist.

7. There i s a b u i l d i n g o f emotional i n t e n s i t y a n d an

a n x i e t y about that.

8. T h e r e i s a f e e l i n g o f n o t b e i n g r e a d y t o be a

p r o t a g a n i s t i f s a f e t y f a c t o r s a r e ensured.

9. There i s an i n t e r m i t t e n t awareness o f t h e group and o f

the psychodrama.

10. T h e r e i s a f e e l i n g o f e m o t i o n a l e x h a u s t i o n a t t h e end o f

t h e p s y c h o d r a m a due t o t h e i n t e n s i t y o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e .

11. T h e r e a r e i n s i g h t s g a t h e r e d from t h e e x p e r i e n c e and t h e

u n i v e r s a l i t y o f themes w i t n e s s e d i n t h e p s y c h o d r a m a .

Summary o f A u d i e n c e Member Research

Although some r e s e a r c h h a s b e e n c o n d u c t e d into audience

member e x p e r i e n c e , two o f t h e f o u r s t u d i e s , G r e e n b e r g a n d

Tellier et a l , are less relevant to this s t u d y i n a s much a s

the psychodramatic s i t u a t i o n was q u i t e a r t i f i c i a l i n

Greenberg's ( 1 9 6 6 ) s t u d y , a n d somewhat a r t i f i c i a l i n Tellier

et a l (1966). The a u d i e n c e s i n t h e s e s t u d i e s were

p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y s e p a r a t e from t h e psychodramatic action. In

o t h e r words, t h e u s u a l n a t u r a l i n t e r c h a n g e between audience

and p r o t a g o n i s t w h i c h i s a h a l l m a r k o f psychodrama d i d n o t

occur i n these studies. The r e p o r t e d r e s u l t s t h e r e f o r e a r e

n o t e n t i r e l y r e l e v a n t t o p s y c h o d r a m a . What i s o f i n t e r e s t ,

is the emotional intensity reported despite the separation

of audience and a c t i o n . In a d d i t i o n , the goal f o r those

 24

a u d i e n c e s was n o t t h e r a p e u t i c a s i t i s f o r p s y c h o d r a m a

audiences.

Of t h e two q u a l i t a t i v e s t u d i e s r e v i e w e d , one provided

rich information related to the therapeutic value f o r

a u d i e n c e members i n t h e s h a r i n g p h a s e o f t h e e n a c t m e n t a n d

the other provided an i n t e r e s t i n g starting point f o r

e x a m i n i n g t h e change p r o c e s s f o r psychodrama a u d i e n c e s .

This study will c o n t r i b u t e t o p s y c h o d r a m a outcome research

b y e x p l o r i n g t h e c h a n g e p r o c e s s f o r a u d i e n c e members who

experience a s i g n i f i c a n t personal change a t a psychodrama

workshop. What a r e t h e t h e r a p e u t i c b e n e f i t s f o r p s y c h o d r a m a

a u d i e n c e members?

Therapeutic Benefits

Therapeutic b e n e f i t s f r o m p s y c h o d r a m a c a n be

conceptualized i n a number o f d i f f e r e n t w a y s . From a

psychodynamic p e r s p e c t i v e , B l a t n e r and B l a t n e r (1988a)

e n u m e r a t e ways i n w h i c h t h e ego i s strengthened:

1. Reality Testing - during the integration p h a s e o f an

enactment, feedback which r e q u i r e s p r o t a g o n i s t s t o check

out t h e i r perceptions i s provided. Also, "by a l l o w i n g

for a f u l l expression o f f a n t a s y and dreams, t h e y a r e

thereby helped t o become c o n s c i o u s l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d " (p.

95).

2. Judgement - i s e x e r c i s e d t h r o u g h p r a c t i s i n g potentially

difficult situations i n a safe environment.

 25

3. Sense of R e a l i t y - enactments o c c u r i n t h e h e r e and now

and can counter defensive m e c h a n i s m s s u c h as denial,

depersonalization and derealization.

4. Regulation and c o n t r o l o f d r i v e s , a f f e c t s and impulse -

can be m o d i f i e d t o more m a t u r e f o r m s particularly

following a c a t h a r t i c experience.

5. O b j e c t r e l a t i o n s - can be explored through enactments.

I d e a l i z a t i o n or d e v a l u a t i o n can a l s o be reduced,

p a r t i c u l a r l y through the use of r o l e r e v e r s a l where a

more c o m p l e t e p i c t u r e o f t h e "other" can emerge.

6. Thought p r o c e s s e s are exercised, particularly in the

i n t e g r a t i o n p h a s e o f an enactment.

7. Adaptive regression i n the s e r v i c e of the ego.

8. Defensive f u n c t i o n i n g u s u a l l y i s a r e s u l t of unconscious

conflict. Through making the conflict c o n s c i o u s a more

mature r e p e r t o i r e of behaviour i s p o s s i b l e and defensive

f u n c t i o n i n g can be reduced.

9. S t i m u l u s b a r r i e r s can be strengthened "through

e x p l o r a t i o n of a v a r i e t y of d i s t a n c i n g , b u f f e r i n g and

soothing techniques" ( p . 98) P a r t i c i p a n t s can allow

mild lapses of a t t e n t i o n , ignore certain stimuli and

r e f r a m e m i s t a k e s t h a t were f o r m a l l y seen as

catastrophic. I n o t h e r w o r d s , an element of choice and

o b j e c t i v i t y can moderate emotional reactivity.

10. Autonomous f u n c t i o n s are increased through working with

c r e a t i v i t y and spontaneity.
 26

11. S y n t h e t i c - i n t e g r a t i v e f u n c t i o n i n g - a " c h o o s i n g s e l f "

develops through r o l e distance. This, i n turn,

increases the i n t e g r a t i v e c a p a c i t i e s of the i n d i v i d u a l .

12. M a s t e r y - c o m p e t e n c e c a n be e n h a n c e d t h r o u g h r o l e p l a y and

behavioral practice.

The above n o t e d b e n e f i t s a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e f o r

protagonists. However, i n as much as p s y c h o d r a m a i s a form

o f g r o u p t h e r a p y , t h e s e b e n e f i t s may be r e l e v a n t to a l l

members o f t h e g r o u p ; p r o t a g o n i s t s , auxiliaries and audience

members. The b e n e f i t s t o p r o t a g o n i s t s a r e much more visible

and c l e a r l y d e f i n a b l e ; protagonists are a c t i v e l y

r e s t r u c t u r i n g t h e i r r e a l i t y and a r e t h e o v e r t focus of the

session. Does t h e a u d i e n c e b e n e f i t t h e r a p e u t i c a l l y , a n d i f

so, how?

T h e r e a r e a number o f ways a u d i e n c e members c a n benefit

from psychodrama. Empathy o r t h e a b i l i t y t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e

e x p e r i e n c e o f a n o t h e r i s an i m p o r t a n t c o n c e p t i n C a r l

Roger's c l i e n t - c e n t r e d approach t o therapy (Rogers, 1961).

Perhaps b e n e f i t t o a u d i e n c e members o c c u r s b e c a u s e of t h e i r

a b i l i t y t o empathize; through f e e l i n g the f e e l i n g s of the

protagonist, a u d i e n c e members a r e a b l e t o rework t h e i r own

feelings. L i t e r a t u r e r e l a t e d t o drama a u d i e n c e s cite

empathy as a c r u c i a l p a r t of t h e r e c i p r o c i t y between

a u d i e n c e and a c t o r ( B e n n e t t , 1990; Styan, 1975). Empathy i s

a l s o s e e n as an i m p o r t a n t p a r t i n S t a n i s l a v s k i ' s work i n as

much as a c t o r s are encouraged t o d e v e l o p empathy f o r t h e

 27

c h a r a c t e r t h e y a r e p o r t r a y i n g by i n w a r d l y e x p e r i e n c i n g

f e e l i n g s f r o m t h e i r own past which are s i m i l a r t o those they

are portraying ( B e n n e t t , 1990; G i n n , 1974; Jennings, 1987)

The i d e a o f empathy i s t a k e n a s t e p f u r t h e r by

t r a n s p e r s o n a l p s y c h o l o g i s t s who view the boundaries between

p e o p l e as p a r t i a l l y a r t i f i c i a l ; human b e i n g s c a n n o t help

b u t be d e e p l y a f f e c t e d by o t h e r s b e c a u s e on one level, we

are a l l connected. Rumi, a 13th c e n t u r y P e r s i a n S u f i mystic

wrote: "Happy t h e moment when we are seated i n the palace,

t h o u and I , W i t h two forms and w i t h two f i g u r e s but w i t h one

soul, t h o u and I " ( R u m i , N i c h o l s o n 1973 translation).

Perhaps the f i l t e r s between the e x p e r i e n c e of the

p r o t a g o n i s t and t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f a u d i e n c e members becomes

q u i t e p e r m e a b l e so t h a t t h r o u g h e n c o u n t e r , t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f

t h e p r o t a g o n i s t becomes r e a l f o r a u d i e n c e members. In a

similar f a s h i o n , G r o t o w s k i has a t t e m p t e d t h r o u g h encounter

to remove t h e s e p a r a t i o n b e t w e e n a c t o r s a n d audience

(Jennings, 1987).

One school of thought which i n t e g r a t e s b o t h p e r s o n a l and

transpersonal philosophies i s Jungian psychology.

A c c o r d i n g t o Jung, internal a r c h e t y p a l p a t t e r n s would be

t r i g g e r e d as a r e s u l t o f b e i n g an a u d i e n c e member a n d this

triggering would result i n the r e l e a s e of a f f e c t . The

connectedness o f human l i f e i s d e s c r i b e d by J u n g t h r o u g h h i s

notion of the c o l l e c t i v e unconscious w h i c h he c o n s i d e r s t o

 28

work i n tandem w i t h t h e p e r s o n a l u n c o n s c i o u s ( R y c h l a k , 1981;

Monte, 1987).

In a d d i t i o n t o c o n s i d e r i n g p h i l o s o p h i c a l and

m e t a t h e o r e t i c a l i s s u e s w i t h r e g a r d t o how a u d i e n c e members

are a f f e c t e d by t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f another; intra-psychic

mechanisms o f change a r e a l s o i m p o r t a n t . What i s i t t h a t

changes? Is there a s h i f t i n c o g n i t i v e understanding? Is

t h e s h i f t more a f f e c t i v e ? Does o n e ' s self-definition

change? Do t h e s e s h i f t s r e s u l t i n d i f f e r e n t b e h a v i o u r ? Is

it a combination of factors? C l e a r l y some f o r m o f l e a r n i n g

occurs, t h e nature of t h a t l e a r n i n g i s worthy of

examination.

S o c i a l L e a r n i n g T h e o r y p r o v i d e s one e x p l a n a t i o n o f how

learning occurs. A c c o r d i n g t o Bandura ( c i t e d i n Rychlak,

1981) new r e s p o n s e s are learned vicariously through

o b s e r v i n g r o l e models. Bandura w r i t e s :

p s y c h o l o g i c a l f u n c t i o n i n g i s e x p l a i n e d i n terms of a
c o n t i n u o u s r e c i p r o c a l i n t e r a c t i o n o f p e r s o n a l and
environmental determinants . . . In a c t u a l i t y , v i r t u a l l y
a l l l e a r n i n g phenomena r e s u l t i n g f r o m d i r e c t e x p e r i e n c e
o c c u r on a v i c a r i o u s b a s i s b y o b s e r v i n g o t h e r p e o p l e ' s
b e h a v i o u r a n d i t s c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r them ( c i t e d i n
R y c h l a k , p. 4 8 3 ) .

Weiner (1982) d e s c r i b e s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between

Bandura's n o t i o n o f l e a r n i n g w i t h Freud's idea of

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n a n d d e s c r i b e s how i d e n t i f i c a t i o n facilitates

l e a r n i n g through modelling. I n o t h e r w o r d s , more learning

o c c u r s when t h e m o d e l i s someone who i s s t r o n g l y identified

w i t h , r e s p e c t e d and seen as an i m p o r t a n t figure.

 I m p l i c i t i n Bandura's t h e o r y i s t h e i d e a t h a t learning

i s p r i m a r i l y a cognitive process. W h i l e i t may be t h e c a s e

that the integration of information i s primarily cognitive,

a more a f f e c t i v e e x p e r i e n c e - c a t h a r s i s (the emotional

release o f p e n t up f e e l i n g s ) - o f t e n p r e c e d e s t h i s process.

In a d d i t i o n t o c a t h a r s i s , B l a t n e r (1985) has o u t l i n e d some

other therapeutic b e n e f i t s t h a t may o c c u r a s a r e s u l t o f

p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n a psychodrama. These include:

a) a k i n d o f t r a n s c e n d e n c e t h a t comes f r o m i d e n t i f y i n g w i t h

the observing s e l f as opposed t o t h e m y r i a d r e a c t i v e selves

b) s y m b o l i c r e s o l u t i o n o f c o n f l i c t so t h a t injury to self-

e s t e e m f r o m t h e o r i g i n a l d e f e a t may be r e d u c e d .

c) r e d u c e d c o g n i t i v e d i s s o n a n c e t h r o u g h f i n d i n g imaginative

solutions.

The b e n e f i t s o f group psychotherapy i n general would

a l s o a p p l y t o psychodrama. Initial i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of group

therapeutic b e n e f i t was i n t h e f o r m o f t h e r a p i s t

i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c accounts (Kellermann, 1985). C o r s i n i and

R o s e n b e r g ( c i t e d i n K e l l e r m a n n , 1985) r e v i e w e d 300 o f t h e s e

accounts and found t h r e e broad categories w h i c h subsumed t h

nine classes of therapeutic benefits reported by t h e r a p i s t s

These i n c l u d e : 1) e m o t i o n a l : a c c e p t a n c e , a l t r u i s m a n d

transference; 2) c o g n i t i v e : s p e c t a t o r therapy,

universalizqation, and i n t e l l e c t u a l i z a t i o n ; a n d 3) a c t i o n a l

r e a l i t y t e s t i n g , v e n t i l a t i o n , and i n t e r a c t i o n .
 30

More s y s t e m a t i c research began i n t h e s i x t i e s where the

a s s e s s m e n t o f g r o u p p s y c h o t h e r a p y members r a t h e r than

t h e r a p i s t s formed the basis f o r the determination of

therapeutic benefits. From t h i s l i t e r a t u r e , Yalom ( c i t e d in

K e l l e r m a n n , 1985) formulated a l i s t of 12 factors including:

self-understanding (insight), interpersonal learning (both

input and output), u n i v e r s a l i t y , i n s t i l l a t i o n of hope,

a l t r u i s m , r e c a p i t u l a t i o n of p r i m a r y f a m i l y group (family

reenactment), c a t h a r s i s , cohesiveness, identification,

g u i d a n c e , and existential issues. These f a c t o r s formed the

basis f o r a 6 0 - i t e m Q - s o r t measure c o n s t r u c t e d by Yalom,

Tinklenberg and G i l u l a i n 1970 ( c i t e d i n Kellermann) and

s u b s e q u e n t use of the measure i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e factors

m o s t h i g h l y v a l u e d by group p a r t i c i p a n t s were interpersonal

l e a r n i n g , c a t h a r s i s and self-understanding.

W a n t i n g t o e x a m i n e t h e b e n e f i t s o f p s y c h o d r a m a as a

s p e c i f i c form of group therapy, Kellermann (1985) f o r m u l a t e d

a questionnaire b a s e d upon Y a l o m ' s Q - s o r t and administered

his questionnaire t o a group of t h i r t y , relatively well-

functioning, I s r a e l i p s y c h o d r a m a p a r t i c i p a n t s who were part

of l o n g - t e r m g r o u p t h e r a p y l e d by e x p e r i e n c e d psychdorama

practitioners. The r e s u l t s of h i s study i n d i c a t e d that

self-understanding, c a t h a r s i s and interpersonal learning

were t h e three most h i g h l y r a n k e d items.

 31

Catharsis

The c o n c e p t o f c a t h a r s i s , one p a r t i c u l a r f o r m o f c h a n g e ,

is pivotal to this study and a r e v i e w of the l i t e r a t u r e with

regard t o catharsis follows. A r i s t o t l e coined t h e term

"catharsis" i n h i s objection t o Plato's contention that

drama was s u b v e r s i v e a n d s h o u l d be e l i m i n a t e d . Aristotle

t h o u g h t t h a t drama e n g e n d e r e d c a t h a r s i s , o r t h e r e l e a s e o f

e m o t i o n , h e l p i n g a u d i e n c e members v i c a r i o u s l y p u r g e f e e l i n g s

of p i t y and t e r r o r (Scheff & Bushnell, 1984).

Although ancient i n i t s origins, the idea of catharsis

re-emerged i n t h e work o f s e v e r a l i n d i v i d u a l s after

Aristotle. I n t h e 1700's F a t h e r J o h a n n G a s s n e r p e r f o r m e d a

type of exorcism i n v o l v i n g t h e c a s t i n g o u t o f demons through

c o n v u l s i o n s and e m o t i o n a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f an induced

"crisis". Mesmer p e r f o r m e d s i m i l a r c u r e s ; h o w e v e r i n h i s

v i e w i t was t h r o u g h t h e s h i f t i n g o f body f l u i d s and

"magnetism" r a t h e r t h a n exorcism, t h a t t h e c r i s i s and

s u b s e q u e n t c u r e was a c h i e v e d ( S t r a t o n , 1990). Mesmer

maintained that the cathartic effect of experiencing the

c r i s i s was h e a l i n g .

A shift i n t h e way i n w h i c h c a t h a r s i s was c o n c e p t u a l i z e d

had occurred. The o r i g i n a l idea of a v i c a r i o u s experience

r e s u l t i n g i n t h e p u r g i n g o f f e e l i n g s had changed. Cathartic

experiences w e r e now c o n c e p t u a l i z e d a s t h e p u r g i n g o f

f e e l i n g s r e s u l t i n g from d i r e c t p e r s o n a l experience.
 32

One o f Mesmer's s t u d e n t s , P u y s e g u r , f o u n d what he

c o n s i d e r e d t o be t h e "perfect c r i s i s " . Foreshadowing the

body/mind s p l i t o f some f o r m s o f c o n t e m p o r a r y psychotherapy,

Puysegur d i d not produce c o n v u l s i o n s i n h i s p a t i e n t s .

Rather, he f o u n d t h a t s o m n a m b u l i s m " t h e a b i l i t y t o talk,

l u c i d l y a b o u t d e l i c a t e m a t t e r s , and subsequent amnesia",

(Straton, 1990, p. 544) produced a healing affect. Mesmer

b e l i e v e d t h a t the magnetic s l e e p which produced this effect

was a r e s u l t of the " p s y c h o l o g i c a l f o r c e between magnetizer

and p a t i e n t " (p.544). Two s t r a n d s - c a t h a r s i s and hypnosis

-were w e a v i n g t h e m s e l v e s together.

N e a r t h e end of the nineteenth century Charcot, an

important i n f l u e n c e f o r both Breuer and F r e u d , again brought

hypnosis f o r w a r d as an i m p o r t a n t a r e a o f s t u d y . Joseph

Breuer found t h a t h i s p a t i e n t s g e n e r a l l y d i s p l a y e d a g r e a t

d e a l o f e m o t i o n when t h e y s p o k e f r e e l y u n d e r hypnosis.

Because of r e g u l a r d i s c h a r g e of emotions, t h e method was

c a l l e d t h e c a t h a r t i c method (Moreno, 1964).

Freud's work f o c u s e d i n i t i a l l y upon h y p n o s i s ; however,

e v e n t u a l l y he s h i f t e d away f r o m c a t h a r t i c t h e r a p y t o free

a s s o c i a t i o n and a n a l y s i s . The m i n d / b o d y s p l i t was becoming

more f i r m l y e n t r e n c h e d i n psychoanalytic therapy. Other

theorists, however, c o n t i n u e d t o see t h e t h e r a p e u t i c

importance of m a i n t a i n i n g mind/body i n t e g r i t y . Reich and

Moreno, t h e f a t h e r s of e x p e r i e n t i a l p s y c h o t h e r a p i e s , a r e two

such t h e o r i s t s ( S t r a t o n , 1990).
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R e i c h p r i m a r i l y w o r k e d i n d i v i d u a l l y and Moreno saw the

v a l u e o f e x p e r i e n t i a l group work. S h a f e r and G a l i n s k y ,

1984) note:

"In i t s p u r e s t form, psychodrama c o n s i s t s of t h e t h e r a p y

g r o u p o r w o r k s h o p t h a t f o c u s e s on a c t i n g o u t e m o t i o n a l l y
s i g n i f i c a n t scenes from the p a s t , p r e s e n t , or
a n t i c i p a t e d f u t u r e f o r t h e p u r p o s e s o f c a t h a r s i s and
a c q u i r i n g new b e h a v i o u r s " ( p . 9 8 ) .

Moreno r e c o g n i z e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f memories o f b o t h the

m i n d and t h e b o d y and b e l i e v e d t h a t t h r o u g h a c t i o n , t h e two

t y p e s o f memory - c o n t e n t ( m i n d ) and a c t i o n ( b o d y ) c o u l d be

most c o m p l e t e l y a c c e s s e d (Fine, 1979). F o l l o w i n g from h i s

n o t i o n o f two t y p e s o f m e m o r i e s , M o r e n o d e s c r i b e d two types

of c a t h a r s i s : s o m a t i c and m e n t a l . Moreno d e f i n e s somatic

c a t h a r s i s as " p u r g i n g o r c l e a n s i n g o f any l o c u s of t h e body"

( M o r e n o , 1964, p. 16). With regard t o mental catharsis, he

wrote:

M e n t a l c a t h a r s i s i s h e r e d e f i n e d as a p r o c e s s w h i c h
accompanies every type of l e a r n i n g , not o n l y f i n d i n g of
r e s o l u t i o n from c o n f l i c t , but a l s o of r e a l i z a t i o n of
s e l f , n o t o n l y a r e l e a s e and r e l i e f b u t a l s o e q u i l i b r i u m
and p e a c e . I t i s not a c a t h a r s i s of a b r e a c t i o n but a
c a t h a r s i s of i n t e g r a t i o n . ( M o r e n o , 1953, p. 5 4 6 ) .

M o r e n o ' s v i e w o f c a t h a r s i s i n c l u d e s an e l e m e n t o f

i n t e g r a t i o n which situates catharsis i n a different context

than i s u s u a l l y the case. Moreno c o n c e i v e d o f c a t h a r s i s as

i n c l u d i n g b o t h an e m o t i o n a l r e l e a s e as w e l l as a cognitive

integration.

The notion that integration i s a v i t a l component o f the

c a t h a r t i c e x p e r i e n c e has b e e n f u r t h e r e l a b o r a t e d by

subsequent psychodramatists. For example, K e l l e r m a n n (1984)

 34

is c l e a r about t h e importance o f i n t e g r a t i o n . "...catharsis

in itself i s not curative" ( p . 1) " D i r e c t o r s who s t r i v e f o r

both release ( i d ) and i n t e g r a t i o n (ego), will be more

e f f e c t i v e t h a n t h o s e who e m p h a s i z e r e l e a s e alone" (p. 9 ) .

Blatner (1985) e x t e n d s Moreno's i d e a o f i n t e g r a t i o n even

f u r t h e r by c o n c e p t u a l i z i n g c a t h a r s i s as b o t h t h e i n t e g r a t i o n

as w e l l a s t h e " e m o t i o n a l p u r g i n g " u s u a l l y a s s o c i a t e d with

the term. "The c o n c e p t o f c a t h a r s i s may b e u n d e r s t o o d a s a

s h i f t o f t h e p s y c h e i n t o a new l e v e l o f i n t e g r a t i o n " ( p .

160), "an e x p a n s i o n o f t h e s e l f " ( p . 1 6 3 ) . The i d e a o f

psychic reordering i s also described by Davies (1987):

"Catharsis i s t h e moment i n w h i c h t h e e x i s t i n g s t r u c t u r e o f

roles f i n a l l y y i e l d s t o reform i t s e l f " (Davies, 1987).

Blatner (1985) expands t h e v i e w o f c a t h a r s i s t o i n c l u d e

four interpenetrating categories: abreaction, integration,

i n c l u s i o n and s p i r i t u a l . The c a t h a r s i s o f a b r e a c t i o n i s the

sort of emotional expression w h i c h i s most r e a d i l y

associated with the idea of catharsis. However Blatner

(1985) n o t e s t h a t i t i s not t h e p u r g i n g o f emotions itself

that constitutes the c a t h a r t i c experience, rather i t i s the

e x p e r i e n c e o f e m o t i o n s t h a t accompany r e c o g n i z i n g previously

disowned f e e l i n g s . I n o t h e r words, expansion o f t h e psyche

o c c u r s f r o m w e l c o m i n g home f e e l i n g s w h i c h h a v e b e e n adrift.

I t would appear t h a t there a r e two l e v e l s o f e m o t i o n a l

processes occurring i n this situation: a) t h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f

c u t o f f f e e l i n g s , f o r example e x p e r i e n c i n g unacknowledged
 35

grief; as w e l l a s : b) the f e e l i n g s connected with that

e x p e r i e n c e , f o r example f e e l i n g a sense of relief from

experiencing unacknowledged g r i e f . Inherent i n t h i s

conceptualization of the catharsis of a b r e a c t i o n is the

notion of b r i n g i n g i n t o awareness something which was

previously hidden from awareness.

The next c a t e g o r y of catharsis o u t l i n e d by Blatner is

the catharsis of integration. The i n t e g r a t i o n , or psychic

expansion r e l a t e s to the f e e l i n g s , b e l i e f s , or memories

released i n the catharsis of a b r e a c t i o n . In o t h e r words,

the i n d i v i d u a l both rediscovers and finds a meaningful way

to incorporate previously disowned m a t e r i a l . Otherwise,

"one i s aware of t h e previously disowned element, but i t

still s t i c k s l i k e an arrow i n the soul rather than functions

as a d i r e c t i o n a l sign" (Blatner, personal communication).

I n t h i s way one's i d e n t i t y i s expanded t o i n c l u d e something

which p r e v i o u s l y seemed i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h one's i d e n t i t y , or

a l t e r n a t i v e l y the i n t e g r a t i o n o f two facets of one's

p e r s o n a l i t y w h i c h were not previously experienced as

operating together. M a s t e r y o f a new skill, o r an expanded

s e n s e o f c o m p e t e n c e i s a l s o a way i n which the catharsis of

i n t e g r a t i o n may occur (Blatner, 1985).

As w e l l as a d d i n g t o one's sense of self, l e t t i n g go of

c o p i n g s k i l l s w h i c h h a v e become m a l a d a p t i v e , o r negative

f e e l i n g s w h i c h h a v e become b u r d e n s o m e i s a l s o considered

part of t h i s category. In s h o r t "the process of re-

 36

e v a l u a t i n g and d e c i d i n g i n t h e p r e s e n t moment w h i c h p a r t s o f

the s e l f t o keep and w h i c h t o r e l i n q u i s h i s p a r t o f t h i s

catharsis of i n t e g r a t i o n " . ( B l a t n e r , 1 9 8 5 , p. 1 6 2 ) .

The catharsis of i n c l u s i o n relates t o a f e e l i n g of

belonging, s o m e t h i n g w h i c h A l f r e d A d l e r , one o f t h e

psychoanalytic t h e o r i s t who e x t e n d e d F r e u d ' s t h e o r y into the

s o c i a l realm, i d e n t i f i e s as a core human n e e d (Rychlak,

1981). Finally, spiritual catharsis, the fourth category

occurs when one e x p e r i e n c e s a f e e l i n g of integration with

the universe, o r God. These f o u r c a t e g o r i e s d e s c r i b e t h e

ways i n w h i c h t h e p s y c h e may s h i f t i n t o a new l e v e l o f

integration.

