Congruent numbers with many prime factors

Ye Tian1
Morningside Center of Mathematics, Academy of Mathematics and Systems Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China

Edited† by S. T. Yau, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, and approved October 30, 2012 (received for review September 28, 2012)

Mohammed Ben Alhocain, in an Arab manuscript of the 10th Remark 2: The kernel A½2 and the image 2A of the multiplication
century, stated that the principal object of the theory of rational by 2 on A are characterized by Gauss’ genus theory. Note ×2
that the
right triangles is to find a square that when increased or diminished multiplication by 2 induces an isomorphism A½4=A½2 ’ A½2 ∩ 2A.
by a certain number, m becomes a square [Dickson LE (1971) History By Gauss’ genus theory, Condition 1 is equivalent in that there are
of the Theory of Numbers (Chelsea, New York), Vol 2, Chap 16]. In exactly an odd number of spanning subtrees in the graph whose
modern language, this object is to find a rational point of infinite vertices are p0 ; ⋯; pk and whose
order on the elliptic curve my 2 = x 3 − x. Heegner constructed such
 edges are those pi pj , i ≠ j, with the
pi
rational points in the case that m are primes congruent to 5,7 mod-
quadratic residue symbol pj = − 1. It is then clear that Theorem 1
ulo 8 or twice primes congruent to 3 modulo 8 [Monsky P (1990) follows from Theorem 2.
Math Z 204:45–68]. We extend Heegner’s result to integers m with The congruent number problem is not only to determine
many prime divisors and give a sketch in this report. The full details whether a given integer m is congruent, but also to construct
of all the proofs will be given in ref. 1 [Tian Y (2012) Congruent
infinite order points on the elliptic curve EðmÞ : my2 = x3 − x for
Numbers and Heegner Points, arXiv:1210.8231].
congruent m.
Let X0 ð32Þ be the modular curve defined over Q for the
Gross-Zagier formula | modular curve | genus theory congruent subgroup Γ0 ð32Þ, which is a genus 1 curve, and the
cusp ∞ is rational so that E′ : = ðX0 ð32Þ; ∞Þ is an elliptic curve
A positive integer is called a congruent number if it is the area
of a right-angled triangle, all of whose sides have rational
length. The problem of determining which positive integers are
over Q. It is known that E′ has Weierstrass equation y2 = x3 + 4x.
Let E be the elliptic curve y2 = x3 − x and let f : X0 ð32Þ → E be
a modular parametrization of degree 2 mapping ∞ to 0, i.e., it is
congruent is buried in antiquity (ref. 2, chap. 16) with it long a degree 2 isogeny from E′ to E.
being known that the numbers 5, 6, and 7 are congruent. Fermat Let n = p0 p1 ⋯pk be a product of distinct odd primes with
proved that 1 is not a congruent number, and similar arguments p1 ; ⋯; pk ≡ 1 mod 8. Let m = n or 2n such that m ≡ 5; 6 or
show that 2 and 3 are not congruent numbers. No algorithm has 7 mod 8. Let H be the Hilbert class field of the imaginary qua-
ever been proven for infallibly deciding whether a given integer pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffifield K = Qð −2nÞ. pLet
dratic ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi m* = ð−1Þðn−1Þ=2 m so that
n ≥ 1 is congruent, the reason being that an integer n ≥ 1 is −
congruent if and only if there exists a point ðx; yÞ, with x and Kð m* Þp⊂ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiH ffi and let EðQð m* ÞÞ be the group of points
y rational numbers and y ≠ 0, on the elliptic curve E(n): x ∈ EðQð m* ÞÞ such that σx = p − ffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
x where
ffi σ is the nontrivial
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ele-
y2 = x3 − n2 x. Moreover, assuming n to be square-free, a classical ment in the Galois group GalðQð m* Þ=QÞ. Then EðQð m* ÞÞ− ≅
calculation of root numbers shows that the complex L-function EðmÞ ðQÞ, whose torsion subgroup is E½2. ffi We now construct the
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
of this curve has zero of odd order at the center of its critical so-called Heegner point ym ∈ EðQð m* ÞÞ− ≅ EðmÞ ðQÞ, which will
strip precisely when n lies in one of the residue classes of 5, 6, be shown to be of infinite order for m satisfying Condition 1 in
and 7 modulo (mod) 8. Thus, in particular, the unproven con- Theorem 2.
jecture of Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer (3, 4) predicts that every
positive integer lying in the residue classes of 5, 6, and 7 mod 8 1. If n ≡ 5 mod pffiffiffiffiffi8, then m = m* = n. Let P ∈ X0 ð32Þ be the
should be a congruent number. The aim of this paper is to prove image of i 2n=8 on the upper half plane H via the complex
the following partial results in this direction. uniformization X0 ð32Þ = Γp0 ð32Þ∖ðH ffiffiffi pffiffi∪ffi P ðQÞÞ. It turns out that
1