Although Blatner (1985) e l o q u e n t l y d e l i n e a t e s four

categories o f c a t h a r s i s , and d e s c r i b e s t h e psychodynamic

process involved i n i n t e g r a t i o n , h i s d e f i n i t i o n " s h i f t of

t h e p s y c h e i n t o a new l e v e l o f i n t e g r a t i o n , " ( p . 1 6 0 ) , "an

expansion of the s e l f " ( p . 163) a p p e a r s t o be more a

d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e t h e r a p e u t i c outcome o f t h e c a t h a r t i c

experience than of the process i t s e l f . Lewis and Bucher

(1992) p r o v i d e a more p r o c e s s o r i e n t e d d e f i n i t i o n when t h e y

describe c a t h a r s i s as " t h e r e l e a s e o f u s u a l r e s t r a i n t s on

the expression of emotion, o f t e n w i t h t h e expression of a

great d e a l o f anger" ( p . 385) Restraint implies the

conscious suppression, as opposed t o u n c o n s c i o u s repression,

of emotion. Lewis and Bucher's d e f i n i t i o n o f c a t h a r s i s i s

c o n s i s t e n t with t h e idea of " l e t t i n g i t out", the " i t " being

 37

s o m e t h i n g w h i c h i s known b u t not u s u a l l y expressed. A good

deal of research i n t o the usefulness of c a t h a r s i s i s based

upon t h i s i d e a of " l e t t i n g i t out", or the hydraulic model

of c a t h a r s i s ( K e l l e r m a n n , 1984; Straton, 1990).

Lewis & Bucher ( 1 9 9 2 ) r e v i e w s t u d i e s b a s e d upon this

model of c a t h a r s i s w h i c h a s s e r t s that emotions or energy may

become b l o c k e d o r o b s t r u c t e d and t h a t the goal of therapy i s

t o unblock the obstruction. An a s s u m p t i o n of t h i s model i s

t h a t a g g r e s s i o n or anger w i l l be lessened by expressing i t .

This hypothesis, the frustration-aggression hypothesis, has

m a i n l y been u n s u p p o r t e d i n r e s e a r c h studies. Studies by

B o h a r t ; E b b e s o n , Duncan & K o n e c n i ; Geen, S t o n n e r , & Shope;

and L i e b e r m a n e t a l ( c i t e d i n L e w i s & B u c h e r , 1992) testing

t h i s h y p o t h e s i s have g e n e r a l l y f o u n d i t t o be erroneous.

Kellermann (1984) c i t e s f u r t h e r s t u d i e s w h i c h b e l i e the

frustration-aggression hypothesis i n c l u d i n g those of

B e r k o w i t z e t a l ; F e s h b a c h , H o k a n s o n ; K a h n ; and Mallick and

M c C a n d l e s ; T a v r i s ; and W a r r e n and Kurlychek.

P e r h a p s t h i s m o d e l o f c a t h a r s i s has not proven i t s e l f to

be therapeutic because i t i s l a c k i n g the element of

i n t e g r a t i o n which i s considered c r u c i a l by psychodramatists

(Blatner, 1985, K e l l e r m a n n , 1984, Moreno, 1953). The

unmodulated e x p r e s s i o n of p r i m a r i l y r e g r e s s i v e feelings,

without incorporating the "adult" i n t o the experience i s

simply regression, as opposed t o r e g r e s s i o n i n the service

of the ego (Blatner, personal communication). In other

 38

words, the h y d r a u l i c model of c a t h a r s i s i s too small a piece

o f t h e p i c t u r e t o a d e q u a t e l y make s e n s e o f t h e c a t h a r t i c

experience. O t h e r t h e o r i s t s h a v e b e e n more all-

encompassing i n t h e i r d e l i n e a t i o n of c a t h a r s i s .

For e x a m p l e , as p r e v i o u s l y n o t e d , B l a t n e r (1985)

outlines four categories of c a t h a r s i s . Kellermann (1984)

s e e s c a t h a r s i s as h a v i n g three component p a r t s . He defines

c a t h a r s i s as "an experience of r e l e a s e t h a t occurs when a

longstanding s t a t e of i n n e r i m m o b i l i z a t i o n f i n d s i t s o u t l e t

i n a c t i o n " ( p . 1) and describes the component p a r t s a s : an

a f f e c t i v e expression w h i c h he c h a r a c t e r i z e s as i n t e n s e and

primitive; a c o g n i t i v e r e l e a s e o f an idea from the

u n c o n s c i o u s , and an a c t i o n a l r e l e a s e w h e r e " i n n e r tensions

are transformed i n t o overt behaviour" (p. 4).

Scheff and Bushnell (1984) p r o v i d e y e t a n o t h e r model of

catharsis. They n o t e t h a t i n o r d e r f o r emotional expression

t o be c a t h a r t i c , three i n t e r a c t i n g s y s t e m s come i n t o p l a y :

b i o l o g i c a l , p s y c h o l o g i c a l and social. Briefly, the

biological system i s the p h y s i c a l response which corresponds

to the "course" e m o t i o n s s u c h as a n g e r , g r i e f , fear and

shame. The p s y c h o l o g i c a l s y s t e m , b a s e d u p o n G e o r g e Mead's

philosophy of the "self", i n v o l v e s movement b e t w e e n " I " , t h e

experiencing self, and "me" the w i t n e s s i n g self. The social

system i s the g e n e r a l l y r e p r e s s i v e i n t e r n a l i z e d a t t i t u d e s

towards emotional expression.

 39

Scheff and B u s h n e l l (1984) p o s t u l a t e t h a t i n o r d e r f o r

c a t h a r s i s t o occur: a) i n t e r n a l p e r m i s s i o n t o experience the

e m o t i o n must be g i v e n ; b ) t h e e m o t i o n s must r e a c h a

biological climax, such as c r y i n g f o r g r i e f ; and c ) an

o p t i m a l a e s t h e t i c d i s t a n c e must b e i n o p e r a t i o n . Scheff and

B u s h n e l l d e s c r i b e a e s t h e t i c d i s t a n c e as a balance between

the e x p e r i e n c i n g and w i t n e s s i n g s e l f ; one i s n e i t h e r

h y s t e r i c a l l y experiencing nor d i s p a s s i o n a t e l y observing

their feelings.

All of the t h e o r e t i c a l viewpoints and models o f

c a t h a r s i s w h i c h have been o u t l i n e d c a n be seen as important

pieces of a puzzle; together they create a bigger p i c t u r e .

Scheff and B u s h n e l l (1984) d e s c r i b e t h e systems i n v o l v e d i n

and the p r e - r e q u i s i t e conditions f o r a c a t h a r t i c experience;

Kellermann (1984) and L e w i s & Bucher (1992) d e s c r i b e t h e

process, a n d M o r e n o ( 1 9 5 3 , 1964) a n d B l a t n e r (1985) d e s c r i b e

the r e s u l t s . Perhaps an a l l - e n c o m p a s s i n g definition needs

t o i n c l u d e components o f b o t h p r o c e s s and outcome. Davies

(1987) p r o v i d e s this s o r t o f encompassing definition:

The u n d e r g o i n g o f e m o t i o n a l l y e v o c a t i v e i n t e r a c t i o n s
p r e v i o u s l y a v o i d e d because t h e f e e l i n g s a r o u s e d m i g h t be
intolerable within the existing pattern of role-
e x p e c t a t i o n s o r p e r s o n a l c o n s t r u c t s . When met a n d
s u r v i v e d , t h e emotions e x c i t e d by such s i t u a t i o n s even
i f unpleasant a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a sense o f r e l e a s e ,
and a n a l t e r e d e x p e c t a t i o n o f f u t u r e e v e n t s . Catharsis
i s t h e moment i n w h i c h t h e e x i s t i n g s t r u c t u r e o f r o l e s
f i n a l l y y i e l d s t o reform i t s e l f . I n t e r n a l l y , t h i s means
a change o f c o n s t r u c t s and an a l t e r e d p e r c e p t u a l g e s t a l t
o f o n e ' s own a n d o t h e r s ' a c t i v i t y . Before i t occurs,
t h e r e i s i n e v i t a b l y a b u i l d up o f t e n s i o n a s t h e s y s t e m
s t r i v e s t o m a i n t a i n t h e e x i s t i n g e q u i l i b r i u m and i s
often associated with powerful but contradictory
 40

emotions - anger, g r i e f and e l a t i o n - a l l t h e a f f e c t s o f

t h e a v o i d e d i n t e r a c t i o n and t h e r e l i e f o f t h e e f f o r t
r e q u i r e d t o avoid i t (p. 116).

A summary o f t h e c o n d i t i o n s d e l i n e a t e d a s o p t i m a l fora

c a t h a r t i c experience include: (1) i n t e r n a l p e r m i s s i o n to

experience f e e l i n g s ( S c h e f f and B u s h n e l l , 1984); (2) a

therapeutic alliance with the therapist (Blatner, 1985);

(3) r e p l i c a t i o n o f t h e p s y c h o p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t a t e which

occurred a t the time of a r e s t r i c t i v e life decision

(Straton, 1990);

(4) t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f a s a f e and s e c u r e environment

(Blatner, 1985; S c h e f f and B u s h n e l l , 1984); (5) an

i n t e g r a t i o n and r e - o r d e r i n g p e r i o d ( B l a t n e r , 1985,

K e l l e r m a n n , 1984); and (6) a group s e t t i n g (Moreno, 1953,

1964; Straton, 1990).

The final aspect of c a t h a r s i s which i s p e r t i n e n t t o t h i s

study r e l a t e s t o t h e way i n w h i c h c a t h a r s i s i s e x p e r i e n c e d

by a u d i e n c e members. Moreno n o t e s t h a t "psychodramatic

theory has d e v e l o p e d t h e i d e a o f c a t h a r s i s a l o n g four lines:

the somatic, t h e m e n t a l , t h e i n d i v i d u a l and t h e group

(Moreno, 1964). I n a s much a s t h e p r o t a g o n i s t i sthe

c r e a t o r , a c t o r a n d a u d i e n c e o f h i s own e n a c t m e n t , h i s

c a t h a r s i s may be s e e n a s more c o m p l e t e t h a n t h a t o f t h e

audience member.

Blatner elaborates u p o n t h i s p o i n t when he n o t e s that

t h e p r o t a g o n i s t d i s c o v e r s t h e i r own c o m p l e x e s , complexes

which are attuned t o t h e i r i n n e r symbol system, their

 41

schema, t h e i r i n n e r s e n s e o f s e l f , and t h a t a l t h o u g h t h e

s y m b o l i z a t i o n p o r t r a y e d may r e s o n a t e w i t h t h e a u d i e n c e

member, i t i s n o t a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e .

What i s t r u e f o r a u d i e n c e s i s t h e r e c o n n e c t i o n t h e y may

experience i n t h e "re-owning o f something which connects

w i t h t h e i r c o g n i t i v e , c o n s c i o u s system", o r t h e c o n n e c t i o n

with others that occurs i n sensing the sharing of a personal

and i n t i m a t e i s s u e ( B l a t n e r , p e r s o n a l communication).

B l a t n e r a l s o d e s c r i b e s t h e cosmic o r e x i s t e n t i a l integration

w h i c h c a n o c c u r f o r a u d i e n c e members when t h e y a r e r e m i n d e d

of t h e i r m o r t a l i t y , o r aloneness, o r s p i r i t u a l quest o r

other e x i s t e n t i a l issues.

Some a u t h o r s r e f e r t o t h e c a t h a r t i c e x p e r i e n c e o f

a u d i e n c e members a s s e c o n d a r y . F o r example, S h a f f e r and

Galinsky (1984) d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n s o c i o d r a m a , w h e r e t h e

focus i s t h e c o l l e c t i v e group e x p e r i e n c e w i t h psychodrama,

where t h e f o c u s i s t h e i n d i v i d u a l as f o l l o w s :

A n o t h e r d i s t i n c t i o n between t h e two (psychodrama and

sociodrama) i s t h e f a c t t h a t p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e whole
a u d i e n c e i s much g r e a t e r i n s o c i o d r a m a t h a n i n
psychodrama. I n t h e l a t t e r , members o f t h e a u d i e n c e may
share p e r s o n a l concerns w i t h t h e p r o t a g o n i s t and a c h i e v e
a secondary c a t h a r s i s through involvement i n t h e
p r o t a g o n i s t ' s r o l e experience (p. 115).

Hofrichter (1973) d e s c r i b e s t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e s e c o n d a r y

c a t h a r s i s e x p e r i e n c e d b y a u d i e n c e members a s l e s s intense

and o c c u r r i n g as a r e s u l t o f l i v i n g "the r e a l i z a t i o n that

t h e y s h a r e w i t h o t h e r s common p r o b l e m s o f l i v i n g and through

 42

t h e i r reproduction a r e l i b e r a t i n g t h e m s e l v e s f r o m them

together as a community" (p. 98).

Whether c a t h a r s i s i s p r i m a r y o r secondary f o r audience

members p e r h a p s d e p e n d s upon t h e way i n w h i c h i t i s d e f i n e d .

I f c a t h a r s i s i s seen as an e m o t i o n a l p u r g e , a u d i e n c e members

who a r e e m o t i o n a l l y o v e r c o m e d u r i n g a n e n a c t m e n t w o u l d be

having a c a t h a r t i c experience. I f c a t h a r s i s i s seen, as

Kellermann ( 1 9 8 4 ) n o t e s a s "an e x p e r i e n c e of release that

occurs when a l o n g s t a n d i n g state of inner m o b i l i z a t i o n finds

its o u t l e t i n a c t i o n " (p. 1 ) , then t h e i r c a t h a r t i c

experience w o u l d be v i c a r i o u s s i n c e t h e a c t i o n i s p r i m a r i l y

w i t h t h e enactment. Finally, i f c a t h a r s i s i s seen as an

i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e psyche as B l a t n e r (1985), a n d t o some

e x t e n t Moreno (1964) n o t e , then whether t h e i r experience i s

primary o r secondary i s a non-issue. P r o t a g o n i s t s and

a u d i e n c e members a l i k e w o u l d be e x p e r i e n c i n g c a t h a r s i s ,

although perhaps d i f f e r e n t c a t e g o r i e s o f i t .

Outcome R e s e a r c h

Outcome r e s e a r c h i n p s y c h o d r a m a h a s grown s t e a d i l y i n

the l a s t two d e c a d e s . Kellermann (1987b) n o t e s t h a t o n l y 14

s t u d i e s were i n c l u d e d i n an o v e r v i e w o f psychodrama research

until 1971. This i s c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e 39 s t u d i e s Schramski

and Feldman i n c l u d e i n t h e i r u n p u b l i s h e d manuscript of

p s y c h o d r a m a outcome r e s e a r c h until 1983 ( c i t e d i n

Kellermann, 1987b).
 43

A l t h o u g h t h e q u a n t i t y o f outcome r e s e a r c h i s i n c r e a s i n g ,

q u a n t i t y does n o t g u a r a n t e e q u a l i t y (Kipper, 1978). The

m a j o r i t y o f s t u d i e s a r e p u b l i s h e d i n t h e J o u r n a l o f Group

P s y c h o t h e r a p y , Psychodrama and S o c i o m e t r y , a j o u r n a l t h a t i s

not s u b j e c t t o peer review. W h i l e p e e r r e v i e w does n o t

n e c e s s a r i l y ensure q u a l i t y , the advantage of i n c r e a s e d

collaboration, c o n s u l t a t i o n and p e e r , q u e s t i o n i n g lends

itself t o h i g h e r s t a n d a r d s i n b o t h r e s e a r c h and p u b l i c a t i o n .

A n o t h e r s h o r t c o m i n g w i t h p s y c h o d r a m a outcome r e s e a r c h i s

the lack of consistent d e f i n i t i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r

p r a c t i t i o n e r s who are not c l a s s i c a l l y t r a i n e d (Kipper,

1978). P s y c h o d r a m a outcome r e s e a r c h may i n fact be

comparing "apples w i t h oranges." The a m b i g u o u s way i n w h i c h

t h e t e r m psychodrama i s u s e d i s c l e a r i n an o v e r v i e w o f

d i s s e r t a t i o n a b s t r a c t s from t h e l a s t decade. Some

researchers ( B r o w n , 1987; N e v e n s , 1984; S h e e t s , 1989) have

i n c o r p o r a t e d psychodrama t e c h n i q u e s i n t o t h e i r particular

g r o u p t h e r a p y r e s u l t i n g i n outcome r e s e a r c h t h a t , however

useful, i s n o t p u r e l y a b o u t p s y c h o d r a m a (D'Amato & Dean,

1988; K i p p e r , 1 9 7 8 ) .

Many m e t h o d o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s h a v e b e e n n o t e d with

r e g a r d s t o e x p e r i m e n t a l outcome r e s e a r c h (D'Amato & Dean,

1988; K e l l e r m a n n , 1987b; K i p p e r , 1 9 7 8 ) . These i n c l u d e : t h e

l a c k o f a c o n t r o l g r o u p i n some s t u d i e s , t h e n e e d f o r more

complex f a c t o r i a l d e s i g n s , and t h e need t o use measures that

a r e more d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o p s y c h o d r a m a t h e o r y . Kellermann
 44

(1987b) n o t e s t h a t r e s e a r c h u s i n g t e s t s d e s i g n e d b y Moreno

t o measure v a r i a b l e s such as s p o n t a n e i t y and c r e a t i v i t y i s

almost nonexistent.

Although there are limitations, i t w o u l d n o t be p r u d e n t

o r w i s e t o "throw t h e baby o u t w i t h t h e b a t h w a t e r . " What

can be l e a r n e d from previous research? Kipper (1987)

d i v i d e s psychodrama e f f e c t i v e n e s s s t u d i e s into three

categories: 1) t h e r a p e u t i c s t r a t e g i e s , 2) c a s e illustration

reports a n d 3) r e s e a r c h studies. Kipper does n o t i n c l u d e

qualitative studies i n h i s category c a l l e d "research

s t u d i e s " and s i n c e q u a l i t a t i v e s t u d i e s have a l s o been

u n d e r t a k e n (Baum, 1994; D e l Nuovo e t a l , 1978; H o f r i c h t e r ,

197 3; M a r t e n s , 1 9 9 1 ; Neuman, 1 9 9 0 ) , t h e a d d i t i o n o f

q u a l i t a t i v e s t u d i e s as a 4 t h c a t e g o r y w o u l d be appropriate.

Therapeutic strategies include p r a c t i t i o n e r s ' experience

and opinions regarding the e f f e c t i v e administration of a

p a r t i c u l a r psychodrama method. Case i l l u s t r a t i o n reports

include t h e r a p i s t accounts of e f f e c t i v e treatment with a

particular individual. Research studies include

experimental and q u a s i - e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d i e s and attempt t o

w o r k w i t h i n an e m p i r i c a l f r a m e w o r k (Kipper, 1987).

Q u a l i t a t i v e s t u d i e s examine t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f p a r t i c i p a n t s .

A wide range o f s u b j e c t s , i s s u e s and independent

v a r i a b l e s have been examined. Subjects have ranged i n age

from 4 t h graders ( S h e a r o n , c i t e d i n K e l l e r m a n n , 1987b) t o

seniors ( B o o n e , 1986; G o r a l , 1992); from j u v e n i l e homicidal

 45

offenders ( R e y e s , 1991) t o u n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s (Rosenthal,

Schmidt, c i t e d i n K e l l e r m a n n , 1987b). Independent variables

included: creative thinking, locus of control, anxiety,

h o s t i l i t y , m o t h e r - c h i l d r e l a t i o n s h i p s , empathy, self-esteem,

and intellectual functioning (Kellermann, 1987b).

Empirical support f o r t h e e f f i c a c y o f psychodrama i s

inconsistent. Eighteen of t h e twenty three studies reviewed

by Kellermann ( 1 9 8 7 b ) f o u n d p s y c h o d r a m a t o be e f f e c t i v e i n

terms o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r measures used. These measures

included behaviour r a t i n g scales, f e e l i n g and a t t i t u d e

scales, anxiety measures, locus of control scales, defense

mechanism i n v e n t o r y , personality s c a l e s , group environment

s c a l e , and a s c a l e m e a s u r i n g a t t i t u d e s towards supervision.

The studies that d i d not support the e f f i c a c y of

psychodrama measured v a r i a b l e s such as p e r s o n a l i t y change as

m e a s u r e d b y t h e MMPI a n d 16 p e r s o n a l i t y factor

questionnaire, self-esteem inventory, locus of control

s c a l e , and t e s t o f c r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g . Without exception,

studies that incorporate a q u a l i t a t i v e research design have

f o u n d psychodrama t o be e f f e c t i v e . Baum ( 1 9 9 4 ) a n d M a r t e n s

(1990) e x p l o r e d t h e change p r o c e s s i n t h e i r c o - r e s e a r c h e r s .

Del Nuovo e t a l ( 1 9 7 4 ) e x p l o r e d t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f

spontaneity, Hofrichter (1973) e x p l o r e d t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f

c o m m u n i t y , a n d Neuman ( 1 9 9 0 ) e x p l o r e d c h a n g e s i n s e l f

perception.
 46

How c a n t h e d i s c r e p a n t f i n d i n g s w i t h r e g a r d s t o t h e

e f f i c a c y o f p s y c h o d r a m a be r e c o n c i l e d ? As p r e v i o u s l y

n o t e d , i n a p p r o p r i a t e m e a s u r e s may h a v e b e e n u s e d . Problems

w i t h i n a p p r o p r i a t e m e a s u r e s may a r i s e f r o m t h e t h e o r e t i c a l

a s s u m p t i o n s upon w h i c h m e a s u r e s a r e b a s e d - t h e o r e t i c a l

a s s u m p t i o n s w h i c h c o n f l i c t w i t h t h o s e h e l d by Moreno. The

MMPI a n d o t h e r p e r s o n a l i t y s c a l e s a r e b a s e d upon t h e

assumption t h a t a r e l a t i v e l y enduring innate personality

exists. M o r e n o , on t h e o t h e r h a n d m a i n t a i n e d t h a t "role

p l a y i n g i s p r i o r t o t h e emergence o f t h e s e l f . R o l e s do n o t

emerge f r o m t h e s e l f , b u t t h e s e l f may emerge f r o m r o l e s "

( M o r e n o , 1964, p. 1 5 7 ) . M e a s u r e s w h i c h e x a m i n e t h e e x t e n t

to which c r e a t i v i t y , s p o n t a n e i t y and r o l e r e p e r t o i r e have

c h a n g e d w o u l d be more a p p r o p r i a t e .

On t h e o t h e r h a n d , q u a l i t a t i v e r e s e a r c h h a s b e e n

t y p i c a l l y b a s e d upon t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t p s y c h o d r a m a i s

effective, o r t h a t t h e r e i s an e x p e r i e n c e o f c o m m u n i t y i n

t h e s h a r i n g phase o f an enactment. F o r example, M a r t i n s

( 1 9 9 0 ) , a n d Baum ( 1 9 9 4 ) b o t h i n t e r v i e w e d p e o p l e who

c o n s i d e r e d t h e i r p s y c h o d r a m a e x p e r i e n c e t o be significant,

and H o f r i c h t e r a s k e d p e o p l e t o d e s c r i b e t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e o f

sharing. The way i n w h i c h t h e s e i n t e r v i e w s w e r e structured

d i d n o t e x a m i n e w h e t h e r o r n o t p s y c h o d r a m a was e f f e c t i v e b u t

r a t h e r when i t i s e f f e c t i v e , how was t h a t e x p e r i e n c e d . A

more n e u t r a l q u a l i t a t i v e e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e p r o c e s s could

p o t e n t i a l l y result i n less unequivocal results.

 Although m e t h o d o l o g i c a l problems exist i n efficacy

research, substantial support f o r the u t i l i t y o f psychodrama

c a n be f o u n d . W i t h an i n c r e a s e i n t h e number o f q u a l i t a t i v e

s t u d i e s , a g r e a t e r sense o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e of participants

is available. By c o m b i n i n g information available from these

two d i f f e r e n t methodologies, a more w h o l i s t i c p i c t u r e o f

p s y c h o d r a m a e f f i c a c y c a n be o b t a i n e d .
 48

CHAPTER I I I

METHODOLOGY

Introduction

The purpose o f t h i s chapter i st o describe the research

design of t h i s study and p r o v i d e t h e r a t i o n a l e f o r i t s u s e .

Information relevant t o the selection, r e c r u i t m e n t and

demographics o f co-researcher i s p r o v i d e d and t h e p e r s o n a l

biases of thep r i n c i p l e investigator i salso included.

Research Question and Methodology

The primary focus of t h i s s t u d y was t o e x p l o r e t h e

experience o f s i g n i f i c a n t change f o r psychodrama a u d i e n c e

members a n d u n d e r s t a n d t h e m e a n i n g t h e y made o f t h e i r

experience. S e v e r a l v a r i a b l e s need t o be c o n s i d e r e d i n

choosing t h e m e t h o d o l o g y w h i c h i s most a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h i s

study. The f i r s t q u e s t i o n c o n c e r n s t h e n a t u r e of the

question being asked: i s t h e question concerned primarily

w i t h n a t u r a l l a w s a n d how t h e y r e l a t e t o t h e human

experience, o r i s i t c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e human experience

e x p l o r e d f r o m w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e human experience?

I n o t h e r w o r d s , i s a n a t u r a l s c i e n c e o r a human s c i e n c e

a p p r o a c h t o t h e q u e s t i o n most appropriate?

N a t u r a l s c i e n c e has t y p i c a l l y f o c u s s e d upon "incremental

additions t o established research" (Osborne, 1994). The

primary function of natural science i st o p r e d i c t , control

and m e a s u r e u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s w h i c h e l i m i n a t e a s many

confounding v a r i a b l e s as p o s s i b l e ( V a l l e and K i n g , 1978).

 49

Quantitative research i s h i g h l y s t r u c t u r e d and most often

verification oriented (Stainback, 1988). B a s e d on British

empiricism, quantitative research f o c u s e s on w h a t i s clearly

o b s e r v a b l e and s c i e n t i f i c a l l y provable. Underlying this

ideology i s a Lockean e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l model.

Rychlak (1981) i d e n t i f i e s t h e assumptions u n d e r l y i n g the

L o c k e a n m o d e l as follows:

a) Reductionism - i d e a s a r e b u i l t up from simple to complex

i n a u n i d i r e c t i o n a l way. In other words e v e r y t h i n g is

reducible to i t s simplest constituent parts.

b) Realism - t h e c o n t e n t s of our minds e x i s t i n d e p e n d e n t l y

of our mind. Combined w i t h t h e n o t i o n of "tabula rasa", the

b l a n k s l a t e c o n d i t i o n of the human m i n d a t b i r t h , we can say

t h a t w h a t i s i n o u r m i n d i s an a c c u r a t e reflection of

external reality.

c) Linear - meaning r e l a t i o n s between i d e a s are u n i p o l a r and

can be demonstrated. C a u s e and e f f e c t are seen i n a linear

fashion.

Human s c i e n c e , on t h e other hand, a t t e m p t s t o understand

t h e d y n a m i c and highly personal subjective experience of

individuals (Osborne, 1994). The f o c u s i s upon

u n d e r s t a n d i n g as o p p o s e d t o p r e d i c t i o n and control.

Assumptions informing t h i s t h e o r e t i c a l framework are based

upon a K a n t e a n e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l model, which Rychlak (1981)

identifies as follows:
 50

a) N o n r e d u c t i o n i s t i c - i d e a s a r e b a s e d upon dialectical

reasoning. C o m p l e x i t y a n d a b s t r a c t i o n do n o t n e c e s s a r i l y

proceed together; complexity i s r e l a t e d t o t h e number o f

r e l a t i o n a l t i e s between ideas.

b) Rationalism - o n l y t h r o u g h t h e u s e o f o u r understanding

c a n we a r r i v e a t k n o w l e d g e . Further, nuomenal (absolute)

reality i s unknowable. What i s k n o w a b l e i s p h e n o m e n a l

(interpreted) reality.

T h e s e two v i e w s o f how k n o w l e d g e i s g a i n e d f o r m an

important basis f o r d i f f e r e n t schools o f p s y c h o l o g y , eg.

e x i s t e n t i a l i s m vs. behaviourism (Rychlak, 1981).

Furthermore, research m e t h o d o l o g y i s i n f o r m e d b y t h e s e two

t h e o r i e s o f e p i s t e m o l o g y ; n a t u r a l s c i e n c e more b y a L o c k e a n

perspective, a n d human s c i e n c e more b y a K a n t e a n

perspective.

Given the f a c t that the t o p i c f o r t h i s study i s the

experience o f change, and g i v e n t h e f a c t t h a t e x p e r i e n c e i s

best described from a Kantean p e r s p e c t i v e , i.e. a non-linear

d i a l e c t i c a p p r o a c h , a human s c i e n c e s or qualitative approach

w o u l d be m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e . Osborne (1990) n o t e s that

scientific objectivity "has b e e n a c h i e v e d by r e s t r i c t i n g t h e

focus o f i n q u i r y t o t h a t w h i c h has been amenable t o n a t u r a l

science" ( p . 79) In s h i f t i n g the focus of i n q u i r y outside

of t h i s realm, a concurrent shift i n m e t h o d o l o g y t o a more

human s c i e n c e approach i s r e q u i r e d .
 51

Further support f o r t h e use of a q u a l i t a t i v e approach

a r i s e s from the f a c t t h a t a l t h o u g h the audience is a crucial

component i n p s y c h o d r a m a ( M o r e n o , 1966; Pitzele, 1983),

almost no r e s e a r c h has b e e n done t h a t e x c l u s i v e l y examines

the experience of audience members ( e x c e p t i o n s h a v e b e e n

noted i n the previous chapter). The current study explored

a more c o m p l e t e p i c t u r e o f t h e change e x p e r i e n c e f o r

psychodrama audience members. S i n c e t h i s w o r k was largely

exploratory, a qualitative s t u d y was deemed t h e m o s t

a p p r o p r i a t e methodoloqy. S t a i n b a c k and Stainback (1988)

note t h a t " q u a l i t a t i v e r e s e a r c h procedures are flexible,

e x p l o r a t o r y and d i s c o v e r y o r i e n t e d " ( p . 6 ) .

Clearly a human s c i e n c e o r q u a l i t a t i v e a p p r o a c h i s the

most s u i t e d t o t h e r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n b e i n g a d d r e s s e d . The

q u e s t i o n t h e n becomes: what p a r t i c u l a r q u a l i t a t i v e approach

i s most a p p r o p r i a t e ? The p h i l o s o p h i c a l underpinnings of a l l

q u a l i t a t i v e approaches i s s i m i l a r , f a l l i n g under the Kantean

epistemological umbrella just outlined. However t h e r e are

s u b t l e d i f f e r e n c e s t o be found between ethnography,

e x i s t e n t i a l p h e n o m e n o l o g y , and g r o u n d e d t h e o r y - t o name a

few o f t h e m a j o r s t r e a m s within qualitative research.

Briefly, t h e f o c u s o f e t h n o g r a p h y i s upon encountering

a l i e n worlds and m a k i n g s e n s e o f them, and t h e f o c u s of

e x i s t e n t i a l p h e n o m e n o l o g y i s upon t h e i n d i v i d u a l and

illumination o f a s p e c i f i c phenomenon ( O s b o r n e , 1994).

Although t h e r e a r e more s i m i l a r i t i e s t h a n d i f f e r e n c e s
 52

b e t w e e n t h e s e two a p p r o a c h e s (Osborne, 1994), r a t h e r than

r e l y i n g on i n t e r v i e w s a l o n e , e t h n o g r a p h y t e n d s to include

overt behaviour, document a n a l y s i s a n d i n t e r v i e w i n g a s

relevant data ( M c M i l l a n & Schumacher, 1993).

Grounded t h e o r y shares a f o c u s upon d e s c r i p t i o n a n d

understanding; however t h e p r i m a r y goal i s the inductive

d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e o r y t o e x p l a i n t h e phenomenon o f i n t e r e s t .

B o t h methods a r e e x p l o r a t o r y ; h o w e v e r t h e i n t e n t i o n o f

r e s e a r c h e r s u t i l i z i n g t h e s e two methods w o u l d differ

(Osborne, 1994).

Existential-phenomenology combines existential

p h i l o s o p h y w i t h t h e method o f phenomenology ( V a l l e & K i n g ,

1978). H u s s e r l , f a t h e r o f phenomenology, reasoned that

since consciousness i s o u r p r i m o r d i a l window o n t h e w o r l d ,

an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f human k n o w l e d g e s h o u l d b e b a s e d u p o n

understanding consciousness (Osborne, 1990). Arising from

t h i s premise, e x i s t e n t i a l i s m may b e d e f i n e d a s "a f o r m a l

philosophical s c h o o l which seeks t o understand t h e human

c o n d i t i o n as i t m a n i f e s t s itself i n our concrete, lived

situations" ( V a l l e & K i n g , 1978, p . 8 ) .

V a l l e & King ( 1 9 7 8 ) d e s c r i b e p h e n o m e n o l o g y a s "a m e t h o d

w h i c h a l l o w s us t o c o n t a c t phenomena a s we a c t u a l l y live

them o u t and e x p e r i e n c e them" ( p . 9 ) . Osborne (1990) sees

p h e n o m e n o l o g y more a s a n o r i e n t a t i o n t h a n a m e t h o d , w h e r e

the r e s e a r c h e r endeavours not t o " l e a d t h e w i t n e s s " b u t

r a t h e r e x p l o r e s t h e m e a n i n g made o f a n e x p e r i e n c e through
 53

open-ended d i a l o g u e , m i n i m a l l y s t r u c t u r e d i n t e r v i e w s , and

the use of a c t i v e l i s t e n i n g s k i l l s (Osborne, 1990). A

thorough e l a b o r a t i o n of the s p e c i f i c s of t h i s style of

i n t e r v i e w i n g may be f o u n d i n W e i s s (1994).

Because t h e g o a l o f t h i s study i s t o understand the

e x p e r i e n c e o f s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e , an e x i s t e n t i a l issue which

i s best explored through a phenomenological approach, t h e

e x i s t e n t i a l - p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l approach of G i o r g i (1985), w i t h

its r i g o r o u s t r e a t m e n t o f t h e d a t a , was chosen.

Co-researchers

Introduction

Osborne (1990) n o t e s t h a t t h e t e r m "co-researcher" or

"participant" i s t h e p r i m a r y way i n w h i c h "subjects" are

referred i n qualitative studies, denoting the co-operative

nature of t h i s r e s e a r c h approach (cited i n Bartlett, 1991).

The way i n w h i c h t h i s s t u d y was c a r r i e d o u t was h i g h l y c o -

o p e r a t i v e w i t h no p o w e r d i f f e r e n t i a l b e t w e e n m y s e l f a n d t h e

a u d i e n c e members who p a r t i c i p a t e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y s i n c e we

were p e e r s i n a c o u n s e l l i n g p s y c h o l o g y g r a d u a t e program.

While i ti s c r u c i a l t o uphold the s p i r i t o f e q u a l i t y and c o -

operation, I found t h e c o n t i n u a l use o f " c o - r e s e a r c h e r " and

" p a r t i c i p a n t " t o be l a n g u a g e w h i c h d i s t a n c e s p e o p l e from

t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e and have t h e r e f o r e r e f e r r e d t o t h e a u d i e n c e

members who p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h i s s t u d y p r i m a r i l y as

" a u d i e n c e members" a n d s o m e t i m e s a s "participants".

 54

Selection of Participants

The directors involved in this study hold psychodrama

w o r k s h o p s two o r t h r e e t i m e s a y e a r , and the 20 participants

from a workshop which c o i n c i d e d with this study formed the

p o o l f r o m w h i c h v o l u n t e e r s w o u l d be recruited. This group

was selected b e c a u s e t h e i r w o r k s h o p e x p e r i e n c e was close

enough t o t h e time the research interviews were c o n d u c t e d to

be c l e a r l y remembered and f a r enough away t o h a v e some

perspective upon and i n t e g r a t i o n of the experience. This

g r o u p c l e a r l y met the c r i t e r i a requirements o u t l i n e d by

Colaizzi (1978): "experience with the investigated topic and

articulateness" (p. 58).

Recruitment of Participants

At the end o f a t h r e e day psychodrama workshop h e l d in

December, 1994, workshop p a r t i c i p a n t s were t o l d about the

n a t u r e of t h i s s t u d y and further t o l d that a letter inviting

t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n would f o l l o w . The l e t t e r was sent out

i n time to s l i g h t l y precede the f o l l o w - u p workshop h e l d six

weeks a f t e r t h e w o r k s h o p so t h a t p a r t i c i p a n t s w o u l d have the

o p p o r t u n i t y to v o l u n t e e r at the follow-up evening i f they

c h o o s e t o do so. Co-researchers contacted either the

principal investigator or her supervisor by telephone or in

person at the follow-up evening. A t o t a l of seven people

v o l u n t e e r e d ; h o w e v e r a f t e r an initial discussion i t became

clear that one p e r s o n d i d not meet t h e criteria. Although

 55

he f e l t t h a t he l e a r n e d a l o t f r o m h i s e x p e r i e n c e , he d i d

not s e e i t as p i v o t a l i n i n s t i g a t i n g p e r s o n a l change.

Demographic I n f o r m a t i o n

Audience members who p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h i s s t u d y were a l l

e i t h e r graduate students o r recent graduates i n Counselling

Psychology. The n o t i c e a d v e r t i s i n g t h e w o r k s h o p i n c l u d e d

the f o l l o w i n g description:

ADVANCED GROUP AND PSYCHODRAMA

T h i s w o r k s h o p i s f o r p r o f e s s i o n a l c o u n s e l l o r s who a r e
i n t e r e s t e d i n d e v e l o p i n g t h e i r understanding and use o f
advanced group & psychodrama t e c h n i q u e s and group s k i l l s
i n t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n a l work. P a r t i c i p a n t s w i l l have an
o p p o r t u n i t y t o l e a r n t h e psychodrama p r o c e s s , as w e l l as
p r a c t i c e a d a p t i n g a s p e c t s o f t h i s a p p r o a c h t o t h e i r own
c o u n s e l l i n g work c o n t e x t s . R e l e v a n t m a t e r i a l s f o r
t r a i n i n g a n d t h e o r e t i c a l background w i l l be p r o v i d e d t o
the p a r t i c i p a n t s . T h i s workshop i s designed f o r both
t h o s e new t o p s y c h o d r a m a a n d t h o s e s e e k i n g a d v a n c e d
training. P r e f e r e n c e g i v e n t o a p p l i c a n t s w i t h an
a p p r o p r i a t e academic and p r o f e s s i o n a l background i n
counselling. Participation i s subject t o interview with
one o f t h e i n s t r u c t o r s .

In total, f i v e men a n d 13 women p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e

workshop. E l e v e n o f t h e s e p a r t i c i p a n t s were counselling

psychology graduate s t u d e n t s and w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f one

woman who was p r o f e s s i o n a l l y e m p l o y e d i n a f i e l d other than

c o u n s e l l i n g , t h e remaining s i x people a r e p r o f e s s i o n a l

counsellors. F i v e o f these s i x people had graduated within

the l a s t 3 years from t h e C o u n s e l l i n g Psychology program a t

U.B.C. a n d o n e was a p h y s i c i a n w o r k i n g i n a n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e

capacity i n the helping profession. The a v e r a g e age o f

workshop p a r t i c i p a n t s i s approximated a t 3 8 . 15

p a r t i c i p a n t s were C a u c a s i a n , and two were A s i a n .

 56

E i g h t o f t h e 17 w e r e p a r t i c i p a t i n g f o r t h e f i r s t time.

Co-researchers p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h i s s t u d y were

g e n e r a l l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e l a r g e r group. Because c o -

researchers wishes t o m a i n t a i n anonymity, an i n - d e p t h

biographical sketch i s not provided. In light of the fact

t h a t p a r t i c i p a n t s were m a i n l y c o u n s e l l i n g psychology

graduates a n d w o u l d be e a s i l y r e c o g n i z a b l e b y o t h e r s i n t h e

department, information relevant t o professional status

rather than personal d e t a i l s i s provided.

C o - r e s e a r c h e r #1: a 39 y e a r o l d woman w i t h t w o p r e v i o u s

e x p e r i e n c e s as a p r o t a g o n i s t i n t h e f o u r psychodrama groups

i n which she had p a r t i c i p a t e d . Co-researcher #1 was c l o s e

t o g r a d u a t i n g w i t h h e r M.A. i n C o u n s e l l i n g P s y c h o l o g y a t t h e

time of t h i s s t u d y a n d was n o t e m p l o y e d .

C o - r e s e a r c h e r #2: a 43 y e a r o l d g r a d u a t e student i n t h e

C o u n s e l l i n g P s y c h o l o g y program w i t h one e x p e r i e n c e as a

p r o t a g o n i s t and s e v e r a l e x p e r i e n c e s as an a u x i l i a r y i n t h e

f o u r psychodramas i n which she had p a r t i c i p a t e d . Co-

r e s e a r c h e r #2 was n o t e m p l o y e d a t t h e t i m e o f t h i s study.

C o - r e s e a r c h e r #3: a 55 y e a r o l d women e n g a g e d i n

g r a d u a t e work i n C o u n s e l l i n g p s y c h o l o g y . This participant

had no p r o t a g o n i s t e x p e r i e n c e a l t h o u g h s h e h a d p a r t i c i p a t e d

as a n a u x i l i a r y s e v e r a l times d u r i n g t h e t h r e e workshops

which she had attended. T h i s a u d i e n c e member h a s b e e n a

h e a l t h c a r e p r o f e s s i o n a l f o r many y e a r s .
 57

Co-researcher #4: a 30 y e a r o l d m a l e w i t h s e v e n y e a r s

e x p e r i e n c e as a c h i l d c a r e c o u n s e l l o r f o r d e a f children.

T h i s p a r t i c i p a n t was a new g r a d u a t e i n Counselling

Psychology a t the time of the study. T h i s p a r t i c i p a n t was a

p r o t a g o n i s t i n t h e workshop, h i s f i r s t psychodrama

experience.

Co-researcher #5: a 40 y e a r o l d m a l e who had recently

graduated w i t h h i s M.A. i n C o u n s e l l i n g Psychology. This

p a r t i c i p a n t h a s b e e n i n v o l v e d w i t h employment c o u n s e l l i n g

for t h e p a s t 10 y e a r s . He h a s b e e n a p r o t a g o n i s t o n c e a n d

has p a r t i c i p a t e d i n f o u r w o r k s h o p s .

Co-researcher #6: a 49 y e a r o l d woman who was c l o s e t o

graduating i n C o u n s e l l i n g Psychology a t the time of the

workshop. T h i s p a r t i c i p a n t has been a h e a l t h c a r e

p r o f e s s i o n a l f o r many y e a r s a n d more r e c e n t l y i s i n v o l v e d i n

counselling i n the health care p r o f e s s i o n . T h i s was t h e

f i r s t workshop f o r c o - r e s e a r c h e r #6.

Procedure

In order t o share the context which would form the b a s i s

of their s i g n i f i c a n t e x p e r i e n c e o f change, I a t t e n d e d a

t h r e e day psychodrama workshop. The w o r k s h o p was c o -

d i r e c t e d b y two t h e r a p i s t s w i t h Ph.D's i n C o u n s e l l i n g

Psychology and e x t e n s i v e group e x p e r i e n c e , a l t h o u g h n o t

specifically c e r t i f i e d as p s y c h o d r a m a t i c i a n s . A t t h e end o f

t h e workshop, p e o p l e were t o l d t h a t t h i s study would take

place. T h r e e weeks l a t e r , the p r i n c i p l e psychodrama

 58

d i r e c t o r arranged f o r a l e t t e r t o be m a i l e d t o w o r k s h o p

p a r t i c i p a n t s i n v i t i n g them t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h i s study,

( r e f e r t o A p p e n d i x A) a n d p a r t i c i p a n t s v o l u n t e e r e d e i t h e r b y

telephone o r a t a follow-up evening which occurred three

weeks a f t e r t h e r e c r u i t m e n t l e t t e r s w e r e m a i l e d .

A pilot i n t e r v i e w was h e l d b e f o r e t h e s t u d y participants

were i n t e r v i e w e d . The p e r s o n i n t e r v i e w e d f o r t h e p i l o t was

f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e methodology employed i n t h i s study as w e l l

as h a v i n g e x p e r i e n c e as an a u d i e n c e member i n p s y c h o d r a m a .

The i n t e r v i e w was t r a n s c r i b e d a n d ways o f i m p r o v i n g t h e

q u a l i t y o f i n t e r v i e w i n g s o i t w o u l d b e more o p e n - e n d e d was

c o n s i d e r e d and p r a c t i c e d .

A r r a n g e m e n t s t o meet a t a m u t u a l l y c o n v e n i e n t time and

p l a c e w e r e t h e n made b y t e l e p h o n e w i t h t h e audience members

who p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h i s study. S i x i n t e r v i e w s were

subsequently conducted, tape-recorded and t r a n s c r i b e d .

I n t e r v i e w s w e r e h e l d i n my home, o r t h e home o f t h e

p a r t i c i p a n t , o r i n my o f f i c e , d e p e n d i n g u p o n t h e p r e f e r e n c e

of t h e co-researchers. I n t e r v i e w s began by welcoming t h e

co-researcher a n d a s k i n g them t o s i g n t h e C o n s e n t Form

( r e f e r t o Appendix B). A f t e r a few minutes o f c a s u a l

conversation t o help the co-researchers f e e l more

c o m f o r t a b l e , t h e f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n s were asked:

1. T e l l me a b o u t y o u r experience o f change as i f y o u were

t e l l i n g me a s t o r y t h a t h a d a b e g i n n i n g , m i d d l e , a n d
 59

end. What l e d up t o t h i s shift, what happened during

the e x p e r i e n c e a n d what h a p p e n e d afterwards?

2. What d i d y o u l e a r n a b o u t yourself?

3. The l e a r n i n g t h a t y o u s p o k e a b o u t , do y o u s e e e v i d e n c e

of t h a t i n your l i f e now? I f s o , what i s t h e e v i d e n c e ?

How i s y o u r l i f e d i f f e r e n t ?

4. Are there other f a c t o r s i n your l i f e t h a t you t h i n k may

have c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e change o r s h i f t t h a t you

described?

5. Is there anything you would l i k e t o add t h a t would help

me more f u l l y u n d e r s t a n d y o u r experience?

(Refer t o Appendix C f o r t h e complete i n t e r v i e w protocol)

Data Analysis

Giorgi (1985) o u t l i n e s a r i g o r o u s method o f e x p l o r i n g

t h e phenomenal w o r l d of co-researchers. H i s m e t h o d was

followed and i s o u t l i n e d below:

1. Read t h e v e r b a t i m t r a n s c r i p t i o n of interviews t o get a

sense o f t h e whole d e s c r i p t i o n .

2. R e a d t h e s e t r a n s c r i p t i o n s more t h o r o u g h l y i n order t o

d e l i n e a t e each t i m e a t r a n s i t i o n i n meaning i s

perceived. A s e r i e s of meaning u n i t s i s thus obtained.

3. E l i m i n a t e r e d u n d a n c i e s i n meaning u n i t s ; c l a r i f y and

elaborate t h e meaning o f t h e s e c o n s t i t u e n t s by r e l a t i n g

them t o t h e w h o l e a n d t o e a c h other.

4. R e f l e c t on t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l m e a n i n g o f t h e s e

c o n s t i t u e n t p a r t s and t r a n s f o r m e a c h one f r o m t h e
 60

language of the co-researcher into psychological

language.

5. Synthesize the transformed meaning u n i t s i n t o a

consistent description of the s t r u c t u r e of the

experience.

The i d e n t i f i e d s t r u c t u r e of the shared experience was

then reviewed w i t h each c o - r e s e a r c h e r t o ensure t h a t t h e i r

e x p e r i e n c e was a c c u r a t e l y r e f l e c t e d and any changes were

incorporated i n t o the results.

Personal Biases

A f u n d a m e n t a l p r i n c i p l e of phenomenology i s t h e mutual

r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e r e s e a r c h e r and p a r t i c i p a n t . In

some ways i t i s t h e r e s e a r c h e r h i m / h e r s e l f w h i c h i s t h e

"measure" upon w h i c h r e s u l t s o f t h e s t u d y d e p e n d . In order

t o be t r u e t o t h i s f o r m o f r e s e a r c h , H u s s e r l d e s c r i b e s the

n e e d t o assume a " t r a n s c e n d e n t a l a t t i t u d e " (cited i n Valle &

King, 1978) o r t o r e t u r n "unto t h e t h i n g s themselves"

(Osborne, 1990).

Existential-phenomenology recognizes the unavoidable

p a r t i c i p a t i o n of the researcher i n f o r m u l a t i n g the research

q u e s t i o n and c o l l e c t i n g and i n t e r p r e t i n g the data. Rather

t h a n a t t e m p t i n g t o remove t h e "human e l e m e n t " through

experimental design, the phenomenologist a r t i c u l a t e s their

p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s and b i a s e s so t h a t t h e i r p e r s p e c t i v e may be

taken i n t o account (Osborne, 1990). Husserlian

p h e n o m e n o l o g y c o n t e n d s t h a t b r a c k e t i n g and reduction allows

 61

t h e r e s e a r c h e r t o "see t h i n g s as t h e y a r e " . This view i s i n

c o n t r a s t t o h e r m e n e u t i c phenomenology w h i c h a s s e r t s t h a t

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s unavoidable (Osborne, 1994).

Whether t h e m e t a t h e o r e t i c a l frame o f t h e r e s e a r c h e r i s

H u s s e r l i a n o r hermeneutic, b r a c k e t i n g remains an i m p o r t a n t

p r e - r e q u i s i t e t o phenomenological data analysis. This

r e s e a r c h e r was d e e p l y a f f e c t e d by p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e with

psychodrama and t r u e t o form, a r e n d e r i n g o f my p e r s o n a l

experience follows. T h i s r e n d e r i n g s e r v e s t w o p u r p o s e s --

initially i t was done t o h e l p me be a w a r e o f p o t e n t i a l

p e r s o n a l b i a s e s s o t h a t I m i g h t more f u l l y "see t h i n g s as

t h e y a r e " a s o p p o s e d t o " s e e t h i n g s a s t h e y c o n f i r m my

b e l i e f s and e x p e r i e n c e " . I t i s a l s o i n c l u d e d so t h a t t h e

r e a d e r may t a k e i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n my b i a s e s a n d c o n s i d e r

for themselves t h e degree t o which t h e r e s u l t s a r e c o l o r e d

by my p e r s o n a l l e n s e s .

In a p r e v i o u s p s y c h o d r a m a w o r k s h o p I was b o t h a

p r o t a g o n i s t and an audience member a n d h a d a more profound

experience as an audience member. B a s e d o n my

understanding o f p s y c h o d r a m a a n d my e x p e r i e n c e , I have

formulated the following beliefs:

1. S i g n i f i c a n t change can o c c u r f o r psychodrama audience

members.

2. A cognitive shift, o r change i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g may b e

preceded by a c a t h a r t i c emotional experience.

 62

3. Through i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h t h e scene t h e y are watching,

audience members a r e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e

drama b e f o r e t h e i r e y e s as w e l l as t h e i r own internal

drama.

4. The d i r e c t o r s part i n the process i s crucial. Through .

b u i l d i n g t r u s t and group cohesion, psychodrama

p a r t i c i p a n t s become more open t o b e i n g t o u c h e d by the

experience of o t h e r s . I t i s through t h i s openness t h a t

g r e a t e r a c c e s s t o t h e i r own i n t e r n a l drama i s p o s s i b l e .

My p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e i s as follows:

a) I f e e l open t o t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f o t h e r s and am

watching an enactment;

b) I b e g a n t o be a w a r e o f ways i n w h i c h w h a t I was

w a t c h i n g made me t h i n k a b o u t my own situation. I am now

watching someone e l s e ' s drama w h i l e b e i n g a w a r e o f my own

f e e l i n g s and circumstances;

c ) I became o v e r w h e l m e d w i t h t h e f e e l i n g s w h i c h were

t r i g g e r e d f o r me and had t o l e a v e as I felt like I could no

longer c o n t a i n the depth o f what I was e x p e r i e n c i n g and

remain c a l m l y i n t h e room. I felt c o m p l e t e l y consumed by

my own e x p e r i e n c e , and I d i d not want t o d i s t u r b t h e group.

The k i t c h e n a d j o i n i n g t h e room w h e r e t h e a c t i o n was

o c c u r r i n g p r o v i d e d a s a f e haven t o a l l o w t h e o u t p o u r i n g of

g r i e f which was o c c u r r i n g ;

d) I n t h e q u i e t o f t h e a d j o i n i n g room, I b e g a n t o sob (I

never sob!) and u n d e r s t o o d that the cut-off r e l a t i o n s h i p I

 63

had b e e n m a i n t a i n i n g w i t h a f a m i l y member was not what I

r e a l l y wanted. I was feeling intense g u i l t , frustration,

p o w e r l e s s n e s s and longing for connection;

e) I became a w a r e t h a t t h e end o f t h e g r o u p was happening

and wanted t o j o i n the group w i t h o u t b r i n g i n g the depth of

my f e e l i n g s i n t o l i g h t - t h e t i m e f o r t h a t was past. I

a t t e m p t e d t o be p r e s e n t w i t h the group but still felt quite

overwhelmed w i t h f e e l i n g s . This slowly subsided,

p a r t i c u l a r l y as t h e d i r e c t o r c o n n e c t e d w i t h me personally

and b r o u g h t my a t t e n t i o n elsewhere.

f ) The f o l l o w i n g day I f e l t q u i t e s h a t t e r e d and n e e d e d some

time t o put the p i e c e s back together again. I did this with

t h e h e l p o f a f r i e n d and later felt l i k e an important shift

had occurred i n how I p o s i t i o n m y s e l f w i t h one particular

f a m i l y member.

g) In contemplating the experience I wonder w h e t h e r my

experience i s n o t more c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h a t o f a protagonist

t h a n o f o t h e r a u d i e n c e members and c o n s i d e r t h i s t o be an

i n t e r e s t i n g t o p i c to pursue.

As Osborne (1990) d e s c r i b e d , v a l i d i t y , the t r u t h value

of a q u a l i t a t i v e study, c a n be improved through explicitly

s t a t i n g the researchers biases. Other issues r e l a t e d to

b o t h v a l i d i t y and reliability and limitations in general

comprise the remaining s e c t i o n s of t h i s chapter.