the point z : = f ðPÞ + ð1 + 2; 2 + 2Þ on E is defined over pffiffiffithe

Theorem 1. For any given integer k ≥ 0, there are infinitely many Hilbert class field H, and that yn : = TrH=KðpffiffinÞ z ∈ EðQð nÞÞ.
pffiffiffi
square-free congruent numbers with exactly k + 1 odd prime divisors Moreover, yn (resp. 2yn ) belongs to EðQð nÞÞ− if k ≥ 1 (resp.
in each residue class of 5, 6, 7 mod 8. k = 0).
Theorem 1 follows from the following result by Remark 2. If n ≡ 3; 7pmod
ffiffiffiffiffi 8, then m* = − m. Let P ∈ X0 ð32Þ be the im-
2 below. For any abelian group A and an integer d ≥ 1, we write age of ði 2n + p 2Þ=8
ffiffiffi viapthe ffiffiffi complex uniformization and let
A[d] for the Kernel of the multiplication by d on A. z : = f ðPÞ + ð1 + 2; 2 + 2Þ, which turns out to be a point de-
fined over HðiÞ. Identify A with G = GalðHðiÞ=KðiÞÞ and let
Theorem 2. Let k ≥ 0 be an integer and n = p0 p1 ⋯pk a product of σ 0 ∈ GalðHðiÞ=KðiÞÞ beffi the element corresponding to the
distinct odd primes with pi ≡ 1 mod 8 for 1 ≤ i ≤ k. Let m = n or 2n pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ideal class of ð2; p−2n ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi Þ. Let χ be the character of G factor
such that m ≡ 5; 6, or 7 mod 8. Then m is a congruent number pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi through GalðKði; m* Þ=KðiÞÞ, which is nontrivial if m ≠ 2n.
provided that the ideal class group A of the field K = Qð −2nÞ Let ϕ ⊂ A bePa complete representative of G=hσ 0 i and define
satisfies the condition ym : = ym;ϕ = σ∈ϕ χðσÞzσ .

0; if n ≡ ± 3 mod 8; The following theorem is our main result, from which Theorem
dimF2 ðA½4=A½2Þ = [1]
1; otherwise: 2 follows.

Remark 1: The above result when k = 0 is due to Heegner (5),

Author contributions: Y.T. designed research, performed research, and wrote the paper.
and completed by Birch (6), Stephens (7), and Monsky (8); and
that when k = 1 is due to Monsky (8) and Gross (9). Actually The author declares no conflict of interest.

Heegner is the first mathematician who found a method to con- See Commentary on page 21182.
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†
struct fairly general solutions to cubic Diophantine equations (5). This Direct Submission article had a prearranged editor.
The method of this paper is based on Heegner’s construction. 1
To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: ytian@math.ac.cn.

21256–21258 | PNAS | December 26, 2012 | vol. 109 | no. 52 www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1216991109