 64

L i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e Study

Because o f t h e h i g h l y s u b j e c t i v e and i n t e r a c t i v e nature

o f t h i s t y p e o f m e t h o d o l o g y , some p r o b l e m s w i t h both

v a l i d i t y and r e l i a b i l i t y exist. Is the p r i n c i p a l

i n v e s t i g a t o r b e i n g t r u e t o t h e methodology and f a c i l i t a t i n g

t h e emergence o f meaning w i t h o u t d i r e c t i n g t h e c o -

researchers? I n o t h e r words, a r e t h e r e s u l t s v a l i d ? In

order t o increase v a l i d i t y , a pilot i n t e r v i e w was h e l d w i t h

a c o - r e s e a r c h e r who was b o t h f a m i l i a r w i t h psychodrama and

f a m i l i a r w i t h t h i s type o f methodology. Feedback from this

i n t e r v i e w was g i v e n a n d i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e i n t e r v i e w i n g

style of the p r i n c i p a l investigator.

Another c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n terms of v a l i d i t y concerns t h e

degree t o which t h i s workshop f o l l o w s psychodramatic theory

and p r a c t i c e . Although t h e d i r e c t o r s i n v o l v e d h a v e n o t gone

through the t r a i n i n g process involved i n formal

a c c r e d i t a t i o n as psychodrama t r a i n e r s and p r a c t i t i o n e r s ,

t h e y do f o l l o w t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l p r o c e s s of c l a s s i c

psychodrama and have e x t e n s i v e e x p e r i e n c e . The d e p t h o f

experience noted by audience members i n t h i s s t u d y and

p r o t a g o n i s t s i n p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s speaks f o r i t s e l f . Since

no a t t e m p t i s b e i n g made t o g e n e r a l i z e b e y o n d t h e c o -

researchers i n this study, t h i s limitation i s minimal.

R e l i a b i l i t y c a n be p a r t i c u l a r l y p r o b l e m a t i c when d e s i g n ,

d a t a c o l l e c t i o n and a n a l y s i s a r e c a r r i e d o u t i n i s o l a t i o n ,

w i t h o n l y one r e s e a r c h e r . This precludes both t h e

 65

p o s s i b i l i t y of i n t e r - r a t e r r e l i a b i l i t y , and feedback about

the way t h e r e s e a r c h e r may b e i n f l u e n c i n g i n t e r v i e w outcome.

(Achilles, 1994).

In o r d e r t o maximize reliability, follow-up interviews

were h e l d w i t h each c o - r e s e a r c h e r . The p u r p o s e o f t h e

validation i n t e r v i e w s was t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e way i n w h i c h

the p r i n c i p a l r e s e a r c h e r h a d made m e a n i n g o f a u d i e n c e member

e x p e r i e n c e s matched t h e c o - r e s e a r c h e r s e x p e r i e n c e . The

validation i n t e r v i e w s were c a r r i e d out i n a highly

collaborative a n d i n t e r a c t i o n a l way. The p r i n c i p a l

investigator rigorously examined study r e s u l t s with co-

researchers — b o t h m a j o r themes a n d a l l o f t h e s u b - t h e m e s

included i n the results. C o - r e s e a r c h e r f e e d b a c k was

incorporated into the results.

Heppner e t a l (1992) n o t e t h a t a l i m i t a t i o n o f t h i s

methodology i s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e sample s i z e i s s m a l l and

t h e r e a r e few comparison groups. Would t h e s e s i x a u d i e n c e

participants have a s i m i l a r e x p e r i e n c e o f change a s s i x male

i n m a t e s p a r t i c i p a t i n g a s a u d i e n c e members i n a p s y c h o d r a m a

under t h e d i r e c t i o n of different directors? Also, i s the

quality o f t h e psychodrama under study s i m i l a r t o other

psychodrama groups? Although t h i s l i m i t a t i o n i s worthy o f

note, i t i s important t o a l s o note t h a t g e n e r a l i z a b i l i t y i s

n o t an a i m o f p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h . Not wanting t o

predict, control o r measure, t h e depth and b r e a d t h o f

i n f o r m a t i o n emerging from t h i s methodology f o c u s e s more u p o n

 66

d i s c o v e r y , d e s c r i p t i o n and meaning (Osborne, 1994), and n o t

upon g e n e r a l i z a b i l i t y . Concerns about g e n e r a l i z a b i l i t y a r e

more a p p r o p r i a t e t o d i s c u s s i o n s o f t h e e x t e r n a l v a l i d i t y o f

quantitative research. This issue w i l l be more fully

addressed under t h e next heading i n this chapter.

Another limitation i n this study s p e c i f i c a l l y r e l a t e s t o

the nature of the research question. Audience members who

experienced a s i g n i f i c a n t p e r s o n a l change were asked t o

describe their experience. T h i s p r o v i d e d no i n f o r m a t i o n

about whether o r not a l l audience members experience

significant change, n o r does i t p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n about

the experience of audience members who d i d n o t e x p e r i e n c e

significant p e r s o n a l change. A more c o m p r e h e n s i v e d e s i g n

w o u l d be t o e x a m i n e t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f a u d i e n c e members i n

general.

F i n a l l y , t h e number o f c o - r e s e a r c h e r s who v o l u n t e e r e d

for this s t u d y may n o t h a v e b e e n a d e q u a t e . Ideally sampling

i s t e r m i n a t e d when a s a t u r a t i o n p o i n t i s r e a c h e d , o r when

i n t e r v i e w s s t o p p r o v i d i n g new i n f o r m a t i o n . Osborne (1990)

c i t e s Wertz (1984): " t h e r e s e a r c h e r n e e d s a s many

p a r t i c i p a n t s a s i t t a k e s t o i l l u m i n a t e t h e phenomenon".

Six c o - r e s e a r c h e r s were i n t e r v i e w e d f o r t h i s study, and

although t h i s i s o f t e n t h e number o f p a r t i c i p a n t s i n t h i s

t y p e o f s t u d y , i d e a l l y t h e number o f p a r t i c i p a n t s w o u l d h a v e

been d i c t a t e d by s a t u r a t i o n o f i n f o r m a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n by

t h e number o f p e o p l e who v o l u n t e e r e d t o p a r t i c i p a t e .
 67

R e l i a b i l i t y and Validity

The i s s u e of r e l i a b i l i t y and validity in qualitative

research i s deserving o f s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n i n as much as

these c o n c e p t s a r e g e n e r a l l y more a p p l i c a b l e t o q u a n t i t a t i v e

research ( K e f t i n g , 1991). Although i t may be inappropriate

to import q u a n t i t a t i v e concepts to evaluate qualitative

s t u d i e s , the e v a l u a t i o n process itself is crucial. Krefting

( 1 9 9 0 ) s u g g e s t s t h a t Guba's M o d e l be adopted f o r e v a l u a t i n g

q u a l i t a t i v e research. Guba ( c i t e d i n K r e f t i n g , 1990)

delineates four aspects of t r u s t w o r t h i n e s s t h a t are relevant

to b o t h q u a l i t a t i v e and quantitative research: a) truth

v a l u e ; b) applicability; c) c o n s i s t e n c y ; and d) neutrality.

Truth value r e l a t e s t o the confidence i n the t r u t h of

the findings. In q u a n t i t a t i v e r e s e a r c h this i s associated

w i t h how w e l l t h r e a t s t o i n t e r n a l v a l i d i t y have been

c o n t r o l l e d and how a p p r o p r i a t e the measures a r e . In

q u a l i t a t i v e research t h i s r e f e r s to the accuracy with which

participants' experiences have been d e s c r i b e d and/or

interpreted (Krefting, 1990). Careful validation

i n t e r v i e w s , w h i c h were c a r r i e d out in this study, would

increase the t r u t h value.

O s b o r n e ( 1 9 9 0 ) n o t e s o t h e r ways i n w h i c h t h e t r u t h value

(which he r e f e r s t o as v a l i d i t y ) c a n be assessed. These

i n c l u d e : e x p l i c i t b r a c k e t i n g and thorough d e s c r i p t i o n s of

t h e p r o c e d u r e and data a n a l y s i s ; checking researcher's

interpretations with participants during interviews and

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a f t e r a n a l y s i s has b e e n d o n e ; p r e s e n t a t i o n o f c o h e r e n t a n d

c o n v i n c i n g arguments t o a r e s e a r c h committee; and t h e e x t e n t

t o w h i c h o t h e r p e o p l e who h a v e e x p e r i e n c e d t h e same

phenomenon f e e l a resonance w i t h the reported results.

Guba's s e c o n d a s s e s s m e n t c r i t e r i a i s applicability which

refers to external v a l i d i t y or g e n e r a l i z a b i l i t y i n

q u a n t i t a t i v e s t u d i e s and t h e degree t o which t h e f i n d i n g s

fit into contexts which are outside the study situation i n

qualitative studies ( c i t e d i n K r e f t i n g , 1991). This

c r i t e r i a appears t o c o n t r a d i c t t h e i d e a t h a t qualitative

research i s not concerned w i t h g e n e r a l i z a b i l i t y . Guba

( c i t e d i n K r e f t i n g , 1991) m a i n t a i n s t h a t as l o n g as

s u f f i c i e n t d e s c r i p t i v e data t o a l l o w comparisons i s provided

by t h e r e s e a r c h e r , he o r s h e h a s a d d r e s s e d t h e i s s u e o f

applicability.

The t h i r d c r i t e r i o n r e l a t e s t o t h e c o n s i s t e n c y o f t h e

data - reliability i n q u a n t i t a t i v e terms and d e p e n d a b i l i t y

i n q u a l i t a t i v e terms. D e p e n d a b i l i t y denotes "trackable

variability" o r t h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h v a r i a b i l i t y c a n be

ascribed to identified sources (Krefting, 1991). This would

r e q u i r e a t h o r o u g h d e s c r i p t i o n o f r e s e a r c h methods. Since

variability i s t o be e x p e c t e d i n q u a l i t a t i v e r e s e a r c h , i t is

important t o be a b l e t o i n t e g r a t e i t r a t h e r t h a n t r y t o

"control f o r i t " .

N e u t r a l i t y i s Guba's f i n a l c r i t e r i a a n d c a n be described

as o b j e c t i v i t y i n q u a n t i t a t i v e terms and c o n f i r m a b i l i t y i n
 69

q u a l i t a t i v e terras. In o t h e r words, t h e "scientific

d i s t a n c e " w h i c h i s aimed f o r by q u a n t i t a t i v e researchers i s

s h i f t e d from t h e r e s e a r c h e r t o the data i n q u a l i t a t i v e

studies. I n t h i s way t h e n e u t r a l i t y o f t h e d a t a , i n t e r m s

of b e i n g a c c u r a t e l y d e s c r i p t i v e , i s more i m p o r t a n t than

n e u t r a l i t y of the researcher. Guba n o t e s t h a t n e u t r a l i t y i s

a c h i e v e d when a p p l i c a b i l i t y a n d t r u t h v a l u e h a v e b e e n

established (cited i n Krefting, 1991).

I n summary, some o f t h e c r i t e r i a f o r increasing

reliability a n d v a l i d i t y as o u t l i n e d by Osborne (1990) and

Guba ( c i t e d i n K r e f t i n g , 1991) h a v e b e e n met i n t h i s study.

S p e c i f i c a l l y , bracketing of researcher biases, checking

interpretation during i n i t i a l interviews, rigorous data

analysis and c a r e f u l v a l i d a t i o n i n t e r v i e w s were undertaken.

In o t h e r words, e f f o r t s t o enhance t h e t r u t h v a l u e o f t h i s

s t u d y were undertaken.

A p p l i c a b i l i t y of t h i s study i s p a r t i a l l y supported and

will be f u r t h e r discussed i n the l a s t chapter of t h i s

thesis. However, f u r t h e r qualitative studies regarding

audience member e x p e r i e n c e w i l l n e e d t o be u n d e r t a k e n to

t r u l y assess the a p p l i c a b i l i t y of t h i s study. Neutrality,

w h i c h c a n o n l y be d e t e r m i n e d a f t e r t r u t h v a l u e and

a p p l i c a b i l i t y are c l e a r l y i n evidence, has y e t t o be

determined.
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CHAPTER I V

RESULTS

The p u r p o s e o f t h i s chapter i s t o present the r e s u l t s

found i n this study. A list o f e m e r g e n t themes i s p r o v i d e d

f o l l o w e d by an e x h a u s t i v e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f

s i g n i f i c a n t change f o r psychodrama a u d i e n c e members. The

shared e s s e n t i a l s t r u c t u r e of t h e experience completes this

chapter.

Introduction

The 11 themes w h i c h emerged i n t h i s s t u d y have been

o r g a n i z e d i n t o f i v e c a t e g o r i e s t h a t p r o v i d e an o v e r r i d i n g

o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e f o r audience members experience.

T h i s s t r u c t u r e emerged t h r o u g h c a r e f u l reviewing of the data

r a t h e r t h a n a d e s i r e t o s u p e r i m p o s e a s t r u c t u r e upon t h e

information obtained. I n c l u d e d i n each c a t e g o r y a r e t h e

themes w h i c h emerged f r o m t h e c l u s t e r i n g o f r e l a t e d

p s y c h o l o g i c a l meaning u n i t s .

The e x h a u s t i v e d e s c r i p t i o n i n c l u d e s t h e v a r i a t i o n s

w i t h i n themes, o r sub-themes d e s c r i b e d by t h e a u d i e n c e

members i n t h i s study. Sub-themes w e r e n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a l l

t r u e f o r each audience member; h o w e v e r t o g e t h e r t h e y form

t h e themes w h i c h w e r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f c o - r e s e a r c h e r s

experience.

Two themes w e r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f m o s t , b u t n o t a l l

audience members. Theme #4, "A s e n s e o f v u l n e r a b i l i t y a n d

e m b a r r a s s m e n t " was n o t a c k n o w l e d g e d b y one a u d i e n c e member,

 71

although i t i s my o p i n i o n t h a t u n d e r n e a t h a s e n s e o f

o b l i g a t i o n , w h i c h was w i t h i n t h e a w a r e n e s s o f t h i s

individual, l a y a sense o f v u l n e r a b i l i t y and embarrassment.

Theme #10, "Sense o f e v o l u t i o n o f p s y c h o d r a m a experience"

was a l s o n o t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a l l a u d i e n c e members

experience s i n c e two p e o p l e w e r e p a r t i c i p a t i n g f o r t h e i r

f i r s t time. T h e s e themes h a v e n o n e t h e l e s s been included

because o f t h e r i c h n e s s o f i n f o r m a t i o n provided.

In order that t h e reader may h a v e some c o n t e x t i n which

t o s i t u a t e a u d i e n c e members d e s c r i p t i o n s , a b r i e f

d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e r e l e v a n t enactments i s p r o v i d e d .

1. An e n a c t m e n t w h i c h was done i n t h e A u g u s t '95

p s y c h o d r a m a w o r k s h o p w h i c h was r e l e v a n t f o r one a u d i e n c e

member i n v o l v e d a p r o t a g o n i s t c r e a t i n g a scene from t h e

f u t u r e i n w h i c h she c o n f r o n t s her brother about h i s

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o another brother. Of s i g n i f i c a n c e t o t h e

a u d i e n c e member i s t h e l o v i n g n a t u r e of the s i b l i n g

relationship.

2. An e n a c t m e n t done i n t h e December '95 w o r k s h o p w h i c h was

of p a r t i c u l a r relevance t o three o f t h e a u d i e n c e members i n

this study involved a protagonist expressing her rage t o a

doctor f o r h i s l a c k o f due c a r e and c o n s i d e r a t i o n . This

s c e n e was f o l l o w e d b y a f u n e r a l s c e n e i n v o l v i n g t h e b u r i a l

of babies l o s t through miscarriage. The e n a c t m e n t e n d e d

with the protaganist b r i n g i n g the audience together and

 72

r e c o g n i z i n g t h e unique and i n d i v i d u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f

each p e r s o n p r e s e n t .

3. An e n a c t m e n t done i n December '94 was o f r e l e v a n c e t o

one o f t h e a u d i e n c e members i n t e r v i e w e d a n d i n v o l v e d a

p r o t a g a n i s t a d d r e s s i n g h i s f e e l i n g s about t h e p s y c h i a t r i c

l a b e l w h i c h he h a d b e e n g i v e n w h i c h c u l m i n a t e d i n t h e

s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e men a n d women i n t h e g r o u p a n d t h e men

j o i n i n g t o g e t h e r o n o n e s i d e o f t h e room.

4. An e n a c t m e n t done i n t h e December '95 w o r k s h o p w h i c h was

r e l e v a n t t o one a u d i e n c e member i n v o l v e d a man s o r t i n g o u t

and assuming h i s p o s i t i o n i n h i s b l e n d e d f a m i l y . Of

p a r t i c u l a r c o n c e r n was a segment i n w h i c h t h e p r o t a g a n i s t

t o o k f r o m e a c h f a m i l y member a q u a l i t y w h i c h he w a n t e d f o r

himself.

Themes

A. Psychodrama Experience f o r Audience Members

1. Sense o f b e i n g f u l l y p r e s e n t

2. S h i f t from t h i n k i n g t o f e e l i n g

3. Experience of highly intense, all-encompassing

feelings

4. Sense o f v u l n e r a b i l i t y and embarrassment

5. S h i f t o u t o f i n t e n s e p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e back t o

r o l e a s a u d i e n c e member

B. Making Meaning o f the Experience

6. P e r c e i v e d need t o i n t e g r a t e e x p e r i e n c e

7. E m e r g e n c e o f p e r s o n a l themes f o r f u t u r e w o r k
 73

8. Experience of fundamental change

C. Evidence of Change i n D a i l y L i f e

9. Awareness of changed s t y l e of interaction

D. Psychodrama P r o g r e s s i o n

10. Sense o f e v o l u t i o n o f psychodrama experiences

E. Additional Contributing Factors

11. A s s e s s m e n t o f o t h e r f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g experience

of change.

Exhaustive Descriptions

E x p e r i e n c e o f S i g n i f i c a n t Change f o r P s y c h o d r a m a Audience

Members

Sense of Being F u l l y Present

For a l l of the audience members i n t h i s study, a sense

of b e i n g f u l l y p r e s e n t was f o u n d t o be t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t t o

t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f b e i n g e m o t i o n a l l y d r a w n i n t o an enactment.

B e i n g f u l l y p r e s e n t meant t h a t t h e y w e r e n o t d i s t r a c t e d by

other thoughts or r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s and felt fully engaged as

an a u d i e n c e member. E x p r e s s i o n s u s e d by a u d i e n c e members

included: "I f e l t very connected", " I was fully present

w i t h o u t any b u r n i n g i s s u e s t h a t w e r e i n t e r f e r i n g " , "I felt

q u i t e n e u t r a l and y e t n o t d i s p a s s i o n a t e , n o t uninvolved,

j u s t open and r e a d y t o see what w o u l d happen."

S h i f t from T h i n k i n g t o Feeling

Being f u l l y present allowed audience members t o shift

t h e i r f o c u s t o t h e p r o t a g o n i s t and t h e e n a c t m e n t t h e y w e r e

witnessing. W i t h t h e f o c u s o f a t t e n t i o n on the
 74

protagonist's experience, a further s h i f t from o b s e r v i n g

f a i r l y d i s p a s s i o n a t e l y , t o o b s e r v i n g and f e e l i n g s t r o n g

p e r s o n a l emotions a l s o took, p l a c e , a t l e a s t f o r e n a c t m e n t s

which were p e r c e i v e d as p i v o t a l i n i n s t i g a t i n g p e r s o n a l

change. T h i s s e n s e o f movement f r o m t h i n k i n g t o f e e l i n g was

t r i g g e r e d p r i m a r i l y through various combinations of four

processes. These p r o c e s s e s i n c l u d e d : empathy f o r t h e

p r o t a g o n i s t , i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h t h e p r o t a g o n i s t , becoming

a w a r e o f a l a c k o r l o s s i n t h e i r own l i f e and a d e s i r e f o r

something t h e y were w a t c h i n g .

The empathic p r o c e s s i n a c o u n s e l l i n g sense i n c l u d e s

both the perception of another's f e e l i n g s as w e l l as an

element o f detachment which a l l o w s t h e c l i n i c i a n t o "move

back from t h e merged i n n e r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o a p o s i t i o n o f

separate i d e n t i t y t h a t permits a response t o b e made t h a t

r e f l e c t s b o t h u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e o t h e r as w e l l . a s

separateness f r o m them" ( M a r c i a , p. 8 3 ) . F o r m o s t audience

members, empathy, i n t h e c o n t e x t i n w h i c h i t was u s e d here,

d i d n o t i n c l u d e an e l e m e n t o f d e t a c h m e n t . R a t h e r , i t was a

deep p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e f e e l i n g s o f t h e p r o t a g o n i s t . "I felt

w h a t he was g o i n g t h r o u g h a n d I t h i n k a t t h e same t i m e i t

brought up what I was g o i n g through."

This profound experience of another's feelings was

d e s c r i b e d d i f f e r e n t l y b y v a r i o u s a u d i e n c e members. One

person d e s c r i b e d her empathic e x p e r i e n c e a s o c c u r r i n g "on a

cellular level." Another considered the experience of the

 75

protagonist's f e e l i n g s t o be a group t r a n s c e n d e n t experience

" I t was a g r o u p c r i t i c a l experience. I f e l t t h a t we w e r e

all j u s t connected i n t h a t s i n g l e experience i n that time."

All of the co-researchers experienced a sense o f

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n with the protagonist. Something witnessed i n

the enactment t r i g g e r e d f e e l i n g s t h a t l i n k e d t h e e x p e r i e n c e

of t h e p r o t a g o n i s t t o s o m e t h i n g t h e a u d i e n c e member h a d

personally experienced i n t h e i r own p a s t . In other words,

i n a symbolic way t h e y w e r e w a t c h i n g a p i e c e o f t h e i r own

personal h i s t o r y t o w h i c h t h e r e were s t r o n g f e e l i n g s

attached. " t h e g r i e f a r o u n d a f u n e r a l t a p p e d i n t o my own

g r i e f a r o u n d l o s i n g my own man who d i e d . "

. . . i t w a s n ' t l i k e t h e y w e r e a c t i n g o u t my l i f e . But
w h a t t h e y w e r e d o i n g was l i k e b i t s w e r e s o , o c c a s i o n a l l y
t h e r e w o u l d be a r e a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t a n d I w o u l d
t h i n k "Oh, how t h a t r e l a t e s t o me i s t h i s " . Not
thinking that consciously, but f e e l i n g i t .

The one a u d i e n c e member who s h i f t e d f r o m t h i n k i n g t o

f e e l i n g t h r o u g h empathy w i t h o u t having an i n i t i a l sense o f

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n was a w a r e l a t e r , a f t e r s h e was f u l l y immersed

in her f e e l i n g s , of a piece i n her l i f e w h i c h was s i m i l a r t o

w h a t s h e was w i t n e s s i n g . " I t h o u g h t , o h , t h a t c o u l d b e me,

one o f t h o s e c h i l d r e n c o u l d be me p r a c t i c a l l y ..."

Some a u d i e n c e member d e s c r i b e d t h e i r experience of

identifying with the protagonist i n terms o f e n j o y i n g seeing

them h a v e o r do s o m e t h i n g t h e y w o u l d l i k e t o h a v e o r do

themselves:

. . . t h e whole i d e a o f having a b r o t h e r l i k e Andrea's

b r o t h e r t h a t y o u c o u l d s i t h e r down a n d s a y "Now l o o k ,
 76

t h i s i s what I n e e d . I r e a l l y l o v e y o u a n d y o u know
you've been a g r e a t b r o t h e r , b u t you have t o s t a r t
t r e a t i n g me t h i s way." I mean I l o v e d i t . I loved
w a t c h i n g t h a t a n d o f c o u r s e a t t h e same t i m e I a l s o f e l t
t h e sadness because I would never have t h a t .

F e e l i n g s o f l o s s were t r i g g e r e d f o r f i v e audience

members a s t h e y w i t n e s s e d p r o t a g o n i s t s e n a c t i n g situations

i n v o l v i n g l o s s and g r i e f , o r as t h e y w i t n e s s e d something

w h i c h was l a c k i n g i n t h e i r own l i f e . F o r most people

f e e l i n g s o f l o s s were accompanied by y e a r n i n g f o r something

w h i c h was m i s s i n g .

I f e l t c h o k e d up b e c a u s e t h o s e w o r d s a r e r e a l l y o n e s
t h a t I have r e a l l y been w a n t i n g t o hear f o r a l o n g t i m e
and t h e n t o a c t u a l l y h e a r them a n d h a v e t h e m p l a y e d o u t
i n f r o n t o f me was p r o v o k i n g o f f e e l i n g s o f l o s s e s f r o m
the p a s t , t h a t perhaps I hadn't i d e n t i f i e d because they
were a c t s o f o m i s s i o n as opposed t o commission so t h e y
are harder t o i d e n t i f y .

One a u d i e n c e member d i s c o v e r e d a s e n s e o f j o y f r o m

h a v i n g acknowledged and e x p e r i e n c e d h e r l o s s : "When I h a d a

c h a n c e t o be b y m y s e l f i n my c a r , t h a t ' s when i t a l l came

back t o g e t h e r w i t h o u t t e a r s . I t was a l m o s t a joy."

The entrance i n t o a n e m o t i o n a l r e a l m was a p r o c e s s which

o c c u r r e d a t an u n c o n s c i o u s l e v e l a n d was experienced

differently i n terms o f i n i t i a l intensity. One person

experienced t h i s s h i f t as g r a d u a l and g e n t l e : " I don't t h i n k

i t was a s u d d e n s h i f t , I t h i n k i t was l i k e a g r a d u a l shift.

I t h i n k my empathy f o r Rose a n d w h a t s h e was g o i n g through

p u t me i n t o a c e r t a i n e m o t i o n a l state." The r e s t f e l t that

i t was more i n s t a n t a n e o u s :

I was i n my h e a d a s J e n n y was t a l k i n g a b o u t h e r b r o t h e r
and I'm g o i n g " y e s , y e s , I'm i n my h e a d , I'm i n my h e a d "
 77

and t h e n when s h e t a l k e d a b o u t l o v e i t was a l m o s t a s i f

a l l t h a t f e l l away. I t was a s i f t h i s c o n c r e t e w a l l
t h a t I h a d b u i l t up i n my r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h my b r o t h e r
just sort of collapsed.

Experience o f H i g h l y Intense/ All-Encompassing F e e l i n g s

Although the i n i t i a l s h i f t from t h i n k i n g t o f e e l i n g

varied i n i t s original i n t e n s i t y , t h e f e e l i n g r e a l m became

highly experiential, i n t e n s e , a n d t o some d e g r e e a l l

encompassing. H i g h l y e x p e r i e n t i a l d e n o t e s a " h e r e a n d now"

quality to the feelings. A u d i e n c e members w e r e no longer

w a t c h i n g t h e enactment b u t were r a t h e r e x p e r i e n c i n g i t

personally.

I t was a s i f J e n n y was s p e a k i n g t o me d i r e c t l y . . . I
mean I f o u n d t h a t I was l i s t e n i n g i n t e n t l y t o w h a t s h e
had t o s a y t o e a c h i n d i v i d u a l a n d I was t a k i n g i t i n
l i k e s h e was s a y i n g i t t o me.

"With D a n i e l ' s I was e x p e r i e n c i n g i t f r o m t h e i n s i d e . I

wasn't l o o k i n g a t i t , I was r i g h t i n t h e r e a n d I was going

t h r o u g h i t , y o u know, a s an a u d i e n c e member."