 SEE COMMENTARY
Theorem 3. Let n = p0 p1 ⋯pk be a product of distinct odd primes X
with pi ≡ 1 mod 8 for 1 ≤ i ≤ k. Let m = n or 2n such that m ≡ 5; 6 2k y0 − yd ∈ E½2: [2]
p0 jdjn
or 7 mod 8. Let ympbe the
ffi point defined as above. Then we have
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
that ym ∈ 2k−1 EðQð m* ÞÞ− + E½2. Moreover, if p Condition
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 1 in
We claim that pffiffiffi for each proper divisor d of n divisible by
Theorem 2 is satisfied, then the point ym ∉ 2k EðQð m* ÞÞ− + E½2.
p0 , yd ∈ 2k EðQð dÞÞ− + E½2 (and we will show this key result
Moreover, by Theorem 3 and a simple computation on 2-Selmer
at the end using induction hypothesis). pffiffiffiAssuming this, we can
group, we obtain the following result on Birch and Swinnerton- write yd = 2kP y′d + t′d for some y′d ∈ EðQð dÞÞ− and td ∈ E½2. Thus
Dyer conjecture: yn = 2k ðy0 − p0 jdjn;d≠n y′d Þ + t for some t ∈ E½2. Consider the
pffiffiffi pffiffiffi pffiffiffi
Theorem 4. For the elliptic curve EðmÞ : my2 = x3 − x, where m is (injective) Kummer map EðQð nÞÞ=2k+1 EðQð nÞÞ → H 1 ðQð nÞ;
an integer as in Theorem 2, we have rankZ EðmÞ ðQÞ = 1 = E½2 Þ and the exact inflation-restriction sequence
k+1
  pffiffiffi  
ords=1 LðEðmÞ ; sÞ. Moreover, the Shafarevich–Tate group of EðmÞ is 1 → H 1 Gal H0+ =Q n ; E 2
finite and has odd cardinality.  pffiffiffi     
→H 1 Q n ; E 2k+1 → H 1 H0+ ; E 2k+1 :
Sketch of Proof. We now explain our method in the case p0 ≡ P
5 mod 8 (other cases are similar). In this case, m* = m = n in Here we use E½2k+1 ðH0+ Þ = E½2. Because y0 − p0 jdjn;d≠n y′d ∈
Theorem 3 and Condition 1 say that A has no order 4 elements, EðH0+ Þ, we know that the image pffiffiffiof 2yn in the Kummer map
+
or equivalently, 2A has odd cardinality. Here are some notations: factors through H 1 ðGalðHp =Qð nÞÞ; E½2Þ and is then killed
0 ffiffiffi
ffiffiffi n ∈ 2 EðQð nÞÞ, or 4ðyn − 2 y′n Þ = 0 for some
k+1 k−1
by 2, thus,p4y pffiffiffi
• Fix an embedding of the algebraic closure ffi C.
pffiffiffiffiffiK ofpKffiffiffiffiin y′n ∈ EðQð nÞÞ. Note any nontrivial subextension ofpHffiffiffi0+ =Qð nÞ
• H: the Hilbert class field of K; H0 = Kð p0 ; ⋯; pk Þ its genus must be ramified at some odd prime and E½2∞ ðQð nÞÞ = E½2;
subfield; and H0+ = H0 ∩ R.
P know that yn = 2 y′n modulok−1E½2. However, P yn = 2 ðy0 −
k−1 k
we
• K ab : the maximal abelian extension of K.
^ = ∏ Zp ; K ^ = K⊗Z Z
^ the finite adéles of K; and O ^ K = OK ⊗ Z.
^ p0 jdjn;d≠n y′d Þ mod E½2, thus P
2 ðy′n − 2y0 + d≠n 2y′d Þ ∈ E½2,
•Z p which implies that y′n = 2y0 − d≠n 2y′d + t for some t ∈ E½2. Note
^ × ×
• σ : K =K → GalðK =KÞ, the Artin reciprocity law.
ab pffiffiffi pffiffiffi
that for any 0 < djn with p0 jd, we have that σ ϖ ð dÞ = − d and
• K2 : the local field of K p theffi unique prime above 2; O2 its ring
atffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
therefore y′dσ ϖ = − y′d . Thus, by Theorem 5 again, y′nσϖ + y′n =
of integers; and ϖ = −2n ∈ K2× its uniformizer. The unit pffiffiffi
group O2× is generated by ± 1; 5; 1 + ϖ as a Z2 module. 2ðyσ0ϖ + y0 Þ = 0, i.e., y′n ∈ EðQð nÞÞ− ; this shows that yn ∈
pffiffiffi −
2 EðQð nÞÞ + E½2.
k−1
A key fact is the followingpresult
ffiffiffi pon
ffiffiffi the Galois conjugation Now assume Condition pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 1 in Theorem 3, i.e., that the ideal class
of the point z = f ðPÞ + ð1 + 2; 2 + 2Þ on the elliptic curve group A of K = Qð −2nÞ satisfies 2A is of odd cardinality. It follows
E: y2 = x3 − x. that y0 + yσ0ϖ = ð0; 0Þp∈ffiffiffiE½2. However, suppose that yn = 2k y′n + tn
−
^ × satisfy the
for some  y′n ∈PEðQð nÞÞ and tn ∈ E½2, P then by Relation 2 we have
Theorem 5. The Galois conjugations zt : = zσ t of z, t ∈ K that 2 y0 − p0 jdjn y′d ∈ E½2; with y0 − p0 jdjn y′d ∈ EðH0+ Þ. Again,
k
+
PH0 =Q must be ramified at some
following properties: any nontrivial subextension of
1. The point zt ∈ EðHÞ for any t ∈ K^ × and only depends on the class odd prime, we have that y0 − p0 jdjn y′d = t for some t ∈ E½2. Thus,
P
× ^×
of t modulo K OK . y0 + yσ0ϖ = p0 jdjn ðy′d + y′σdϖ Þ + ðt + tσ ϖ Þ = 0, which contradicts y0 +
σϖ
2. The complex conjugation of zt , denoted by zt , is equal to zt−1 . y0 = ð0; 0Þ.

MATHEMATICS
3. zϖt + zt = 0 or ð0; 0Þ according to n ≡ 1 mod 8 or ≡ 5 mod 8. Using an induction hypothesis, we now show the above pffiffiffi claim
that for a proper divisor d of n divisible by p0 , yd ∈ 2k EðQð dÞÞ− +
Let PGL2 ðQÞ+ denote the subgroup of PGL2 ðQÞ of elements E½2. Fix such a divisor d, let χ be thepnontrivial character
with positive determinants. Let N be the normalizer of Γ0 ð32Þ in ffiffiffi
of GalðH=KÞ factoring through GalðKð pffiffiffi d Þ=KÞ and define
PGL2 ðQÞ+ , which acts naturally on X0 ð32Þ. One can show that P
Pχ ðf Þ = σ∈GalðH=KÞ f ðPÞσ χðσÞ ∈ EðQð dÞÞ− , which is equalptoffiffiffi 2yd
translations by QðiÞ torsion points of E′ = ðX0 ð32Þ; ∞Þ can be
above. Here we use Theorem p to ffisee that Pχ ðf Þ ∈ EðQð dÞÞ− .
5 ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
described explicitly in the term of elements in N. An equivalent Now replacing E by K0 = Qð −2dÞ, P by P0 ∈ X0 ð32Þ corre-
pffiffiffiffiffi
result on X0 ð32Þ of Theorem 5 follows from this explicit de- sponding to i 2d=8 ∈ H, and χ by corresponding χ 0 , one can
scription and Shimura’s reciprocity law. χ pffiffiffi
similarly construct a point P00 ðf Þ ∈ EðQð dÞÞ− . Thus, we ob-
First, consider the case when n = p0 is a prime congruent to 5 χ pffiffiffi
pffiffiffiffiffi tain two points: Pχ ðf Þ; P00 ðf Þ ∈ EðQð dÞÞ− . Our claim is de-
mod 8. Now H0 = Kð p0 Þ is the genus subfield of H and
rived immediately from the following pcomparison ffiffiffi on 2-adic
2A ≅ GalðH=H0 Þ. By Gauss’ genus theory, Condition 1 automat-
divisibility of these two points in EðQð dÞÞ− .
ically holds, i.e., A has no order 4 elements, or equivalently, 2A is
of odd cardinality. By Theorem 5, yp0 + yσp0ϖ = #2A · ð0; 0Þ = ð0; 0Þ, Theorem 6. Let n = p0 p1 ⋯pk and djn be integers as above. Assume
pffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffi
and then 2yp0 ∈ EðQð p0 ÞÞ− but yp0 ∉ EðQð p0 ÞÞ− because that d = p0 pi1 ⋯pik−s is a proper pffiffiffi −divisor of n, i.e., s > 0, and that
pffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffi − χ
P00 ðf Þ belongs to 2t EðQð dÞÞ + E½2 for some integer t ≥ 0.
σ ϖ ð p0 Þ = − p0 . We claim that 2yp0 ∉ 2EðQð p0 ÞÞ + E½2 and p ffiffiffi
thus 2yp0 is not torsion. Otherwise, assume 2yp0 = 2y′ + t for some Then Pχ ðf Þ ∈ 2t+s+1 EðQð dÞÞ− + E½2. Theorem 6 follows from the
pffiffiffiffiffi below three results:
y′ ∈ EðQð p0 ÞÞ− and t ∈ E½2, then yp0 − y′ ∈ E½4 ∩ EðH0 Þ. Con- χ pffiffiffi
sidering the ramification, we know that yp0 − y′ ∈ E½2 and there- 1. If either P00 ðf Þ or Pχ ðf Þ is not torsion, then EðQð dÞÞ− ⊗Z Q
pffiffiffiffiffi is one-dimensional Q-vector space. In this case, the ratio
fore yp0 ∈ EðQð p0 ÞÞ− , a contradiction. We have shown Theorem χ
½Pχ ðf Þ : P00 ðf Þ ∈ Q ∪ f∞g of these two points in the one-di-
3 in the case k = 0, which is due to Heegner and Monsky. χ
mensional space is given by ½Pχ ðf Þ : P00 ðf Þ2 = ½hðP ^ χ ðf ÞÞ :
Our method to show Theorem 3 is to induct on k with the above ^ χ0 ^
hðP0 ðf ÞÞ, where h : EðQÞ → R denotes the Néron–Tate
initial case k = 0. Now assume k ≥ 1. Let y0 = TrH=H0 z ∈ EðH0+ Þ. height function. This result follows from a theorem of Koly-
For any positive divisor d of n p divisible
ffiffiffi by p0 , let yd = TrH=KðpffiffidÞ z, vagin on Euler system (10–12).
which actually belongs to EðQð dÞÞ− . These points yd and y0 are
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2. For any square-free positive integer d, let π ðdÞ denote the