F e e l i n g s were e x p e r i e n c e d as i n t e n s e (profound and

powerful), a n d f o r m o s t , t h e r e was a l s o a t u r b u l e n t , o r

stormy q u a l i t y "kind of l i k e a r o l l e r coaster of i s o l a t i o n

and anger", "Well i n t e n s e , I t h i n k i t was, t h e r e was s o much

emotion." One a u d i e n c e member who was p r i m a r i l y

e x p e r i e n c i n g p o s i t i v e emotions d i d not f e e l t h a t h i s

emotions were t u r b u l e n t .

The tone o f emotions ranged from p o s i t i v e : "I just felt

r e a l l y overwhelmed by t h e e x p e r i e n c e i n a really positive

way"; t o a combination o f emotions i n c l u d i n g "nervous . . .,

 78

c h o k e d up . . ., and happy t o hear t h o s e t h i n g s " t o v e r y

distressing: " i t was s t r o n g , and painful."

For a l l audience members t h e e m o t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e became

all-encompassing. In o t h e r words, the e x p e r i e n c e occurred

w i t h a l i m i t e d sense of o b j e c t i v e r e a l i t y . Some e n t e r e d

i n t o w h a t t h e y e x p e r i e n c e d as a t r a n s c e n d a n t reality "time

stood s t i l l . . . when i t came t i m e t o t a l k a b o u t i t , i t was

almost indescribable." F o r o t h e r s t h e e x p e r i e n c e was less

spiritual; however f o r e v e r y o n e t h e i n n e r e x p e r i e n c e had

become t h e f o c u s o f a t t e n t i o n w i t h a t l e a s t a p a r t i a l loss

of t h e outward g e s t a l t of t h e scene t h e y were w i t n e s s i n g .

When I t h i n k o f t h a t e x p e r i e n c e I was a w a r e o f L i z and

P e t e r and P e n n y and t h e b a b i e s , and I ' v e no i d e a w h e r e
a n y b o d y e l s e was. So t h e room became v e r y s m a l l , and
i t was d a r k i f I remember r i g h t l y . And I d o n ' t
remember t h i n k i n g , I d o n ' t remember a n y b o d y e l s e . So
no, I became v e r y f o c u s s e d I t h i n k , l i k e y o u a r e when
y o u w a t c h a m o v i e a t some l e v e l , and y o u d o n ' t f e e l a l l
t h e p e o p l e around you. I was t o t a l l y o b l i v i o u s t o
anything else.

Some a u d i e n c e members w a n t e d t o move o u t o f the

emotional e x p e r i e n c e and f o r them t h i s a l t e r e d s t a t e lasted

very b r i e f l y : "I l i v e d i n that mental, emotional, physical

k i n d of response for a relatively short time." The rest

remained i n t h e i r i n n e r e x p e r i e n c e f o r much l o n g e r :

I was d o i n g (what t h e p r o t a g o n i s t was d o i n g ) w i t h my

f a m i l y members. I was s t a n d i n g b e h i n d them and I was
p u t t i n g my h a n d on t h e i r s h o u l d e r s and I was s a y i n g
" t h i s i s what I w a n t e d " ( a s I moved f r o m one f a m i l y
member t o t h e n e x t r e p e a t i n g t h e p r o c e s s ) . ( N o t e :
p a r e n t h e s i s added t o c l a r i f y d e t a i l s not c o n t a i n e d i n
one s p e c i f i c q u o t e ) .
 F o r many t h e e x p e r i e n c e i n c l u d e d a p h y s i c a l component:

"I slumped a l i t t l e b i t i n my s e a t a n d my s i g h , i t w a s n ' t

j u s t my b r e a t h , i t was a l l o f my b o d y . I had t o l i f t myself

up a n d s l i d e i n t o my s e a t " ; "I recall a kind of heart

pounding, l i k e a f e e l i n g of heightened tension I suppose";

" l i k e p h y s i c a l l y I . . . ached . . . kind of holding my

breath." For others t h e e x p e r i e n c e was more v i s u a l : " I tend

not t o b e s o a w a r e o f my b o d y . . . It's the v i s i o n that I

h a v e i n my m i n d . . . I h a v e a p i c t u r e , . . . t h a t was s u c h

an e m o t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e f o r me . . . t h o s e images a r e b u r n e d

i n my memory."

This theme h a s g e n e r a l l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d a u d i e n c e members

experience of intense f e e l i n g s w h i c h were o r i g i n a t i n g from

within. Several a u d i e n c e members a l s o e x p r e s s e d concern

about i n t e n s e f e e l i n g s w h i c h were b e i n g d i r e c t e d a t an

auxiliary: " I s o r t o f h a d some c o n c e r n f o r h i m b e c a u s e he

was t a k i n g a l l women's r a g e t o a l l men a t t h a t p o i n t . " "I

was, am w o r r i e d about people t a k i n g i t p e r s o n a l l y too, even

though they a r e i n t h e r o l e , because I would p r o b a b l y take

it a b i t personally." One a u d i e n c e member c o n s i d e r e d an

enactment t o be a s a f e p l a c e t o e x p r e s s raw r a g e :

I t h i n k t h a t when one f e e l s t h a t k i n d o f r a g e , one i s

a l s o concerned about t h e consequences o f u n l o a d i n g t h a t
r a g e , a n d t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s b e i n g t h a t y o u a l i e n a t e men
a r o u n d you because what you a r e d o i n g i s p r o j e c t i n g y o u r
a n g e r t o w a r d s men t h a t may h a v e t r e a t e d y o u ( b a d l y ) i n
t h e p a s t o n t o men t h a t a r e i n t h e g r o u p t h a t w e r e no
part of that. So b e c a u s e o f t h e s e t t i n g , t h e s e t t i n g
had b e e n a l r e a d y s e t , i t was o.k. . . . f o r M i r a n d a t o
e x p e r i e n c e h e r r a g e a n d i t w a s n ' t meant t o a l i e n a t e a n y
p a r t i c u l a r g r o u p . . . I c o u l d n ' t h a v e done i t i f t h e
 80

s t a g e hadn't been s e t . R e s p e c t f o r e v e r y b o d y t h a t was

t h e r e ; an u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t t h i s wasn't d i r e c t e d
t o w a r d s a n y man t h e r e .

One a u d i e n c e member t a l k e d a b o u t r e c e i v i n g i n t e n s e rage

during h i s experience a s an a u x i l i a r y . Because of h i s

understanding of the " p r o j e c t i v e screen" q u a l i t y of the

a u x i l i a r y r o l e , he was q u i t e c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h t h e rage of

the p r o t a g o n i s t : " I was a w a r e o f how i n t e n s e a n d e x p l o s i v e

her f e e l i n g s w e r e a n d . I knew t h a t I n e e d e d t o r e c e i v e h e r

anger".

Sense o f V u l n e r a b i l i t y and Embarrassment

M o s t a u d i e n c e members w e r e c a u g h t o f f g u a r d b y t h e

i n t e n s i t y o f t h e i r f e e l i n g s and e x p e r i e n c e d a sense o f

v u l n e r a b i l i t y and embarrassment c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e s e strong

feelings. V u l n e r a b i l i t y was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a s e n s e o f

e x p o s u r e " I d o n ' t h a v e my s h e l l on . . . I feel like a crab

w i t h no s k i n . " E m b a r r a s s m e n t was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h either

r e c e i v i n g u n a c c u s t o m e d t o v a l i d a t i o n "Sometimes i t i s h a r d

to stand up a n d h e a r someone s a y t h i n g s t o y o u i n a d i r e c t

manner t h e way M a r i n a d i d " ( t h i s p a r t i c u l a r audience member

was t a k i n g i n t h e a p p r e c i a t i o n b e i n g expressed individually

t o each person present as i f i t were b e i n g expressed t o her

d i r e c t l y ) or the public expression of p r i v a t e f e e l i n g s ,

e s p e c i a l l y c r y i n g : "I didn't f e e l comfortable about t h a t . I

don't c r y . "

One a u d i e n c e member's e x p e r i e n c e o f v u l n e r a b i l i t y and

e m b a r r a s s m e n t was l e s s i n t e n s e . He d e s c r i b e d t h e f e e l i n g as
 81

s e l f - c o n s c i o u s a l t h o u g h f o r him, h i s t e a r s were also

p e r c e i v e d as a symbol o f j o i n i n g w i t h t h e p r o t a g o n i s t .

S e v e r a l a u d i e n c e members p e r c e i v e d a d e s i r e t o t o n e down

t h e i n t e n s i t y o f , o r c o n t r o l t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e i n some way.

Some w o n d e r e d i f t h e y c o u l d w e a t h e r t h e storm: " I had a l s o a

bit of concern — how s t r o n g w e r e t h e s e f e e l i n g s ? As t h e y

started I d i d n ' t know w h e r e i t was g o i n g t o t a k e me . . ."

"The one t h i n g was my t r y i n g t o t h i n k o f ways t o r e s i s t this

s l i d i n g down, t o g e t h o l d o f i t a n d b a c k i t up a little."

The p r i m a r y ways i n w h i c h a u d i e n c e members a t t e m p t e d t o

c o n t r o l t h e i r f e e l i n g s was t h r o u g h s e l f t a l k : " c a l m down,

put t h i s i n p e r s p e c t i v e . . . don't l e t this thing slide

away o n y o u " , p h y s i c a l c h a n g e s : " I t o o k some d e e p b r e a t h s " ,

" s o m e t i m e s I b i t e my l i p " , " I k i n d o f s t e p p e d away" a n d

through a d e c i s i o n t o deal w i t h t h e i r f e e l i n g s l a t e r : ". . .

i t was n o t my t i m e t o g e t i n t o t h a t g r i e f . I c o u l d do t h a t

later." One p e r s o n a l s o n o t e d a n a l m o s t m e d i t a t i v e a p p r o a c h

of a l l o w i n g r e c u r r i n g thoughts t o e n t e r and e x i t :

... i t was more l e t t i n g a c o u p l e o f t h o u g h t s go b y ,

a n d t h e n l e t t i n g t h e m go t h r o u g h a n d o u t . I had a
c o u p l e o f f l a s h b a c k s a s I was w a t c h i n g , b u t I j u s t k e p t
l e a v i n g t h e door open so t h e y would e x i t and I s p e n t ,
worked t o g e t back i n focus . . .

Some a u d i e n c e members w a n t e d t o p u t t h e i r f e e l i n g s on

h o l d because o f a f e l t sense o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y towards t h e

protagonist: " r i g h t now I h a v e a n o t h e r r o l e . . . I have

a n o t h e r r o l e a n d t h a t i s I want t o b e h e r e f o r G e n e v i e v e , I

don't want t o be p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h m y s e l f . " Others felt

 82

u n e n c u m b e r e d by r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and welcomed t h e opportunity

to s t a y w i t h t h e i r own experience: "I didn't f e e l that I had

to take a c e r t a i n r o l e . I felt f r e e t o , f r e e t o do whatever

The a u d i e n c e members who s u c c e s s f u l l y put t h e i r f e e l i n g s

aside experienced an u n c o n t r o l l a b l e r e - e m e r g e n c e o f intense

f e e l i n g s e i t h e r d u r i n g the i n t e g r a t i o n phase of the

enactment or d u r i n g the workshop c l o s u r e . " I d i d n ' t want t o

get i n t o i t . . . although t h e n e x t day I couldn't stop

crying. I r e a l i z e d t h a t because I hadn't l e t i t out, i t

j u s t poured out of me."

One a u d i e n c e members who experienced a re-emergence of

f e e l i n g s p r e f e r r e d not t o work t h r o u g h her feelings with the

group:

Once I g o t t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e y w e r e g o i n g t o l e a v e me
a l o n e , i t made i t c o m f o r t a b l e f o r me t o s t a y t h e r e . But
i f t h e y had s t a r t e d t o s a y "do you w a n t t o t a l k a b o u t
t h a t " , I t h i n k maybe t h e y made some r e f e r e n c e t o i t and
I j u s t s a i d " I was f i n e " and t h e n t h e y l e f t me e n t i r e l y
alone. Once I knew t h a t , I c o u l d s t a y t h e r e and t h a t
was r e a l l y h e l p f u l t o me.

The other f e l t more ambivalent:

I really didn't believe that . . . i t was n e c e s s a r y t h a t

I share t h a t experience, having t a l k e d a l r e a d y , because
somehow f o r me i t w o u l d t a k e s o m e t h i n g away f r o m ( t h e
protagonist) . . . so I d e c i d e d t o l e a v e i t t o ( t h e
director). I f he t h o u g h t i t w o u l d be i m p o r t a n t t o a s k
me f i n e , b u t I a c t u a l l y had eye c o n t a c t w i t h him. I
d e l i b e r a t e l y s o u g h t eye c o n t a c t w i t h h i m , w i t h t h e t e a r s
c o m i n g down t o c h e c k i n , i n a s e n s e , and he n e v e r d i d
a n y t h i n g a b o u t i t and I t r u s t e d him.
 83

S h i f t out of Intense P e r s o n a l Experience Back t o Role as

Audience Member

Audience members e v e n t u a l l y emerged o u t o f a deeply

p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e b a c k t o t h e i r r o l e as an audience

member. In o t h e r words, the experience of all-encompassing

turbulent intense f e e l i n g s e i t h e r s u b s i d e d n a t u r a l l y o r were

p u s h e d o u t o f a w a r e n e s s and t h e y w e r e o n c e a g a i n i n a more

"normal" s t a t e of consciousness. During the v a l i d a t i o n

i n t e r v i e w , one a u d i e n c e member n o t e d t h a t r e t u r n i n g t o a

"normal" s t a t e meant t h a t he stayed i n a heightened s t a t e of

a w a r e n e s s , however t h e i n t e n s i t y o f t h e f e e l i n g s s u b s i d e d .

The t r a n s i t i o n o u t o f an i n t e n s e , turbulent, a l l -

e n c o m p a s s i n g e x p e r i e n c e was initiated f o r one p e r s o n by the

d i r e c t o r s i g n a l l i n g t h e imminent c o m p l e t i o n of the

enactment:

T h a t a l w a y s h a p p e n s when M e l comes and makes an

i n t e r v e n t i o n o f some k i n d . . . " W e l l , w e ' l l be l e a v i n g
i n a few m i n u t e s . " . . . Closure, closure f o r David,
c l o s u r e f o r me. I t a l w a y s i s when he comes i n and d o e s
t h a t " I s t h e r e one f i n a l t h i n k y o u h a v e t o s a y ? " And I
s a y i t i n my m i n d . . . and t h e n we moved o n , and I
moved on and we w e r e o n t o how i t was f o r D a v i d .

F o r o t h e r s t h e t r a n s i t i o n was s e l f - i n i t i a t e d through a

decision:

And I b e l i e v e t h a t was my d u t y a l m o s t , my r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
as a p r o f e s s i o n a l i n t r a i n i n g . And t h e more I l e a r n e d
a b o u t t h e p r o c e s s , t h e more I t h o u g h t I had t o be f u l l y
p r e s e n t so t h a t ' s I t h i n k what h e l p e d me s h i f t f r o m "me,
m y s e l f and I " t o B r e n d a ' s e n a c t m e n t . I t was an
a w a r e n e s s o f what I saw as my r e s p o n s i b i l i t y as an
observer.
 84

For s t i l l others f e e l i n g s from t h e i r experience remained

v e r y s t r o n g t h e next day "Well I s t a y e d t i l l t h e e n d a n d was

j u s t aware o f f e e l i n g i l l , headachy, nauseous, f l o o d e d w i t h

emotion, overloaded."

The p e r s o n who d e s c r i b e d t h e f e e l i n g s just noted

r e a l i z e d t h a t s h e " w o u l d h a v e t o do i t d i f f e r e n t l y t h e n e x t

t i m e b e c a u s e i t h a d b e e n t o o h a r d t o do i t t h a t way." This

meant f o r h e r t h a t s h e w o u l d n e e d t o be more o f a

p a r t i c i p a n t a n d l e s s o f an o b s e r v e r , allowing herself to

experience h e r own p r o c e s s as w e l l as w i t n e s s i n g t h e

enactments: " I ' l l c e r t a i n l y go i n t o i t w i t h a more

p a r t i c i p a t o r y t h i n g a n d I ' l l do i t f o r me." One audience

member f e l t t h a t t h e s h i f t o u t o f h i s i n t e n s e e x p e r i e n c e was

marked by c o n t a c t w i t h t h e p r o t a g o n i s t a t t h e end o f t h e

enactment: " I moved t h r o u g h t h e crowd t o l e t B i l l know how

much I h a d b e e n i m p a c t e d . Once t h a t a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t was

made, I s h i f t e d b a c k i n t o my own p l a c e . "

Making Meaning o f t h e Experience

P e r c e i v e d Need t o I n t e g r a t e Experience

A u d i e n c e members n e e d e d t o make m e a n i n g o f t h e i r

e x p e r i e n c e , t h i n k about i t and i n t e g r a t e t h e s h i f t t h a t had

o c c u r r e d f o r them. "And t h e n t h e r e i s a r e s i d u a l e f f e c t a n d

I b e g i n t o go b a c k a n d t h i n k a b o u t t h e e x p e r i e n c e a n d

r e t h i n k a b o u t how I f e l t a n d more i n t e g r a t i n g . " " L i k e you

c a n o n l y t a k e s o much o f t h a t k i n d o f i n t e n s i t y a n d t h e n y o u

n e e d , I n e e d t o p u l l b a c k a n d r e f l e c t a n d be more
 85

introverted." Several a u d i e n c e members f e l t t h a t this

i n t e g r a t i o n p e r i o d was q u i t e protracted:

I t h i n k i t was a l o n g e r p r o c e s s t h a n t h a t A z i m a . Like I
t h i n k i t went o n t h r o u g h t h e C h r i s t m a s h o l i d a y s , e v e n
t h o u g h s u p e r f i c i a l l y I w e n t b a c k i n t o my o t h e r r o l e l i k e
w i t h t h e f a m i l y , a n d C h r i s t m a s , I t h i n k t h a t I was s t i l l
processing a l o t of that. I a l w a y s do a b i g r e p l a y o f
a l l t h e psychodrama scenes . . .

M o s t a u d i e n c e members saw t h e i n t e g r a t i o n p h a s e a s a n

on-going process "So I c a n ' t s a y t h a t I've t o t a l l y changed

and this i s who I am. I'm i n t h e p r o c e s s o f c h a n g e . Like

I haven't t o t a l l y seen t h e f r u i t s ; thetree i s s t i l l

w e a t h e r i n g some s t o r m s . "

Several a u d i e n c e members n o t e d t h e u s e f u l n e s s of the

follow-up session ( a n e v e n i n g m e e t i n g s e v e n weeks a f t e r t h e

workshop) i n terms o f t h e i n t e g r a t i o n process: " I t took t h e

follow-up where I c o u l d f e e l c o m f o r t a b l e about t h a t , where

we a l l g o t b a c k t o g e t h e r and d i s c u s s e d i t as a group w i t h a

l i t t l e b i t of distance a n d a b i t more processing."

Sense o f Emerging P e r s o n a l Themes f o r Future Work

One o f t h e b e n e f i t s o f t h e i n t e g r a t i o n p r o c e s s was t h e

perception of personal themes f o r f u t u r e w o r k . Most

a u d i e n c e members became a w a r e o f p e r s o n a l issues which

require further attention. In other w o r d s , t h e y became

a w a r e o f , o r remembered s o m e t h i n g t h e y w i s h e d t o w o r k

towards: " i n terms o f t h e on-going s t r u g g l e f o r b a l a n c e , I

still n e e d t o do a l o t more w o r k i n t h a t " , "Well, like a

theme o r a t r a i t t h a t I h a v e i s t o g e t i n t o my h e a d b e c a u s e

living i ntheworld o f emotions i s t o o overwhelming. That's

 86

an a r e a o f g r o w t h t h a t I w o u l d i d e n t i f y f o r m y s e l f f o r t h e

future."

Some a u d i e n c e member d e s c r i b e d t h e e m e r g e n c e o f themes

as a p r o c e s s w h i c h h a p p e n e d when t h e y w e r e i n t e g r a t i n g t h e i r

experience a f t e r an e n a c t m e n t : "and t h e n I h a d t h i s sense o f

t h i s theme t h a t was s o r t o f d e v e l o p i n g i n me . . . i t just

b e g a n t o k i n d o f l i k e b u b b l e i n me a n d be l i k e a p r e s s u r e on

me k i n d o f t o do an e n a c t m e n t . " ; " I n t e g r a t i o n and themes, i t

was d u r i n g t h e c a r r i d e home a n d i n p r e p a r i n g f o r my

i n t e r v i e w w i t h you."

E m e r g i n g themes a r o s e f o r some a u d i e n c e members w h i l e

t h e y were o b s e r v i n g the protagonist. I n some c a s e s t h i s was

through i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h t h e p r o t a g o n i s t and r e c o g n i z i n g

that they have s h a r e d a common p r o b l e m :

. . . he was g o i n g t h r o u g h t h i s b i g t h i n g a b o u t what i t
meant l i k e t o b e a man, w i t h a p s y c h i a t r i c l a b e l a n d
r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h a l l t h e s i g n i f i c a n t o t h e r s around him.
And i t was a t h u n d e r s t r u c k f o r me, "Oh my God, t h i s i s
e x a c t l y i t . " I h a v e b e e n l a b e l l e d t h i s t h i n g a n d I'm
not any o f t h a t .

F o r o t h e r s , themes f o r f u t u r e w o r k a r o s e through

observing t h e p r o t a g o n i s t do s o m e t h i n g t h a t t h e y saw

t h e m s e l v e s a s n e e d i n g t o do t h e m s e l v e s . In other words

t h e y w e r e l e a r n i n g b y s e e i n g a m o d e l , " t h e r e was a l s o a n

a w a r e n e s s t h a t s h e was t e a c h i n g me how t o g r i e v e . . . i t

was a w a r e n e s s o f t h e f a c t t h a t I n e e d t o do t h i s b u t I am

not q u i t e ready."

One a u d i e n c e member n o t e d h i s a p p r e c i a t i o n i n s e e i n g

m a l e m o d e l s ; n o t s o much i n t e r m s o f l e a r n i n g w h a t he n e e d s
 87

t o do h i m s e l f , b u t more j u s t a s an o p p o r t u n i t y t o s e e how

other men d e a l w i t h issues:

. . . w a t c h i n g o t h e r men . . . g a v e me t h e o p p o r t u n i t y
t o s e e how i t w o r k s f o r them . . . o t h e r men who w e r e i n
the audience o r d o i n g enactments. T h a t was i n t e r e s t i n g
f o r me. T h a t k i n d o f c h a n g e d me a l i t t l e a s w e l l . That
I d i d n ' t f e e l q u i t e a s i s o l a t e d o r s o o n my own.

One a u d i e n c e member n o t e d t h a t a l t h o u g h a u d i e n c e member

experience i n other psychodrama workshops had r e s u l t e d i n a

s e n s e o f themes r e q u i r i n g f u t u r e w o r k , t h e theme w h i c h

emerged d u r i n g t h i s w o r k s h o p was s i g n i f i c a n t i n i t s e l f a n d

not c o n n e c t e d t o t h e n o t i o n o f f u t u r e work: "I think that

was t h e o v e r r i d i n g theme t h a t I came away w i t h from that

p s y c h o d r a m a , i s how c l o s e l y we a r e c o n n e c t e d . I felt very

connected . . . and impressed I t h i n k w i t h t h e importance o f

c o l l a b o r a t i v e l e a r n i n g as w e l l as i n d i v i d u a l l e a r n i n g . "

Several a u d i e n c e members n o t e d t h a t p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e

s t u d y h a d d e e p e n e d t h e i r u n d e r s t a n d i n g , a n d f o r some,

consolidated t h e s e n s e o f a n e m e r g i n g theme: " i t was k i n d o f

neat t o t a l k t o you about i t and g e t t h i s , like I t h i n k I've

taken i t a b i t deeper i n terms o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e

process." " t h a t ' s a theme . . . an a w a r e n e s s t h a t I would

a t t r i b u t e t o p s y c h o d r a m a s a n d maybe y o u r i d e n t i f y i n g t h a t ,

h e l p i n g me i d e n t i f y what t h a t i s . "

Experience o f Fundamental Change

All a u d i e n c e members e x p e r i e n c e d a f u n d a m e n t a l c h a n g e i n

themselves. In other w o r d s , t h e y l e f t t h e w o r k s h o p i n some

way a d i f f e r e n t p e r s o n t h a n when t h e y came. They h a d

 88

experienced a s h i f t i n s i d e themselves. Because of t h e

h i g h l y e x p e r i e n t i a l q u a l i t y o f p s y c h o d r a m a , c h a n g e was

e x p e r i e n c e d i n a m u l t i - l a y e r e d , m u l t i - l e v e l l e d way. To

break t h i s p r o c e s s down i n t o i t s component p a r t s somewhat

l o s e s a sense o f t h e g e s t a l t o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e s i n c e i t i s

c e r t a i n l y t h e case i n t h i s i n s t a n c e t h a t t h e whole i s

g r e a t e r t h a n t h e sum o f i t s p a r t s .

Nonetheless, f o r t h e purposes of d e s c r i p t i o n , i t seems

a p p r o p r i a t e t o name t h e c a t e g o r i e s i n w h i c h c h a n g e was

perceived. Although these categories are being described

individually, t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f change o f t e n c o n t a i n e d

elements of a l l three categories. Audience members

p e r c e i v e d change i n a c o m b i n a t i o n o f ways including

cognitive (new a w a r e n e s s e s o r a p p r e c i a t i o n ) , affective (new

o r more p r o f o u n d e x p e r i e n c e o f f e e l i n g s ) , and "being level"

o r a c h a n g e d s e n s e o f who t h e y a r e a s a p e r s o n .

Having a d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e was a s h i f t p e r c e i v e d b y

s e v e r a l audience members. D i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e denotes t h e

experience o f p e r c e i v i n g something d i f f e r e n t l y t h a n was

p r e v i o u s l y the case. Sometimes t h i s d i f f e r e n c e i n v o l v e d a

deeper understanding: " a l t h o u g h s h e ' s e x p l a i n e d i t t o me

many t i m e s , I ' v e n e v e r seen i t as c l e a r l y , or f e l t i t as

clearly"; " i t brought me c l o s e r t o t h e p s y c h o l o g y o f women."

Sometimes i t was more l i k e s e e i n g something, o r someone

i n a d i f f e r e n t way: " I saw my f a t h e r d i f f e r e n t l y . . . I

d o n ' t know i f I c a n p u t i t i n t o t a n g i b l e w o r d s , i t ' s a l m o s t

 89

l i k e an e m o t i o n a l q u a l i t y . " A n o t h e r way that perspectives

changed r e l a t e d t o a sense of c l o s u r e i n r e l a t i o n s h i p that

had e n d e d : " I h a v e n ' t had an o p p o r t u n i t y t o d i s e n g a g e , to

s a y g o o d - b y e , t o do a l l t h o s e k i n d s o f t h i n g s . I t was an

o p p o r t u n i t y a t t h a t t i m e t o do that."

F o r one a u d i e n c e member a d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e meant a

g r e a t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g about what i s c e n t r a l l y i m p o r t a n t t o

her: " I d i d l e a r n how i m p o r t a n t i t was t o be c o n n e c t e d to

other people".

Changes i n p e r s p e c t i v e o c c u r r e d i n a c o m b i n a t i o n o f

realms i n c l u d i n g t h e i r view of themselves, t h e i r view of

o t h e r s and i n t h e i r u n i v e r s a l view: " I have a renewed

a p p r e c i a t i o n f o r who women a r e a n d w h a t t h e i r p o t e n t i a l i s ,

a n d w h a t my p o t e n t i a l as a woman i s as well."

W e l l t h e m e a n i n g t h a t I made o f i t was, i n my analysis

o f i t , was, I t h i n k q u i t e p r o f o u n d . T h a t we are a l l , at
o n c e t h e a b u s e r s a n d t h e a b u s e d , a n d t h a t we have a l o t
o f w o r k t o do as a g r o u p t o h e a l t h i s . That we a r e a l l
c o n n e c t e d , t h e r e i s n ' t any one g r o u p t h a t i s or i s n ' t to
blame. T h a t i s w h a t m e a n i n g i t had f o r me.

One a u d i e n c e member e x p r e s s e d c o n c e r n a b o u t the

endurance o f t h e s h i f t w h i c h had o c c u r r e d f o r h e r :

I t h i n k perhaps t h e e f f e c t s of t h e s e k i n d s of s h i f t s can
l e s s e n as t i m e g o e s on b e c a u s e i t i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y
reinforced. You know, when a n y t h i n g h a p p e n s on any k i n d
o f an i n t e n s i v e w e e k e n d and t h e r e i s a s h i f t , b u t t h e n
as t i m e goes on y o u a r e s t i l l b a c k i n y o u r o l d
e n v i r o n m e n t and so y o u a r e g o i n g t o h a v e y o u r own
r e i n f o r c e m e n t s . . . p r o b a b l y I ' l l j u s t seek t h o s e
r e i n f o r c e r s i n the environment t h a t w i l l r e i n f o r c e those
kinds of s h i f t s j u s t t o balance o f f the o t h e r s t u f f .

Because the e m o t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e f o r a l l audience

members h a d b e e n s o i n t e n s e , t u r b u l e n t a n d a l l e n c o m p a s s i n g ,
 90

a m a j o r f o c u s i n d e s c r i b i n g t h e n a t u r e o f t h e i r c h a n g e was

a f f e c t i v e , o r f e e l i n g based: " W e l l t h a t ' s how i t d i d t o u c h

me p e r s o n a l l y , i s b e i n g c o n n e c t e d as a p e r s o n w i t h t h a t

little group of people, . . . i n t h a t group e x p e r i e n c e o f

grief." Many a u d i e n c e members e x p e r i e n c e d a n e m b r a c i n g o f

feelings which had been d e n i e d " I a l s o s m i l e d because I

owned t h o s e t e a r s a n d I h a d a r i g h t t o them a n d I was s o

g l a d t o r e d i s c o v e r them." Others felt feelings which they

h a d n ' t r e a l i z e d w e r e t h e r e : " I f e l t my own g r i e f o f n e v e r

h a v i n g had b a b i e s . . . I hadn't ever acknowledged t h a t and

I am s t i l l processing that."

S i n c e f o r most a u d i e n c e members, i n t e n s e l y emotional

e x p e r i e n c e had been accompanied by f e e l i n g s o f embarrassment

and v u l n e r a b i l i t y , a n i m p o r t a n t shift f o r many h a d b e e n t o

s t a y open t o t h e i r f e e l i n g s i n spite of t h e i r embarrassment:

" T h a t was a v e r y d i f f e r e n t experience. To be p u b l i c l y s a d

and n o t s h u t down, n o t c u t i t o f f . " " I j u s t knew t h a t i t

was h e a l t h y t o s i t t h e r e a n d n o t r u n away, b u t j u s t t o l e t

it happen."

Some d e s c r i b e d t h e s h i f t t h e y h a d e x p e r i e n c e d a s an

encompassing "being l e v e l " shift: "like significantly

c h a n g i n g my s e n s e o f who I am. Kind of exciting. It really

is." Others f e l t themselves t o be f u n d a m e n t a l l y different;

h o w e v e r t h e e x p e r i e n c e was l e s s intense. F o r example, some

audience members f e l t t h e m s e l v e s become more c e n t r e d i n

t h e i r p e r s o n a l p o w e r , more s e l f - c o n f i d e n t , o p e r a t i n g more
 91

from a p l a c e o f s t r e n g t h : "Confidence, n o t a s much f e a r ,

f e e l i n g a l o t more c e n t r e d . " A n o t h e r saw h e r s e l f a s b e i n g

l e s s a l o o f : "a b i t more o p e n . . . p r o b a b l y i n t e r a c t more

with people . . . n o t a s q u i e t a s I u s e d t o be . . .

speaking up really."

E v i d e n c e o f Change i n D a i l y Life

Awareness of Changed S t y l e o f I n t e r a c t i o n

All a u d i e n c e members w e r e a w a r e o f c h a n g e s i n t h e way

they i n t e r a c t e d with various combinations o f : themselves,

s i g n i f i c a n t o t h e r s , f r i e n d s and f a m i l y , co-workers and

p e o p l e i n t h e community. The m a j o r s h i f t i n interaction was

d e s c r i b e d i n a t l e a s t one o f t h e f o l l o w i n g : b e i n g more o p e n ,

more a u t h e n t i c , a n d / o r more s e l f - accepting. More open

d e n o t e s g r e a t e r w i l l i n g n e s s t o engage w i t h o t h e r s : "more

open . . . p r o b a b l y i n t e r a c t more w i t h p e o p l e , n o t as q u i e t

as I u s e d t o be . . . s p e a k i n g up r e a l l y " , a n d more

a u t h e n t i c d e n o t e s i n t e r a c t i n g i n a way w h i c h i s h o n e s t a n d

congruent w i t h inner experiences. F o r some t h i s sense o f

a u t h e n t i c i t y was d e s c r i b e d a s b e i n g more r e a l a n d l e s s

c o n c e r n e d w i t h p u b l i c p e r s o n a , o r who t h e y w e r e " s u p p o s e d t o

be"; "more a c c e s s i n g t h e r o l e o f D a v i d Golbraith rather than

the p r e s c r i b e d r o l e s , or the assigned r o l e s , y o u know."

"Well I t h i n k I c a n a l l o w m y s e l f t o be a b i t more r e a l with

men . . . so I ' v e f o u n d m y s e l f b e i n g more h o n e s t w i t h just

t h e way I am."
 92

B e i n g more s e l f - a c c e p t i n g d e n o t e s f e e l i n g more

c o m f o r t a b l e and less c r i t i c a l o f o n e s e l f : "To sum i t a l l up,

. . . i t i s o.k. who I am . . ."; "The o n l y t h i n g I would

add i s I am f e e l i n g more c o m f o r t a b l e a b o u t ... my opinion

. . . who I am . . . what I r e p r e s e n t . "

Audience members saw themselves as more a u t h e n t i c ,

b e t t e r able t o a c t i n accordance with their feelings. For

some t h i s was because of a g r e a t e r comfort w i t h f e e l i n g s i n

general: "How i m p o r t a n t i t i s f o r me t o be t r u e t o m y s e l f ,

t o g i v e m y s e l f p e r m i s s i o n t o be i n t o u c h w i t h my feelings".

Others expressed a g r e a t e r comfort w i t h a broader range of

feelings:

I'm no l o n g e r a f r a i d o f a n g e r as much a s I u s e d t o be .
. . I r e a l i z e d d u r i n g t h e w o r k s h o p t h a t my f e a r o f t h e
a n g e r o f my f a t h e r no l o n g e r has t o be t h e r e , t h a t
d i d n ' t h a p p e n on a c o g n i t i v e l e v e l , i t h a p p e n e d on an
e m o t i o n a l l e v e l , and on a l e v e l o f u n a w a r e n e s s .

One a u d i e n c e member who had b e e n c u t o f f f r o m some o f

her f e e l i n g s gained i n s i g h t i n t o the harmful e f f e c t s of

being cut-off: " w a l l s h u r t me e v e n more t h a n t h e y do the

p e o p l e who a r e on t h e o t h e r s i d e o f t h e w a l l b e c a u s e I s h u t

m y s e l f down . . . " Another a u d i e n c e member who had felt cut

o f f f r o m women was feeling a greater flow i n his female

relationships:

I t h i n k i t ' s j u s t t h a t I f e e l a c c e p t e d i n t o women's
l i v e s now, y o u know. I can v e n t u r e i n t o your e m o t i o n a l
p s y c h e w i t h o u t f e a r o f h a v i n g a d o o r slammed i n my f a c e
. . . I h a v e no r i g h t t o t r y and u n d e r s t a n d women was
t h e message I was g e t t i n g b e f o r e . I t ' s l i k e there's
n o t h i n g I c o u l d e v e r do t o s i g n i f i c a n t l y o f f e r s u p p o r t
o r empathy t o a woman, so why b o t h e r t r y i n g . "Why
b o t h e r t r y i n g " i s p r o b a b l y my own d e f e n s e , y o u know. So
 93

I t h i n k t h a t m e s s a g e was e r a s e d e m o t i o n a l l y a n d
cognitively with that.

A g r e a t e r comfort w i t h f e e l i n g s i n g e n e r a l and/or a

broader range of f e e l i n g s t r a n s l a t e d i t s e l f into greater

interpersonal expression. I n o t h e r words, most a u d i e n c e

members f e l t t h e m s e l v e s t o be more w i l l i n g t o p e r s o n a l l y

e x p e r i e n c e and e x p r e s s i n t e r p e r s o n a l l y a b r o a d e r range o f

feelings:

I know t h a t s i n c e I went b a c k t o w o r k t h e r e h a v e b e e n
some d i f f i c u l t moments a t w o r k a n d I h a v e n ' t p u t a mask
on i n g r o u p s . I ' v e c r i e d a t w o r k , I ' v e t o l d p e o p l e when
I'm f e e l i n g l e f t o u t o r when I'm f e e l i n g s l i g h t l y
p a r a n o i d about something t h a t ' s g o i n g on. I've been
a b l e t o t a l k about i t and a s k about i t and f e e l t h a t
I've g o t t h e r i g h t t o f e e l t h o s e f e e l i n g s and a s k f o r
what I need a r o u n d t h o s e f e e l i n g s .

One o f t h e ways i n w h i c h a u d i e n c e members e x p e r i e n c e d a

b r o a d e r r a n g e o f e m o t i o n a l e x p r e s s i o n was i n t h e i r

willingness t o enter into interpersonal c o n f l i c t or

c o n f r o n t a t i o n when n e e d e d . I n o t h e r words s e v e r a l people

described a greater w i l l i n g n e s s t o address p r o b l e m a t i c

i s s u e s w i t h o t h e r s ; i s s u e s w h i c h p r e v i o u s l y w o u l d n o t have

been a d d r e s s e d .

A t a l a t e r d a t e we w e n t f o r a w a l k a n d I s a i d "you s a i d
s o m e t h i n g t o me, a n d t h i s i s what i t was, a n d t h i s i s
how I f e e l a b o u t w h a t y o u s a i d . " She was q u i t e s t u n n e d
a n d s h o c k e d t h a t I w o u l d be so c o n f r o n t a t i o n a l , s o
direct.

A g r e a t e r sense o f agency o r t a k i n g charge and b e i n g

e f f e c t i v e was p e r c e i v e d b y some: " J u s t h a v i n g more e f f i c a c y

i n my l i f e " , "Agency. Yeah, y e a h , urn, i n a l l a s p e c t s o f my

life.
 94

Psychodrama P r o g r e s s i o n

Sense of E v o l u t i o n of Psychodrama E x p e r i e n c e s

Although t h i s theme i s n o t as w e l l d e v e l o p e d i n terms of

common a u d i e n c e member e x p e r i e n c e , i t has nonetheless been

i n c l u d e d b e c a u s e i t i s an a r e a w h e r e no r e s e a r c h a p p e a r s t o

h a v e b e e n done and as s u c h m i g h t p r o v i d e an interesting

starting point. I t may w e l l be t h a t t h e l a c k o f a common

s e n s e o f p s y c h o d r a m a p r o g r e s s i o n i s more a r e f l e c t i o n o f the

h e t e r o g e n e i t y of the group i n terms of psychodrama

experience. T h i s was the f i r s t experience f o r two people,

and a t l e a s t the t h i r d workshop f o r the rest.

D u r i n g t h e v a l i d a t i o n i n t e r v i e w one audience member

noted t h a t t h e w o r d " p r o g r e s s i o n " was p r o b l e m a t i c f o r her i n

as much as f o r h e r p r o g r e s s i o n i s i n a dialectic

r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h r e g r e s s i o n , s o m e t h i n g she s e e s as integral

t o the psychodrama p r o c e s s . For her "evolution" f i t better.

However, t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e theme d i d f i t f o r h e r and in

as much as t h e w o r d " p r o g r e s s i o n " c a p t u r e d t h e f l a v o u r f o r

audience members who had p a r t i c i p a t e d i n more t h a n one

w o r k s h o p , and f o r t h e p r i n c i p a l r e s e a r c h e r , i t has been used

here.

P s y c h o d r a m a p r o g r e s s i o n i s meant t o d e n o t e t h a t the

experience o f b e i n g an a u d i e n c e member c h a n g e d o v e r time,

b e c o m i n g r i c h e r and deeper w i t h experience. In o t h e r words,

people experienced a deepening i n t h e i r understanding of the

t h e r a p e u t i c b e n e f i t s o f p s y c h o d r a m a i n g e n e r a l , and b e i n g an
 95

a u d i e n c e member i n p a r t i c u l a r . Together w i t h a deeper

understanding of the psychodramatic process, audience

members a l s o n o t i c e d an i n c r e a s e i n t h e i r own accessibility

and participation i n the process, s t a r t i n g i n i t i a l l y as an

observer, t h e n l i m i t e d a u x i l i a r y r o l e s , more auxiliary

roles, and protagonist experience. Increasing accessibility

was both to others ( i . e . being a s k e d t o be an a u x i l i a r y more

o f t e n ) and to oneself i n t e r m s o f a c c e s s i n g and staying with

s t r o n g f e e l i n g s w h i c h a r e t r i g g e r e d by w a t c h i n g e n a c t m e n t s .

All a u d i e n c e members who had participated in other

workshops c o u l d u n e q u i v o c a l l y say t h a t each e x p e r i e n c e was

different. A s e n s e o f p r o g r e s s i o n was c l e a r f o r most: " I t ' s

been r e a l l y a p r o g r e s s i o n through the four or f i v e t h a t I've

b e e n a t " , "and I've b e e n g e t t i n g more d e e p l y involved."

. . . my e x p e r i e n c e i s t h a t I c a n be more s p o n t a n e o u s .
I c a n be more i n v o l v e d i n what i s h a p p e n i n g . Whereas I
t e n d t o be r e s e r v e d , r e f l e c t i v e , a n a l y t i c a l , r i g h t , so I
c a n l e t go o f some o f t h a t and b e , u s e a d i f f e r e n t s t y l e
i f you l i k e i n p s y c h o d r a m a .

The one a u d i e n c e member who had been a t several

w o r k s h o p s who d i d not have a sense of p r o g r e s s i o n felt the

most i n v o l v e d i n her f i r s t workshop where s e v e r a l f r i e n d s

and f e l l o w - s t u d e n t s were i n a t t e n d a n c e : "I probably was

more p e r s o n a l l y i n v o l v e d i n t h e first one and i t was because

I was a s k e d t o t a k e p a r t i n more o f t h e a c t i o n s . . . than I

was i n e i t h e r o f t h e o t h e r two." A n o t h e r a u d i e n c e member

who was p a r t i c i p a t i n g f o r the first time s t a r t e d the

w o r k s h o p by e n a c t i n g h i s own psychodrama. "I j u s t jumped

 96

i n t o i t . . .I'm v e r y much l i k e t h a t . . . To me i t was

almost like another class . . . These a r e a l l c o u n s e l l i n g

s t u d e n t s t y p e t h i n g and j u s t go." I t i s not p o s s i b l e t o say

w h a t , i f any, p r o g r e s s i o n , w i t h regard to audience member

p a r t i c i p a t i o n would occur f o r him.

Several audience members f e l t a c h a n g e w i t h on-going

e x p e r i e n c e f r o m b e i n g p r i m a r i l y an o b s e r v e r t o more f u l l y a

participant: "More s p o n t a n e o u s , more i n v o l v e d i n w h a t ' s

g o i n g o n , more a t t a c h e d t o t h e dramas as o p p o s e d t o b e i n g

k i n d o f on t h e p e r i p h e r y . " One f i r s t time audience member

r e a l i z e d t h a t she w o u l d b e n e f i t more f r o m b e i n g more o f a

p a r t i c i p a n t and l e s s o f an o b s e r v e r and w o u l d e n g a g e i n t h e

p r o c e s s more f u l l y t h e n e x t t i m e : " I w o n ' t go i n t o t h e next

one t h i n k i n g I'm g o i n g t o be an observer."

The s e n s e o f p r o g r e s s i o n f o r one audience member who had

p a r t i c i p a t e d i n s e v e r a l psychodrama workshops another

element besides the s h i f t from o b s e r v e r t o p a r t i c i p a n t . He

d e s c r i b e d an u n c a n n y s y n c h r o n i c i t y t o t h e way i n which

events u n f o l d e d f o l l o w i n g a psychodrama workshop:

I am no l o n g e r s u r p r i s e d by any o f t h e s y n c h r o n i c t y t h a t
g o e s on. I t ' s j u s t b e e n , t o o many t h i n g s h a v e o c c u r r e d .
L i k e I j u s t knew . . . t h e r e w i l l be s o m e t h i n g t h a t
happens t o d a y , o r i n t h e n e x t l i t t l e w h i l e , o r v e r y
s o o n , and i t d i d n ' t t a k e l o n g - 2 h o u r s later.

F o r him, p r o g r e s s i o n a l s o i n c l u d e d a sense of maturation

of themes. In o t h e r words, over a s e r i e s of workshops

(generally with 4 - 6 months b e t w e e n them) themes w o u l d

emerge w h i l e b e i n g i n t h e a u d i e n c e , a theme w o u l d be enacted

 97

in a s u b s e q u e n t w o r k s h o p , a c t i o n w o u l d be t a k e n i n l i f e

b a s e d upon t h e p s y c h o d r a m a , r e p e r c u s s i o n s t o t h e a c t i o n

t a k e n w o u l d o c c u r , f u r t h e r themes w o u l d emerge a n d be w o r k e d

through i n s u b s e q u e n t w o r k s h o p s a s an a u d i e n c e member, e t c .

. . . when I s t a r t e d i n t h e f i r s t I was a n o n -
p a r t i c i p a n t . . . ( a t t h e s e c o n d , I was) b e c o m i n g i n v o l v e d
i n t h e p r o c e s s ( a n d became c l e a r a b o u t e m e r g i n g p e r s o n a l
themes. T h i s theme) j u s t b e g a n t o k i n d o f l i k e b u b b l e
i n me a n d be l i k e a p r e s s u r e on me k i n d o f t o do an
e n a c t m e n t . . ., h a v i n g t h a t e m o t i o n a l n e e d t o do
s o m e t h i n g , a c t on i t , l e t t h a t e m o t i o n a l r e l e a s e g o ,
w h i c h was t h e p s y c h o d r a m a , a n d t h e n a f t e r c o m i n g b a c k
and u s i n g t h e p s y c h o d r a m a s a s a way o f r e f l e c t i n g a n d
embracing p a r t s of i t .

Another p r o g r e s s i o n which may o c c u r i s a g r e a t e r

u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f how t o be a n a u x i l i a r y a n d t h e b e n e f i t

available i n that role. Audience members w i t h little

p s y c h o d r a m a e x p e r i e n c e e x p e r i e n c e d a s e n s e o f c o n f u s i o n when

d e s c r i b i n g t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e o f b e i n g an a u x i l i a r y . "I

d i d n ' t q u i t e know how t o b e . I found i t r e a l l y h a r d t o be

her mother. A n d I am s t i l l t r y i n g t o w o r k o u t a b o u t how t o

be a p e r s o n i n psychodrama" The b e n e f i t f r o m t h i s r o l e was

u n c l e a r t o t h e two a u d i e n c e members who w e r e participating

for the f i r s t time: " I was b u s y b e i n g a n a u x i l i a r y a n d I

d i d n ' t g e t much o u t o f t h a t e x c e p t my own w o r r i e s a b o u t

w h e t h e r I was d o i n g i t r i g h t o r n o t . " Audience members w i t h

g r e a t e r e x p e r i e n c e f e l t more c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h t h e r o l e a n d

c o n s i d e r e d t h a t l e a r n i n g does o c c u r i n e x a m i n i n g t h e

s i m i l a r i t i e s a n d d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n them a n d t h e r o l e they

have been asked t o p l a y .

 98

Additional Contributing Factors

Assessment of Other F a c t o r s I n f l u e n c i n g the Experience of

Change

P s y c h o d r a m a was s o m e t h i n g w h i c h a u d i e n c e members

experienced i n a l a r g e r context - their daily lives. While

it seems f a i r t o a t t r i b u t e some m a j o r s h i f t s t o a personal

psychodrama experience, i t i s important t o acknowledge that

a u d i e n c e members w e r e aware o f o t h e r contributing factors to

t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e o f s i g n i f i c a n t change. V a r i a b l e s mentioned

included s p e c i f i c a t t r i b u t e s of t h e psychodrama environment

a s w e l l as f a c t o r s b e y o n d t h e psychodrama.

One v a r i a b l e m e n t i o n e d b y s e v e r a l a u d i e n c e members was

the atmosphere e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e psychodrama d i r e c t o r s .

For some t h i s r e l a t e d t o s e t t i n g t h e s c e n e i n t e r m s o f '

content: " t h a t norm was s e t b y Penny b e c a u s e s h e t a l k e d

about Freudian kinds o f a n a l y s i s a n d s h e made i t o.k. to

t a l k a b o u t d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n men and women." For others

i t was more a p e r v a s i v e sense of s a f e t y : "when y o u h a v e t h e

k i n d o f l e a d e r s h i p w i t h Penny and M e l , t h e y make i t s a f e ,

everybody i s p r o t e c t e d . "

Another f e l t s a f e i n knowing t h a t s h e w o u l d n o t be

c a l l e d upon t o s e l f - d i s c l o s e i f s h e d i d n o t w i s h t o : " I was

r e a l l y g l a d t h a t M e l a n d Penny d i d n ' t explore that, they

j u s t l e t me cry." "Once I g o t t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e y w e r e

g o i n g t o l e a v e me alone, i t made i t c o m f o r t a b l e f o r me to

stay there."
 99

One a u d i e n c e member n o t e d t h e sense of community w h i c h

was an important aspect of the atmosphere f o r her: spiritual

q u a l i t y t o the group: "spirituality . . . that's community

f o r me, so t h a t was p a r t o f , i t was pretty a l l

encompassing."

T h e r a p y was another c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r mentioned by

some a u d i e n c e members. For some t h i s meant t h a t t h e y w e r e

already processing these issues with a t h e r a p i s t and this

was another piece o f t h e i r w o r k : " b e c a u s e my individual

therapy . . . was pretty intense, I a t t r i b u t e a l o t of that

t o t h e work I d i d i n t h e r a p y "

One a u d i e n c e member c o n s i d e r e d the f a c t t h a t not doing

personal t h e r a p y was perhaps a c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r i n as

much as t h i s may have enhanced t h e t h e r a p e u t i c value of

psychodrama: "I've n e v e r done any personal counselling, and

I d o n ' t know i f t h a t ' s why I've had such a p o s i t i v e r e a c t i o n

t o the psychodrama or not."

Some a u d i e n c e members f e l t t h a t t h e y w e r e a l r e a d y , to

some d e g r e e " i n p r o c e s s " on t h e i r own with the issue that

became p i v o t a l i n t h e p s y c h o d r a m a . The psychodrama

e x p e r i e n c e was a c a t a l y s t w h i c h moved t h e m a l o t f u r t h e r

along. One p e r s o n was " i n process" with a naturally

occurring cycle:

. . . i t may v e r y w e l l h a v e b e e n ( u n d e r w a y ) , b u t t h e
p r o c e s s may h a v e t a k e n a l o t l o n g e r i f I h a d n ' t done t h e
workshop. I w o u l d h a v e gone t h r o u g h t h e g r i e f c y c l e ,
b u t t o be h o n e s t w i t h y o u , I d o n ' t know i f I w o u l d h a v e
r e a c h e d t h a t same f l o w ...
 100

A n o t h e r was " i n p r o c e s s " with changing a problematic family-

r e l a t i o n s h i p - a d i f f e r e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a n t h e one

r e l e v a n t t o t h e psychodrama, b u t w i t h some s i m i l a r d y n a m i c s :

I attribute a l o t of t h a t t o t h e work I d i d i n t h e r a p y
and I a l s o a t t r i b u t e the fact that pretty close t o that
s p e c i f i c psychodrama s i t u a t i o n had been a major s h i f t
w i t h my m o t h e r . . . I h a d a p r a c t i c e r u n w i t h my mom.

All a u d i e n c e members n o t e d t h a t t h e i r i n v o l v e m e n t i n a

graduate school experience i n counselling contributed t o

t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e o f change: " I think the only other factor

i s g e t t i n g my d e g r e e " , " T h a t was a n o n - g o i n g t h i n g . Through

the clinic, t h e f i r s t psychodrama, t h e second psychodrama,

the group c o u n s e l l i n g course and then t h i s last psychodrama,

and s o i t was a c o n t i n u u m . "

Some a u d i e n c e members f e l t t h a t t h e i r previous

e x p e r i e n c e as a p r o t a g o n i s t contributed t o t h e change t h e y

e x p e r i e n c e d a s a n a u d i e n c e member, " s o I w o u l d s a y i t

d e f i n i t e l y d i d a f f e c t me . . . b e c a u s e t h e t h i n g s that came

up t h r o u g h my p s y c h o d r a m a . . . kept g e t t i n g b u i l t upon."

Several a u d i e n c e members c o n s i d e r e d t h e r e s p e c t f u l and

accepting a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s men a n d women t o b e i m p o r t a n t i n

s e t t i n g a t o n e c o n d u c i v e t o change. One a u d i e n c e member

n o t e d t h a t t h e c h a n g e s h e e x p e r i e n c e d r e q u i r e d t h a t b o t h men

and women be p r e s e n t a t t h e w o r k s h o p :

I guess t h e p o i n t i s t h a t ( i t ) w o u l d n o t have happened

f o r me i n a f e m a l e , a women o n l y g r o u p . I t had t o be a
m i x e d g r o u p a n d i t h a d t o b e one w h e r e t h e men w e r e a b l e
t o w i t n e s s i n t h a t r e s p e c t f u l way what was o c c u r r i n g f o r
some o f t h e women i n t h e g r o u p ( N o t e : b r a c k e t s a d d e d t o
c l a r i f y meaning o f t h e quote).
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One a u d i e n c e member n o t e d i n v o l v e m e n t i n her s p i r i t u a l

life as a c o n t r i b u t o r t o h e r e x p e r i e n c e o f change: "Well I

t h i n k c e r t a i n l y one o f t h e t h i n g s h a s b e e n my i n v o l v e m e n t i n

my s p i r i t u a l life a t the church."