related by the following relation: automorphic representation associated to the elliptic curve

Tian PNAS | December 26, 2012 | vol. 109 | no. 52 | 21257

 EðdÞ : dy2 =Rx3 − x and Lðs; π ðdÞ Þ its complete L-series. Let
∞ dx
ΩðdÞ : = p2ffiffid 1 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi denote the real period of EðdÞ . Assume
x3 − x
χ0
that P0 ðf Þ is not torsion, then
 
Now the proof of Theorem 3 (in the case n ≡ 5 mod 8) is complete.
^ χ ðf ÞÞ
hðP L 1=2; π ðn=dÞ Ωðn=dÞ
  = :
^ Pχ 0 ðf Þ
h Lð1=2; π ð1Þ Þ=Ωð1Þ
0 Zhang, and Wei Zhang for many useful discussions. The current simpler
χ construction of Heegner divisors using the curve X0(32), instead of X(8)
Moreover, if P00 ðf Þ is torsion, then so is Pχ ðf Þ. Note that
Lð1=2; π ð1Þ Þ ≠ 0 (2). This result follows from Gross–Zagier for-
mula of Yuan–Zhang–Zhang (theorem 1.2 in ref. 13).
3. Let s ≥ 1 be an integer and let m = p1 ⋯ps be a product of
distinct primes pi ≡ 1 mod 8. Then the 2-adic valuation
of Lð∞Þ ð1=2; π ðmÞ Þ=ΩðmÞ ∈ Q is not less than 2s − 1, where
Lð∞Þ means the complete L-function with the local factor
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21258 | www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1216991109
at infinite removed. Note that the 2-adic valuation of
Lð∞Þ ð1=2; π ð1Þ Þ=Ωð1Þ is −3 (2), and this result is Zhao’s esti-
mation (14).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. The author thanks John Coates, Xinyi Yuan, Shouwu
which the author used in the original version of this paper, arose out of
discussions with Xinyi Yuan. The author also thanks Keqin Feng, Delang Li,
Mingwei Xu, and Chunlai Zhao for assistance in developing this topic during
his master’s degree program; and John Coates, Benedict Gross, Victor Koly-
vagin, Yuan Wang, Lo Yang, Shing-Tung Yau, and Shouwu Zhang for con-
stant encouragement during preparation of this work. Y.T. was supported
by NSFC Grant 11031004, 973 Program 2013CB834202, and The Chinese Acad-
emy of Sciences The Hundred Talents Program.
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Tian