Essential Structure

Giorgio (1985) d e s c r i b e s t h e f i n a l step i n

phenomenological r e s e a r c h as " S y n t h e s i s o f t r a n s f o r m e d

meaning u n i t s i n t o a c o n s i s t e n t statement of the structure

of (the experience being e x p l o r e d ) " (p. 19). This step i s

t h e s y n t h e s i s and i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e i n s i g h t s imbedded i n

t h e t r a n s f o r m e d meaning u n i t s and i n c l u d e s a l l o f t h e

t r a n s f o r m e d meaning u n i t s . I n o t h e r words, c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n

the f o l l o w i n g e s s e n t i a l s t r u c t u r e , i s the experience of

s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e f o r a l l a u d i e n c e members i n t h i s study.

The s t a r t i n g p l a c e f o r a l l a u d i e n c e members i n t o their

s i g n i f i c a n t e x p e r i e n c e was a s e n s e o f b e i n g f u l l y present

and engaged i n t h e enactment. A t some p o i n t t h e y became

aware o f s h i f t i n g from t h i n k i n g t o f e e l i n g w h i c h was

i n i t i a t e d through v a r i o u s combinations o f : empathy towards

t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e p r o t a g o n i s t , i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h some

element o f what t h e y were s e e i n g , an awareness o f a l a c k o r

l o s s i n t h e i r own l i f e w h i c h was t r i g g e r e d b y what t h e y w e r e

watching; and/or t h e d e s i r e f o r something t h e y were

witnessing. The s h i f t i n t o a f e e l i n g r e a l m was unconscious

and f o r m o s t , an i n s t a n t a n e o u s o r s u d d e n o c c u r r e n c e .
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The f e e l i n g r e a l m became v e r y i n t e n s e , t u r b u l e n t f o r

m o s t , a n d t o some d e g r e e a l l - e n c o m p a s s i n g a n d e x p e r i e n t i a l ,

o r o c c u r r i n g w i t h a h e r e a n d now q u a l i t y w i t h a l o s s o f t h e

outward gestalt of the situation. The t o n e o f emotions

ranged from p r i m a r i l y p o s i t i v e t o p r i m a r i l y d i s t r e s s i n g and

painful. The e x p e r i e n c e w h i c h accompanied these feelings

was o f t e n more c o n n e c t e d w i t h the inward r e a l i t y of the

a u d i e n c e member t h a n w i t h t h e e n a c t m e n t w h i c h was occurring.

I n o t h e r w o r d s , a l t h o u g h empathy a n d i d e n t i f i c a t i o n h a d b e e n

t h e e n t r a n c e i n t o a u d i e n c e members f e e l i n g s , t h e i r i n n e r

e x p e r i e n c e t o o k on a l i f e o f i t s own, w i t h s t r o n g f e e l i n g s

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e i r own p e r s o n a l realities.

The experience of t h i s " a l t e r e d s t a t e " was b r i e f f o r

t h o s e who w e r e s u c c e s s f u l i n s u p p r e s s i n g t h e i r experience

and more p r o l o n g e d f o r t h o s e who s t a y e d w i t h i t u n t i l i t s

natural conclusion. The e x p e r i e n c e o f t e n i n c l u d e d a

p h y s i c a l component, such as c r y i n g o r s i g h i n g , a c o g n i t i v e

e l e m e n t a n d an e m o t i o n a l e l e m e n t a l t h o u g h t h e e m o t i o n a l tone

o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e was t h e s t r o n g e s t c o m p o n e n t .

Audience members w e r e c a u g h t o f f guard by t h e s t r e n g t h

o f t h e i r f e e l i n g s and most e x p e r i e n c e d a sense o f

v u l n e r a b i l i t y and embarrassment, o r a t l e a s t self-

consciousness with regard t o t h e i r experience.

V u l n e r a b i l i t y was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h f e e l i n g e x p o s e d and

e m b a r r a s s m e n t was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e i t h e r t h e i n n e r

e x p e r i e n c e o f r e c e i v i n g unaccustomed t o v a l i d a t i o n , o r t h e
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p u b l i c show o f p r i v a t e f e e l i n g s , p a r t i c u l a r l y when c r y i n g

accompanied these f e e l i n g s . Some f e l t a d e s i r e t o t o n e down

t h e i n t e n s i t y o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e , a l t h o u g h t h i s was easier

s a i d t h a n done. Audience members g a v e v a r i o u s r e a s o n s f o r

wanting t o c o n t r o l t h e i r experience i n c l u d i n g : concern about

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y towards t h e p r o t a g o n i s t ; concern about t h e

d e p t h o f f e e l i n g s w h i c h m i g h t be e x p e r i e n c e d i f t h e y open

the door.

The p r i m a r y ways i n w h i c h a u d i e n c e members a t t e m p t e d t o ,

o r s u c c e s s f u l l y c o n t r o l l e d t h e i r f e e l i n g s was through

various combinations o f : s e l f t a l k ; p h y s i c a l movement;

d e c i d i n g t o p u t f e e l i n g s on h o l d u n t i l later, or a kind of

m e d i t a t i v e , l e t t i n g go. The a u d i e n c e members who

s u c c e s s f u l l y suppressed t h e i r f e e l i n g s e x p e r i e n c e d an

unexpected re-emergence o f p o w e r f u l f e e l i n g s e i t h e r d u r i n g

the s h a r i n g phase o f t h e enactment, o r d u r i n g t h e c l o s u r e

p a r t o f t h e whole workshop. T h e i r f e e l i n g s were n o t s h a r e d

w i t h t h e group.

Audience members e v e n t u a l l y s h i f t e d o u t o f t h e h i g h l y

i n t e n s e e x p e r i e n c e b a c k t o a more " n o r m a l " state of

c o n s c i o u s n e s s where t h e i r i n w a r d f o c u s l e s s e n e d and t h e y

r e j o i n e d t h e group. T h i s s h i f t happened i n v a r i o u s ways;

f o r some i t was s e l f - i n i t i a t e d w i t h a n a c t i v e s u p p r e s s i o n o f

feelings, f o r o t h e r s i t was i n i t i a t e d b y t h e d i r e c t o r ' s

b r i n g i n g c l o s u r e t o t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e p r o t a g o n i s t and

for s t i l l o t h e r s i t was a p r o c e s s w h i c h h a p p e n e d o n i t s own

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as t h e i r i n n e r e x p e r i e n c e came t o i t s own n a t u r a l c l o s u r e .

Although audience members h a d s h i f t e d o u t o f a h i g h l y

intense inner experience b a c k t o a more " n o r m a l " state, f o r

some, a h e i g h t e n e d emotional state continued f o r several

days.

A u d i e n c e members a l l f e l t a need t o i n t e g r a t e t h e i r

experience, and d i d so m a i n l y t h r o u g h r e f l e c t i o n on t h e i r

own. Several f e l t t h i s t o be a p r o t r a c t e d , on-going

process. One o f t h e o u t c o m e s o f t h e i n t e g r a t i o n p a r t o f t h e

e x p e r i e n c e was a s e n s e o f p e r s o n a l themes r e q u i r i n g f u r t h e r

attention. T h i s s e n s e o f e m e r g i n g themes h a p p e n e d f o r some

w h i l e t h e y w i t n e s s i n g an enactment. F o r some, themes

emerged w h i l e t h e y w a t c h e d t h e p r o t a g o n i s t do s o m e t h i n g

w h i c h t h e y r e c o g n i z e d as something t h e y needed t o do. For

o t h e r s themes emerged a s t h e y g a i n e d a n i n s i g h t i n t o their

inner experience, either during the experience, later during

reflection, o r even w h i l e p r e p a r i n g o r p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e

interview f o rthis study.

All audience members e x p e r i e n c e d what t h e y c o n s i d e r e d t o

be an i m p o r t a n t shift i n s i d e themselves. The n a t u r e o f t h i s

shift i n c l u d e d c o g n i t i v e elements, a f f e c t i v e elements, and

for some, a s e n s e o f f u n d a m e n t a l c h a n g e o n an e x i s t e n t i a l

level. Cognitive shifts i n c l u d e d changed p e r s p e c t i v e s about

themselves, o t h e r s and t h e u n i v e r s e . Sometimes t h i s was a

d e e p e r a p p r e c i a t i o n f o r s o m e t h i n g o r someone, including
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t h e m s e l v e s a n d s o m e t i m e s i t seemed more l i k e a new

understanding.

In t h e a f f e c t i v e realm, shifts included the re-embracing

of f e e l i n g s w h i c h had been d e n i e d as w e l l as t h e experience

o f f e e l i n g s t h a t a u d i e n c e members h a d n o t known w e r e t h e r e .

For some a s h i f t i n f e e l i n g s r e l a t e d t o b r i n g i n g c l o s u r e t o

a r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h someone who h a d d i e d . Finally, a shift

f o r many i n t h e r e a l m o f t h e emotions i n v o l v e d s t a y i n g open

t o f e e l i n g s d e s p i t e a sense o f v u l n e r a b i l i t y and

embarrassment.

S h i f t s on a more e x i s t e n t i a l p l a n e i n v o l v e d a sense o f

c o m i n g i n t o t h e i r own, more f u l l y b e c o m i n g t h e m s e l v e s . This

was e x p e r i e n c e d profoundly f o r some, a n d more s u b t l y f o r

others. E v i d e n c e f o r t h e changes w h i c h had been initiated

o r a d v a n c e d d u r i n g t h e w o r k s h o p c o u l d be s e e n i n t h e d a i l y

l i v e s o f a u d i e n c e members. Changes w e r e e v i d e n t i n t h e way

a u d i e n c e members r e l a t e d t o t h e m s e l v e s ; p a r t i c u l a r l y i n

terms o f g r e a t e r s e l f - a c c e p t a n c e . I n t e r - p e r s o n a l l y changes

were n o t i c e d i n r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h s i g n i f i c a n t others,

friends, f a m i l y , c o - w o r k e r s and/or p e o p l e i n t h e community.

A u d i e n c e members p e r c e i v e d t h e m s e l v e s t o be r e l a t i n g with

o t h e r s more o p e n l y , more a u t h e n t i c a l l y , a n d w i t h a g r e a t e r

comfort i n e x p e r i e n c i n g and e x p r e s s i n g either feelings i n

g e n e r a l , o r a broader range of f e e l i n g s . Several audience

members a l s o f e l t more w i l l i n g t o e n t e r i n t o i n t e r - p e r s o n a l
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c o n f r o n t a t i o n when n e e d e d a n d a g r e a t e r s e n s e o f p e r s o n a l

agency i n g e n e r a l .

A sense of p r o g r e s s i o n or evolution i n t h e i r experiences

w i t h p s y c h o d r a m a was n o t e d b y some o f t h e a u d i e n c e members

who h a d b e e n i n v o l v e d i n more t h a n one w o r k s h o p ; although

one p e r s o n who was p a r t i c i p a t i n g f o r t h e f i r s t time "jumped

r i g h t i n w i t h both f e e t " r i g h t from t h e beginning. The

p r o g r e s s i o n d e s c r i b e d b y some i n c l u d e d a s h i f t from b e i n g an

observer t o b e i n g more f u l l y a p a r t i c i p a n t . Participating

more f u l l y meant b e i n g more s p o n t a n e o u s , o r b e i n g more

a c c e s s i b l e , b o t h i n t r a and i n t e r - p e r s o n a l l y . In other words

p e o p l e were i n c r e a s i n g l y a b l e t o s t a y w i t h t h e i r own

f e e l i n g s a n d w e r e i n v i t e d more o f t e n t o p a r t i c i p a t e a s

auxiliaries. A growing a p p r e c i a t i o n f o r psychodrama i n

g e n e r a l was a l s o p a r t o f t h i s progression.

A u d i e n c e members m e n t i o n e d s e v e r a l f a c t o r s w h i c h

contributed t o t h e i r experience o f change. These i n c l u d e d :

the atmosphere e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e d i r e c t o r s ; on-going

p e r s o n a l w o r k , e i t h e r w i t h a t h e r a p i s t o r on t h e i r own;

p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n and/or completion of a graduate degree i n

c o u n s e l l i n g psychology; i n v o l v e m e n t i n s p i r i t u a l work and

previous work as a p r o t a g o n i s t .
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CHAPTER V

DISCUSSION

The purpose of t h i s chapter i s t o discuss the r e s u l t s

of t h i s study, h i g h l i g h t i n g f i n d i n g s which are particularly

noteworthy and i n t e g r a t i n g t h e f i n d i n g s w i t h t h e l i t e r a t u r e

reviewed i n Chapter Two. I m p l i c a t i o n f o r p r a c t i c e and

possible research directions w i l l a l s o be identified.

Summary o f M a j o r Findings

The principle finding i n this study r e l a t e s t o the

i n t e n s i t y of the c a t h a r t i c experience f o r t h e audience

members who w e r e i n t e r v i e w e d . Although not a l l enactments

were p i v o t a l i n i n s t i g a t i n g a c a t h a r t i c e x p e r i e n c e f o r

a u d i e n c e members, t h e e x p e r i e n c e , i n s t i g a t e d through

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n a n d e m p a t h y , was profound.

Although the n o t i o n of audience c a t h a r s i s i s n o t new,

psychodrama t h e o r y has t r a d i t i o n a l l y p l a c e d a g r e a t e r

e m p h a s i s upon t h e c a t h a r s i s o f p r o t a g o n i s t s . The r e s u l t s i n

this s t u d y s u g g e s t t h a t c a t h a r s i s f o r a u d i e n c e members may

r e q u i r e more a t t e n t i o n . Specifically, the i n t e g r a t i o n of a

d e e p l y moving e x p e r i e n c e i s seen as c r u c i a l f o r

p r o t a g o n i s t s ; perhaps a fuller i n t e g r a t i o n of the deeply

m o v i n g e x p e r i e n c e f o r a u d i e n c e members i s a l s o r e q u i r e d .

D i s c u s s i o n of Major Findings

1. N a t u r e of Audience Members C a t h a r t i c Experiences

T h i s study examined t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f s i g n i f i c a n t

c h a n g e s p e c i f i c t o p s y c h o d r a m a a u d i e n c e members a n d a d d s t o
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t h e body o f knowledge by e x a m i n i n g t h e process from t h e

inside out — f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f a u d i e n c e members.

Although change can o c c u r w i t h o u t a c a t h a r t i c experience,

and a c a t h a r t i c experience doesn't necessarily result i n

change, t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e s d e s c r i b e d by

participants i n this s t u d y were c a t h a r t i c and as such, this

s e c t i o n o f t h e d i s c u s s i o n r e v o l v e s around the notion of

catharsis.

Three i s s u e s a r i s e i n d i s c u s s i n g audience members

e x p e r i e n c e o f c a t h a r s i s : a ) what i s t h e n a t u r e o f t h e

experience? b) w h i c h model o f c a t h a r s i s i s s u p p o r t e d by t h e

d e s c r i p t i o n s p r o v i d e d b y t h e a u d i e n c e members i n t h i s study?

and c ) how d o e s t h e c a t h a r t i c e x p e r i e n c e o f a u d i e n c e members

in this study support or f a i l t o support previous research?

Of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t i n e x p l o r i n g t h e n a t u r e o f

a u d i e n c e member c a t h a r s i s i s t h e i n t e n s i t y o f t h e

experience. F e e l i n g s w e r e h i g h l y i n t e n s e a n d t o some d e g r e e

all-encompassing. Audience members who a l l o w e d themselves

t o s t a y w i t h t h e i r experience remained i n this heightened

s t a t e f o r q u i t e some t i m e ; g e n e r a l l y f r o m when t h e f e e l i n g s

were t r i g g e r e d u n t i l a t l e a s t t h e end o f t h e enactment.

The e x p e r i e n c e o f a u d i e n c e members i n t h i s study cannot

r i g h t f u l l y be c a l l e d v i c a r i o u s . The e x p e r i e n c e was n o t a .

p a s s i v e one, b u t something w h i c h was h i g h l y a c t i v e , although

perhaps not v i s i b l y so. I t was n o t j u s t through

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h t h e experience of t h e p r o t a g o n i s t and
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f e e l i n g emotions s i m i l a r t o t h e ones t h e y a r e w i t n e s s i n g

that catharsis occurred. I d e n t i f i c a t i o n was o f t e n an

entrance i n t o the personal e x p e r i e n t i a l realm of the

participants i n this s t u d y ; however t h e i n w a r d experience

s o o n t o o k on a l i f e o f i t s own. Some a u d i e n c e members w e r e

i n w a r d l y e n a c t i n g t h e i r own p s y c h o d r a m a . I t was a s i f t h e y

were w a l k i n g i n a p a r a l l e l u n i v e r s e where t h e i r own

e x p e r i e n c e was a l i v e a n d i n p r o c e s s a n d a t t h e same t i m e ,

t h e y w e r e s i t t i n g i n a room w i t h o t h e r people.

Blatner's ( 1 9 8 5 ) d e s c r i p t i o n o f c a t h a r s i s comes c l o s e s t

t o c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e e x p e r i e n c e s d e s c r i b e d by t h e audience

members i n t h i s s t u d y . He d o e s n o t e n v i s i o n t h e k i n d o f

b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n p r o t a g o n i s t a n d a u d i e n c e member t h a t

Kellermann (1984) i n f e r s . I n a s much a s K e l l e r m a n n (1984)

d e s c r i b e s c a t h a r s i s a s an " a c t i o n a l r e l e a s e " , we c a n i n f e r

t h a t t h e a u d i e n c e , who a r e b a s i c a l l y p a s s i v e , a r e n o t

experiencing a significant catharsis. Nor does B l a t n e r ' s

d e s c r i p t i o n semantically minimize the c a t h a r t i c experience

o f a u d i e n c e member b y d e s c r i b i n g i t a s s e c o n d a r y o r

vicarious. A l t h o u g h h i s a r t i c l e does n o t e x p l i c i t l y i n c l u d e

a u d i e n c e members, i t i s d e s c r i p t i v e o f t h e i r experience.

Blatner's conceptualization differs from t h e o t h e r s

reviewed i n t h e b r e a d t h o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e and i n t h e n e u t r a l

way i n w h i c h t h e e m o t i o n a l t o n e i s d e s c r i b e d . Feelings

w h i c h a r e w e l c o m e d home a r e n o t n e c e s s a r i l y p a i n f u l ; they

c a n be p o s i t i v e a s w e l l . F o r example, a l l o w i n g o n e s e l f t o
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experience s t r e n g t h which has been unacknowledged as w e l l as

more p a i n f u l e m o t i o n s come u n d e r t h e u m b r e l l a o f t h e

catharsis of abreaction. Blatner's description involves the

dynamics i n v o l v e d r a t h e r than t h e tone o f f e e l i n g s

experienced. E l e m e n t s o f a l l f o u r o f B l a t n e r ' s (1985)

c a t e g o r i e s o f c a t h a r s i s were e x p e r i e n c e d by a u d i e n c e members

in this study: c a t h a r s i s of abreaction, i n t e g r a t i o n ,

i n c l u s i o n , and e x i s t e n t i a l . The c a t h a r s i s o f a b r e a c t i o n

was e x p e r i e n c e d b y e v e r y o n e -- t h e a u d i e n c e members i n t h i s

study experienced h i g h l y i n t e n s e emotions which had been

p r e v i o u s l y repressed o r suppressed. This f i n d i n g i s also

c o n s i s t e n t w i t h Baum's ( 1 9 9 0 ) s t u d y , a n d f o r some o f t h e

audience members i n T e l l i e r e t a l ' s (1963) study.

The s t r e n g t h o f emotions experienced i s perhaps t h e

o n l y way i n w h i c h Davies ( 1 9 8 7 ) v i e w o f c a t h a r s i s i s more

d e s c r i p t i v e of both t h e experience of audience members i n

this s t u d y a s w e l l a s t h o s e d e s c r i b e d b y Baum (1994).

Davies d e s c r i b e s t h e f e e l i n g s as p o w e r f u l , and o f t e n

contradictory. B l a t n e r , on t h e o t h e r hand, c o n t e n d s that

catharsis i s not n e c e s s a r i l y intense. Although B l a t n e r may

be r i g h t , t h e audience members i n t h i s study a l l experienced

what t h e y c o n s i d e r e d t o be h i g h l y i n t e n s e f e e l i n g s . In

f a c t , one a u d i e n c e member c o n s i d e r e d h i s e x p e r i e n c e a s a n

audience member t o b e more p r o f o u n d l y c a t h a r t i c t h a n h i s

e x p e r i e n c e as a p r o t a g o n i s t . T h i s h a s b e e n my e x p e r i e n c e a s

well.
 Ill

B l a t n e r ' s c a t h a r s i s o f i n t e g r a t i o n a l s o was experienced

by a l l a u d i e n c e members i n t h i s study. I n o t h e r words,

audience members made m e a n i n g o f t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s a n d

integrated t h e i r understanding into their psychic

organization of the s e l f . Baum a l s o a l l u d e d t o i n s i g h t s

gathered from t h e e x p e r i e n c e by t h e audience participants i n

her study, although t h e nature o f t h e i n s i g h t i s not

explicit. Some o f t h e a u d i e n c e members i n T e l l i e r e t a l ' s

s t u d y a l s o d e s c r i b e d t h e i r need t o p r o c e s s and i n t e g r a t e

t h e i r experience i n personal therapy.

Blatner's catharsis of i n c l u s i o n w i l l be f u r t h e r

discussed i n the section entitled " P e r c e i v e d Need t o

Integrate the Experience". Blatner's spiritual catharsis

was s t r o n g l y e x p e r i e n c e d b y one o f t h e a u d i e n c e members i n

this study.

A d e f i n i t i o n of c a t h a r s i s which would i n t e g r a t e t h e

results of this study w i t h the ideas of previous

psychodramaticians c o u l d be: C a t h a r s i s i s t h e r e l e a s e o f

unconsciously r e s t r a i n e d thoughts o r f e e l i n g s w h i c h comes

a b o u t when a b r e a k t h r o u g h occurs t o the b a r r i e r s maintaining

p s y c h i c r e p r e s s i o n o r s u p p r e s s i o n o f some a s p e c t o f

experience. This breakthrough i s e x p e r i e n c e d as h i g h l y

i n t e n s e and a l l - e n c o m p a s s i n g and i n c l u d e s p h y s i c a l ,

e m o t i o n a l , c o g n i t i v e and sometimes s p i r i t u a l aspects. A

p s y c h i c r e o r d e r i n g o c c u r s w h i c h may be e n h a n c e d t h r o u g h t h e

conscious i n t e g r a t i o n of the experience.

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2. Other Therapeutic Benefits

Many e l e m e n t s o f ego s t r e n g t h e n i n g mentioned by B l a t n e r

and Blatner (1988a) were i m p l i c i t l y d e s c r i b e d by audience

members o f t h i s study. Most o f t h e fundamental concepts

n o t e d a r e a p p l i c a b l e t o a u d i e n c e members a s w e l l a s

protagonists, although t h e way i n w h i c h t h e b e n e f i t s occur

w o u l d d i f f e r t o some e x t e n t . F o r example, r e a l i t y t e s t i n g

r e l a t e s both t o feedback r e c e i v e d by t h e p r o t a g o n i s t during

the s h a r i n g phase and t o s e e i n g how o t h e r s handle similar

difficulties f o r a u d i e n c e members. In f a c t the notion of

l e a r n i n g through seeing others was m e n t i o n e d b y s e v e r a l

a u d i e n c e members i n t h i s study.

A l t h o u g h an e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e g l o b a l therapeutic

b e n e f i t s o f p s y c h o d r a m a was b e y o n d t h e s c o p e o f t h i s study,

s u p p o r t was f o u n d f o r many o f t h e t h e r a p e u t i c benefits

summarized by B l o c h and Crouch (1985), Kellermann (1987a)

and Yalom (1985). Specifically l e a r n i n g from i n t e r p e r s o n a l

action, i n s i g h t and c a t h a r s i s as w e l l as c o r r e c t i v e

emotional experience w e r e f o u n d b y t h e a u d i e n c e members i n

this study.

3. Perceived Need t o I n t e g r a t e t h e E x p e r i e n c e

A n o t h e r major f i n d i n g r e l a t e d t o t h e need o f a u d i e n c e

members i n t h i s study t o i n t e g r a t e a n d make m e a n i n g o f t h e i r

experience. T h i s , combined w i t h t h e f a c t t h a t most a u d i e n c e

members f e l t a s e n s e o f v u l n e r a b i l i t y a n d e m b a r r a s s m e n t , o r

at l e a s t self-consciousness, resulted i n the integration

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process occurring p r i m a r i l y i n p r i v a t e . A general sense by

some t h a t t h e f o c u s should r e m a i n upon t h e p r o t a g o n i s t also

k e p t a u d i e n c e members f r o m s e l f - d i s c l o s u r e d u r i n g t h e

s h a r i n g phase. I t was a s i f t h e s h a r i n g p h a s e was v i e w e d a s

a t i m e t o d i s c l o s e how one h a d b e e n a f f e c t e d b y t h e

enactment r a t h e r than s e l f - d i s c l o s e t h e p e r s o n a l issues

w h i c h were t r i g g e r e d . I n other words, t h e focus remained

upon t h e p r o t a g o n i s t , e v e n t h o u g h a u d i e n c e members w e r e

sharing their perceptions.

A l t h o u g h a u d i e n c e members i n t h i s study made m e a n i n g o f

and integrated t h e i r experience, the opportunity f o r the

c a t h a r s i s of i n c l u s i o n which B l a t n e r (1985) identified,

c a n n o t be f u l l y realized i n private. While a sense o f

belonging may b e e n g e n d e r e d f r o m s e e i n g t h a t o t h e r s share

the same p e r s o n a l difficulties, i ti s through personally

d i s c l o s i n g something w h i c h has v u l n e r a b l e feelings

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i t and b e i n g a c c e p t e d by t h e group despite

this perceived vulnerability, that a f u l l e r c a t h a r s i s of

i n c l u s i o n can occur.

This i n e f f e c t occurs f o rthe protagonist. Through

action, the protagonist portrays some p r o b l e m a t i c area of

their life, h a s an o p p o r t u n i t y t o rework t h e problem and i s

acknowledged and s u p p o r t e d by t h e a u d i e n c e , a d d i n g t h e

catharsis of i n c l u s i o n t o t h e i r experience. Although the

"action" occurs internally, and t h e r e w o r k i n g may n o t b e a s

complete, t h e c a t h a r s i s of i n c l u s i o n could occur f o r

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a u d i e n c e members who s e l f - d i s c l o s e an a r e a of vulnerability

and f i n d t h a t same s u p p o r t and acceptance from their

"audience".

4. Gender R e l a t e d Issues

Another i n t e r e s t i n g sub-theme w h i c h was a d d r e s s e d b y

t h r e e a u d i e n c e members i n t h i s s t u d y related t o gender

i s s u e s and t h e need f o r an atmosphere w h i c h i s a c c e p t i n g o f

b o t h men a n d women. Although t h i s was n o t n o t e d b y a l l

participants, those who d i s c u s s e d t h e i r f e e l i n g s d e s c r i b e d a

healing of the alienation w h i c h c a n o c c u r when b o t h men a n d

women a r e r e s p e c t e d and v a l i d a t e d . T h i s was n o t a m a j o r

finding, h o w e v e r i t d o e s seem n o t e w o r t h y , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n

l i g h t o f t h e vehemence w i t h w h i c h i t was d i s c u s s e d b y t h o s e

addressing the issue.

Also of interest, particularly i na social climate

w h i c h i s f i g h t i n g t o w a r d s g r e a t e r e q u a l i t y f o r women, was

the f a c t t h a t t h e men i n t h i s s t u d y w e r e more c o m f o r t a b l e i n

remaining i ntheir internal experience a n d t h e women

generally felt a greater obligation t o t h e group. Mirroring

our l a r g e r s o c i a l c o n t e x t , men w e r e g e n e r a l l y more

comfortable t h a n women i n " t a k i n g up s p a c e i n t h e u n i v e r s e . "

W i t h i n a n a c c e p t i n g a t m o s p h e r e w h i c h e d i f i e s b o t h men a n d

women, a n d w i t h d i r e c t i o n regarding the r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s of

various roles, p e r h a p s men a n d women w i l l be a b l e t o e q u a l l y

r e c e i v e t h e t h e r a p e u t i c b e n e f i t o f psychodrama.
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Integration with Previous Research

S e v e r a l areas o f convergence a p p e a r when c o m p a r i n g t h e

results of this s t u d y w i t h t h a t o f S u s a n Baum. Audience

members i n b o t h s t u d i e s e x p e r i e n c e d h i g h l y i n t e n s e , a l l -

encompassing f e e l i n g s which culminated i n insight. In other

words, c a t h a r s i s and i n s i g h t r e s u l t e d f o r t h e audience

members i n t h e s e s t u d i e s . The i d e a o f c a t h a r s i s a n d i n s i g h t

i s n o t e d by B l o c h and Crouch (1985), Kellermann, (1987a),

and Y a l o m ( 1 9 8 5 ) . Baum's s t u d y d e s c r i b e s t h e p r o c e s s o f

d e c i s i o n i n v o l v e d i n becoming a p r o t a g o n i s t and t h i s study

neither supported nor f a i l e d t o support her f i n d i n g i n t h i s

regard. T h i s was n o t a n a r e a o f f o c u s i n t h i s study.

The i s s u e o f t r u s t a n d s a f e t y was s o m e t h i n g which was

d e s c r i b e d a s i m p o r t a n t b y t h e a u d i e n c e members i n t h i s study

as w e l l a s i n Baum's s t u d y . In both studies, a lack of

t r u s t a n d s a f e t y was d e s c r i b e d b y some o f t h e a u d i e n c e

members. The n o t i o n o f g r o u p t r u s t a n d s a f e t y s p e a k s to the

need f o r e n g e n d e r i n g a sense o f i n c l u s i o n as p r e v i o u s l y

discussed.

Implications

I m p l i c a t i o n s w i t h r e g a r d t o both psychodrama direction

and a u d i e n c e experience i n general a r e worthy of

consideration. I m p l i c a t i o n s w h i c h may be r e l e v a n t t o

psychodrama d i r e c t o r s i n c l u d e : a) t h e need f o r p a r t i c i p a n t s

t o understand psychodrama p r o c e s s i n c l u d i n g t h e n a t u r e o f

c a t h a r s i s , and t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f
 116

v a r i o u s psychodrama r o l e s ; b ) t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f an

i n t e g r a t i o n p e r i o d f o r a l l g r o u p members s o t h a t both

p r o t a g o n i s t s a n d a u d i e n c e members l e a v e t h e e x p e r i e n c e " i n

tact"; and c) an awareness t h a t psychodrama direction

i n c l u d e s t o some e x t e n t t h e d i r e c t i o n o f a u d i e n c e member

experience.

An i n i t i a l understanding of psychodramatic process

i n c l u d i n g t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f v a r i o u s r o l e s and t h e

n a t u r e o f c a t h a r s i s would p r e p a r e psychodrama participants

f o r t h e i n t e n s e e x p e r i e n c e which might o c c u r f o r them.

A u d i e n c e members i n t h i s s t u d y were caught o f f guard by t h e

h i g h l y e x p e r i e n t i a l and t u r b u l e n t f e e l i n g s which they

experienced. C o n s i d e r i n g t h e m s e l v e s t o be s t u d e n t s learning

" a b o u t " p s y c h o d r a m a d i d n o t p r e p a r e t h e a u d i e n c e members i n

this study t o f e e l comfortable with the i n t e n s e l y personal

e x p e r i e n c e w h i c h was t o e n s u e . A s e n s e o f shame a n d

i s o l a t i o n may be m i n i m i z e d i f p a r t i c i p a n t s know f r o m t h e

o u t s e t t h a t t h e y may be e m o t i o n a l l y t r i g g e r e d i n a p o w e r f u l

way a n d t h a t f u r t h e r , p a r t o f t h e t h e r a p e u t i c b e n e f i t f o r

a u d i e n c e members i s i n e x p e r i e n c i n g a n d i n t e g r a t i n g p o w e r f u l

feelings.

C l e a r g u i d e l i n e s about t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s o f t h e v a r i o u s

psychodrama r o l e s ( a u d i e n c e member, p r o t a g o n i s t , auxiliary

and d i r e c t o r ) w o u l d be h e l p f u l , p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r p e o p l e who

a r e new t o t h e p r o c e s s . The t h e r a p e u t i c v a l u e o f a u d i e n c e

member p a r t i c i p a t i o n c a n be e n h a n c e d t h r o u g h k n o w i n g that
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audience members h a v e l i m i t e d r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s and a r e f r e e

to fully e x p e r i e n c e t h e enactment, i n c l u d i n g whatever

personal experience i s triggered. A clear description of

t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s o f t h e v a r i o u s r o l e s would perhaps have

allowed t h e audience members i n t h i s s t u d y who w e r e o v e r l y

concerned about t h e i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o t h e p r o t a g o n i s t t o

more f u l l y e n t e r i n t o t h e i r own e x p e r i e n c e s .

The importance o f b o t h t h e warm up a n d t h e i n t e g r a t i o n

p e r i o d was h i g h l i g h t e d i n r e v i e w i n g themes w h i c h emerged f o r

audience members i n t h i s study. The s t a r t i n g p l a c e f o r

audience members i n t o t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n t e x p e r i e n c e was a

sense o f b e i n g f u l l y p r e s e n t o r engaged w i t h t h e enactment.

Engagement i s f a c i l i t a t e d b y t h e warm-up p r o c e s s , a n d

i n t e g r a t i o n o r meaning making, i s f a c i l i t a t e d i n the sharing

phase.

L i t e r a t u r e about psychodrama notes t h e importance of

the i n t e g r a t i o n phase f o r a l l psychodrama participants.

Audience members i n t h i s s t u d y n e e d e d t o make m e a n i n g o f a

d e e p l y i n t e n s e e x p e r i e n c e a n d may h a v e b e e n a b l e t o t a k e

advantage o f t h e s h a r i n g phase had t h e y u n d e r s t o o d that this

phase i s f o r everyone's b e n e f i t and i s n o t p r i m a r i l y f o r t h e

protagonist. One c o u l d s p e c u l a t e a b o u t how t o b e t t e r

facilitate audience member i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e i r experience.

S e v e r a l o p t i o n s might be:

a) h a v i n g a d o u b l e s t e p i n f o r an a u d i e n c e member who was s o

overcome w i t h emotion t h a t t h e y c o u l d n o t speak.

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b) move i n t o an e n a c t m e n t w i t h t h e a u d i e n c e member b e c o m i n g

the protagonist.

c ) do some p r o c e s s w o r k w i t h t h e a u d i e n c e member i n a l e s s

a c t i o n o r i e n t e d f a s h i o n w i t h t h e aim of having them leave

w i t h a sense o f what t h e y need t o c o m p l e t e t h e experience

w h i c h had been initiated.

The p r a c t i c e of having a follow-up g r o u p 6 weeks a f t e r

the workshop, something which t h e d i r e c t o r s of t h i s

p a r t i c u l a r g r o u p r o u t i n e l y d o , i s a n e x c e l l e n t way t o

f a c i l i t a t e the i n t e g r a t i o n process. In the f i r s t place i t

gives p a r t i c i p a n t s the idea that there i s an i n t e g r a t i o n

p r o c e s s i n v o l v e d and s e c o n d l y i t gives people the

information that they w i l l n o t be a l o n e i n t h e i r p r o c e s s o f

i n t e g r a t i o n and t h a t s u p p o r t w i l l be a v a i l a b l e .

I t may b e u s e f u l f o r d i r e c t o r s t o know t h a t t h e y may b e

d i r e c t i n g the inner experience o f a u d i e n c e members a s w e l l

as t h e o u t e r experience of protagonists and a u x i l i a r i e s .

For e x a m p l e t w o o f t h e a u d i e n c e members i n t h i s study

described t h e i r experience o f t a k i n g cues as an a u d i e n c e

member i n t e r m s o f t h e i r inner experience f r o m what t h e

d i r e c t o r was s a y i n g t o t h e p r o t a g o n i s t . This underscores

the importance of t a k i n g time i n b r i n g i n g closure t o t h e

e n a c t m e n t s i n c e a u d i e n c e members may s i m u l t a n e o u s l y be

i n v o l v e d i n t h e i r own i n n e r closure.

Implications f o rthose involved i n various forms o f

t h e a t r e may a l s o b e q u i t e f a r - r e a c h i n g . Audience experience

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can be b o t h p r o f o u n d and i n v i s i b l e . Those i n v o l v e d w i t h

a u d i e n c e s w o u l d be w e l l a d v i s e d t o b e s e n s i t i v e t o t h e

i m p a c t w h i c h may b e o c c u r r i n g f o r a u d i e n c e s . Through

identification, a u d i e n c e members may e x p e r i e n c e t h e

triggering of very strong feelings. Aristotle saw t h e v a l u e

of t h e v i c a r i o u s p u r g i n g o f emotions f o r audiences. Adding

an i n t e g r a t i o n p e r i o d t o t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e c o u l d e n h a n c e t h e

value of the experience further.

Some t h e a t r e s a r e t a k i n g a c c o u n t o f t h i s : f o r example a

r e c e n t p r o d u c t i o n a t G r a n v i l l e I s l a n d i n Vancouver involving

a c o n t r o v e r s i a l s e x u a l harassment i s s u e ended w i t h an

audience d i s c u s s i o n f o l l o w i n g t h e performance. Although the

i n t e g r a t i o n process f o l l o w i n g a t h e a t r e p r o d u c t i o n would

l i k e l y be l e s s t h e r a p e u t i c t h a n t h e i n t e g r a t i o n i n

psychodrama, n o n e t h e l e s s i t c o u l d p r o v i d e a v a l u a b l e

o p p o r t u n i t y t o make s e n s e o f i m p a c t o f a performance.

Schools would a l s o be w e l l a d v i s e d t o t a k e a d v a n t a g e of

the g r e a t e r l e a r n i n g which i s p o s s i b l e through increasing

t h e number o f s e n s o r y m o d a l i t i e s . i n v o l v e d i n a l e a r n i n g

activity. F o r example l e a r n i n g about h i s t o r y through acting

it o u t c o u l d p r o v i d e a much l a r g e r i m p a c t t h a n learning

through l i s t e n i n g , o r even l e a r n i n g t h r o u g h l i s t e n i n g and

watching.

Future Research

T h i s study took a s t e p towards understanding the

e x p e r i e n c e o f s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e f o r a u d i e n c e members. The
 120

p r i n c i p l e f i n d i n g that t h i s experience i s highly-

e x p e r i e n t i a l a n d n o t v i c a r i o u s n e e d s t o be f u r t h e r e x a m i n e d

with other groups. The p a r t i c i p a n t s i n t h i s particular

workshop were h i g h l y a r t i c u l a t e , s e l f - r e f l e c t i v e and

p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y minded c o u n s e l l i n g p r o f e s s i o n a l s . I n as

much a s t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s i n p s y c h o d r a m a g r o u p s may be v a s t l y

d i f f e r e n t , the experience o f c h a n g e may a l s o vary.

Another area of future research w o u l d be t o more f u l l y .

explore t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e c a t h a r t i c

experience f o r v a r i o u s psychodrama r o l e s . What i s t h e

d i f f e r e n c e between t h e c a t h a r t i c e x p e r i e n c e o f an a u d i e n c e

member a n d t h a t o f t h e p r o t a g o n i s t ? One c o u l d speculate

t h a t one d i f f e r e n c e i s t h e p e r c e i v e d need t o c o n t a i n t h e

experience. What t h i s meant i n t h i s study, was t h a t t h e

experience took place i n a powerful way, b u t on a n i n n e r

r a t h e r t h a n an o u t e r level.

Another area of research which would add t o t h e

understanding of the therapeutic value o f psychodrama would

be an e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f a u x i l i a r i e s and

doubles. Fine (1979) n o t e s t h a t " the a u x i l i a r i e s i nthe

psychodrama a r e r e c e i v i n g therapy as w e l l as t h e p r o t a g o n i s t

when t h e y u s e t h e i r e y e s a n d e a r s , v o i c e s and b o d i e s , to

a t t e n d t o and r e c r e a t e t h e f a n t a s i e s and p e r c e p t i o n s of the

moment o f t h e p r o t a g o n i s t " ( p . 4 3 3 ) . A l t h o u g h c a t h a r s i s may

occur l e s s r e a d i l y f o r a u x i l i a r i e s , other therapeutic

b e n e f i t s are undoubtedly occurring.

 121

Summary

Empathy and i d e n t i f i c a t i o n are fundamental human

q u a l i t i e s which a c t as t h e e n t r a n c e . w a y into the

e x p e r i e n t i a l realm of o t h e r s . In psychodrama, a situation

is s e t up w h e r e b y t h e u s u a l d i v i s i o n b e t w e e n a c t o r and

audience i s d i m i n i s h e d r e s u l t i n g i n a deepening o f empathy

and identification. G r o u p members a r e a f f o r d e d t h e

o p p o r t u n i t y t o e x p e r i e n c e t h e r e a l i t y o f o t h e r s more

profoundly which can i n t u r n l e a d t o a deeper e x p e r i e n c e of

t h e i r own reality. Through t h e s k i l f u l application of

psychodramatic t e c h n i q u e s , i n f o r m e d by b o t h t h e o r y and

e x p e r i e n c e , p r o f o u n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n can o c c u r over the

p e r i o d o f a few days.

One o f t h e p r i m a r y ways t h r o u g h w h i c h t r a n s f o r m a t i o n

o c c u r s i s c a t h a r s i s ; an e x p e r i e n c e w h i c h i s obvious f o r

p r o t a g o n i s t s and l e s s o b v i o u s , b u t no l e s s p r o f o u n d f o r

a u d i e n c e members. T h i s s t u d y has explored t h i s profound yet

partially i n v i s i b l e process, adding to the understanding of

the t h e r a p e u t i c b e n e f i t s of psychodrama. Further research

i n t o t h e c a t h a r t i c e x p e r i e n c e i s recommended. Factors

worthy of c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n a f u r t h e r e x p l o r a t i o n of

c a t h a r s i s i n c l u d e : t h e i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n c a t h a r s i s and the

p e r s o n a l f r a m e w o r k o f an i n d i v i d u a l ; the s i m i l a r i t i e s and

d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e c a t h a r t i c experiences of v a r i o u s

psychodramatic r o l e s ; the i n t e n s i t y of f e e l i n g s a s s o c i a t e d

w i t h c a t h a r s i s ; t h e i n t e r a c t i o n between e m o t i o n a l content
 122

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e e x p e r i e n c e and i t s intensity; and how

t h e b e n e f i t s of c a t h a r s i s change w i t h i n t e g r a t i o n .

The profound e x p e r i e n c e w h i c h may occur f o r audiences

has far-reaching i m p l i c a t i o n s both i n the educational system

and in traditional theatre.

 123

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New Z e a l a n d J o u r n a l o f P s y c h i a t r y , 24, 5 4 3 - 5 5 1 .

Styan, J . (1975). Drama, s t a g e and a u d i e n c e . New York:

Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s .

V a l l e , R. & K i n g , M. ( 1 9 7 8 ) . An i n t r o d u c t i o n t o
e x i s t e n t i a l - p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l thought i n psychology. I n R.
V a l l e a n d M. K i n g ( E d s . ) , E x i s t e n t i a l - p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l
a l t e r n a t i v e s f o r psychology. New Y o r k : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y
Press.

W e i n e r , M. (1982). I d e n t i f i c a t i o n i n psychotherapy.
American J o u r n a l o f P s y c h o t h e r a p y , 3 6 ( 1 ) , 109-116.

W e i s s , R. ( 1 9 9 4 ) . L e a r n i n g f r o m s t r a n g e r s : The a r t and
m e t h o d o f q u a l i t a t i v e i n t e r v i e w s t u d i e s . New Y o r k : The
Free Press.

W i d l o c h e r , D. J e a n , B., e t T e l l i e r , Y. ( 1 9 6 6 ) . Les e f f e t s
d ' a u d i e n c e du p s y c h o d r a m e . I n J . J o r e n o , A. Friedemann,
R. B a t t e g a y & Z. M o r e n o ( E d s . ) The i n t e r n a t i o n a l h a n d b o o k
of group p s y c h o t h e r a p y (pp. 366-372). New Y o r k :
Philosophical Library.

Y a l o m , I . ( 1 9 8 5 ) . The t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e o f g r o u p
p s y c h o t h e r a p y ( 3 r d e d . ) . New Y o r k : B a s i c B o o k s .
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APPENDIX C

Interview Protocol

Script: A s y o u know, I am i n t e r e s t e d i n e x p l o r i n g t h e
e x p e r i e n c e o f s i g n i f i c a n t change f o r psychodrama a u d i e n c e
members. By s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e , I mean t h a t y o u e x p e r i e n c e d
some s o r t o f a s h i f t i n s i d e y o u r s e l f t h a t y o u c o n s i d e r t o b e
important. You m i g h t s a y t h a t i n some way y o u a r e l e a v i n g
t h e w o r k s h o p a l i t t l e d i f f e r e n t t h a n how y o u came i n . I
want t o e x p l o r e w i t h y o u what h a p p e n e d . I have h e r e a t i m e
l i n e o f events t h a t occured over t h e course of t h e workshop
t o h e l p j o g y o u r memory i f y o u n e e d t o l o o k a t i t . I'd l i k e
you t o t a k e a f e w m i n u t e s t o r e f l e c t b a c k o n y o u r
experience.

1. T e l l me a b o u t y o u r e x p e r i e n c e o f c h a n g e a s i f y o u
w e r e t e l l i n g me a s t o r y t h a t h a d a b e g i n n i n g
m i d d l e a n d e n d . What l e d up t o t h i s s h i f t , w h a t
happened d u r i n g t h e e x p e r i e n c e and what happened
afterwards.

( A f t e r each d e s c r i p t i o n i f needed)
- What w e r e y o u f e e l i n g ?
- What w e r e y o u t h i n k i n g ?
- What d i d t h a t mean t o y o u ?
- How d i d t h a t a f f e c t y o u ?
- What was t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e ?

2. What d i d y o u l e a r n a b o u t yourself?

3. The l e a r n i n g t h a t y o u s p o k e a b o u t , do y o u s e e e v i d e n c e
o f t h a t i n y o u r l i f e now? I f s o , what i s t h e e v i d e n c e ,
how i s y o u r l i f e d i f f e r e n t ?

4. A r e t h e r e o t h e r f a c t o r s i n y o u r l i f e t h a t y o u t h i n k may
have c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e change o r s h i f t t h a t you
described?

5. I s t h e r e a n y t h i n g you would l i k e t o add t h a t would help

me more f u l l y u n d e r s t a n d y o u r e x p e r i e n c e ?

A d d i t i o n a l Questions
I f n o t a l r e a d y known, t h e f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n s were a l s o
asked:

1. Which e n a c t m e n t ( s ) were t r i g g e r i n g e v e n t s f o r change?

2. Were y o u a p r o t a g a n i s t i n t h i s psychodrama as w e l l ?

3. Were y o u a n a u x i l l i a r y ego? How many t i m e s ?

 132

4. How many p s y c h o d r a m a ' s h a v e y o u b e e n i n ?

5. How many t i m e s h a v e y o u b e e n a p r o t a g a n i s t ?

6. Have y o u n o t i c e d a n y s o r t o f p r o g r e s s i o n i n your
e x p e r i e n c e w i t h psychodrama?
 133

APPENDIX D
D e f i n i t i o n o f Terms
Audience Member: a member o f t h e p s y c h o d r a m a g r o u p who d o e s
not p l a y an a c t i v e r o l e i n an enactment, e.g.
a u x i l i a r y , double, etc.
A u x i l i a r y Egos - i n d i v i d u a l s who a r e c h o s e n b y t h e
p r o t a g o n i s t t o represent absentee persons from t h e i r
private world. These i n d i v i d u a l s have t r a d i t i o n a l l y
been o t h e r p a r t i c i p a n t s , o r t r a i n e d t h e r a p i s t s .
(Greenberg, 1974).
Catharsis: The r e l e a s e o f u n c o n s c i o u s l y r e s t r a i n e d m a t e r i a l
w h i c h o c c u r s when a b r e a k t h r o u g h o c c u r s t o t h e b a r r i e r s
m a i n t a i n i n g p s y c h i c r e p r e s s i o n o r s u p p r e s s i o n o f some
aspect of experience. This breakthrough i s experienced
as h i g h l y i n t e n s e a n d a l l - e n c o m p a s s i n g a n d i n c l u d e s
p h y s i c a l , e m o t i o n a l , c o g n i t i v e and sometimes s p i r i t u a l
c o m p o n e n t s . A p s y c h i c r e o r d e r i n g o c c u r s w h i c h may b e
enhanced t h r o u g h t h e c o n s c i o u s i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e
experience.
Director: c h i e f t h e r a p i s t , t h e producer o f t h e
p s y c h o d r a m a t i c e v e n t . The d i r e c t o r i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r
t h e way i n w h i c h a n e n a c t m e n t i s c a r r i e d o u t , a s w e l l
as t h e f a c i l i t a t i o n o f t h e s u b s e q u e n t w h o l e g r o u p
discussion. ( G r e e n b e r g , 1974)
Doubles - i n d i v i d u a l s who a r e c h o s e n b y t h e d i r e c t o r ,
p r o t a g o n i s t o r t h e m s e l v e s t o come f o r w a r d a n d p o r t r a y
the p r o t a g o n i s t , o r an aspect o f t h e p r o t a g o n i s t .
S e v e r a l d o u b l e s may show a v a r i e t y o f a s p e c t s o f t h e
protagonist.
Enactment: t h e s c e n e o r s c e n e s w h i c h a r e e n a c t e d a s p a r t o f
t h e t h e r a p e u t i c work f o r each i n d i v i d u a l p r o t a g o n i s t .
G e n e r a l l y i s p r e c e d e d b y a warm-up a n d f o l l o w e d b y a n
integration or sharing period.
Encounter: An e x c h a n g e b e t w e e n t w o p e o p l e w h e r e t h e w h o l e
b e i n g i n c l u d i n g t h e s o u l , o f one p e r s o n c o m m u n i c a t e s
w i t h the whole b e i n g o f t h e other. "Not b y t u r n i n g
away f r o m human p e r s o n s do we meet God, b u t God m e e t s
us i n a l l o f o u r i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . I n e a c h
Thou we a d d r e s s t h e e t e r n a l Thou" ( J o h n s o n , 1 9 7 4 ) .
Follow-up: An e v e n i n g f o l l o w - u p s e s s i o n f o r p s y c h o d r a m a
p a r t i c i p a n t s which i s h e l d by t h e d i r e c t o r s i n v o l v e d i n
t h i s s t u d y 6-8 weeks a f t e r w e e k e n d w o r k s h o p s i n o r d e r
t o f u r t h e r i n t e g r a t e t h e psychodrama e x p e r i e n c e s .
Integration: The p h a s e o f a n e n a c t m e n t f o l l o w i n g t h e e n d i n g
o f t h e a c t i o n w h e r e e v e r y o n e h a s a c h a n c e t o make
meaning o f t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e . This t y p i c a l l y involves
s h a r i n g by t h e p r o t a g o n i s t and a u x i l i a r i e s / d o u b l e s o f
t h e i r experience as w e l l as t h e s h a r i n g by audience
members o f s i m i l a r e x p e r i e n c e s f r o m t h e i r own l i v e s .
Protagonist: main c h a r a c t e r i n an enactment, t h e p e r s o n
a r o u n d whom t h e e n a c t m e n t r e v o l v e s . (Greenberg, 1974).
 134

Psychodrama: a m e t h o d o f p s y c h o t h e r a p y i n w h i c h c l i e n t s a r e
encouraged t o c o n t i n u e and complete t h e i r a c t i o n s
through d r a m a t i z a t i o n , r o l e p l a y i n g , and d r a m a t i c s e l f -
presentation. Both v e r b a l and non-verbal communication
are u t i l i z e d . A number o f s c e n e s a r e e n a c t e d ,
d e p i c t i n g one o r more c o m b i n a t i o n s o f : s p e c i f i c p a s t
m e m o r i e s w h i c h a r e i n some way " u n f i n i s h e d " ; i n n e r
dramas; f a n t a s i e s ; dreams; p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r f u t u r e
r i s k - t a k i n g s i t u a t i o n s ; or simply unrehearsed
e x p r e s s i o n s o f m e n t a l s t a t e s i n t h e h e r e a n d now.
These scenes approximate r e a l - l i f e s i t u a t i o n s o r a r e
e x t e r n a l i z a t i o n s o f mental processes from w i t h i n .
" R o l e s " may be p l a y e d b y o t h e r g r o u p members o r
r e p r e s e n t e d b y i n a n i m a t e o b j e c t s . Many t e c h n i q u e s a r e
employed, such as r o l e r e v e r s a l , d o u b l i n g , m i r r o r i n g ,
c o n c r e t i z i n g , maximizing, and s o l i l o q u y . Usually, the
p h a s e s o f warm u p , a c t i o n , w o r k i n g - t h r o u g h , c l o s u r e ,
and s h a r i n g c a n b e i d e n t i f i e d . (Kellermann, 1987c).
Psychodramatic S i t u a t i o n : B r i n g i n g a s c e n a r i o f r o m t h e p a s t
o r f u t u r e i n t o t h e p r e s e n t moment s o t h a t i t i s
e x p e r i e n c e d as a c u r r e n t r e a l i t y .
Psychodrama Workshop - A 3 d a y w o r k s h o p f o r p r o f e s s i o n a l
counsellors interested i n developing their
u n d e r s t a n d i n g and use o f advanced group and psychodrama
t e c h n i q u e s i n t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n a l work. T h o s e who
a t t e n d e d t h e workshop were p r o f e s s i o n a l s o r s t u d e n t s
who l e a r n e d a b o u t p s y c h o d r a m a b y b e c o m i n g a c t i v e l y
i n v o l v e d i n t h e warm-up, e n a c t m e n t , a n d i n t e g r a t i o n
phases o f t h e v a r i o u s enactments. .
S i g n i f i c a n t Experience of Change: a n e x p e r i e n c e p e r c e i v e d b y
t h e a u d i e n c e member a s p i v o t a l i n c r e a t i n g a n i n n e r
shift. F o r t h e purposes o f t h i s study, t h i s experience
w o u l d h a v e o c c u r r e d w h i l e t h e p a r t i c i p a n t was a n
a u d i e n c e member i n a p s y c h o d r a m a e n a c t m e n t .
Spontaneity: A s t a t e o f b e i n g o p e n a n d f l e x i b l e t o t h e
n e e d s o f t h e moment a n d w i l l i n g a n d a b l e t o t a k e
appropriate action.
Warm-up: The p h a s e o f p s y c h o d r a m a p r i o r t o a n e n a c t m e n t
when t h e g r o u p a n d t h e p r o t a g o n i s t a r e made r e a d y t o
engage i n a n e n a c t m e n t . This can i n c l u d e developing
group t r u s t ( c o h e s i o n and i n c l u s i o n ) , c h o o s i n g t h e
t o p i c f o r an enactment and s e t t i n g t h e scene.