Hard Magnetic Material: A magnetic material with a high coercive force

Tutorial 2: Magne0c Proper0es and Materials

and high saturation induction. 1

Amorphous Alloy (Metallic Glass): A metallic alloy whose atomic

Page 209 of Chapter 6: “Magnetic
structure Properties
has no long-range order. and Materials”

Questions:

1. What property represents the (magnetic) hardness of a magnet? How

is the potential magnetic energy of a hard magnetic material
measured?
2. What property represents the softness of a magnetic material? How
can the energy loss be expressed graphically during a magnetising
and demagnetising cycle? What are the magnetic loss and electrical
loss for a core material in a transformer? Express these two losses
with equations.
3. What is the fundamental difference between hard and soft magnetic
materials?
4. List the most commonly used soft and hard magnetic materials.
Discuss their characteristics in magnetic properties and typical
applications.
Tutorial 2: Magne0c Proper0es and Materials 2

1. What property represents the (magne2c) hardness of a magnet? How is the

poten2al magne2c energy of a hard magne2c material measured?

Answer:
B

a) Hc - magne&c coercivity (coercive field, or

coercive force) is a measure of the ability of a

Hard
Soft
ferromagne&c material to withstand an external
magne&c field without becoming demagne&zed. H

b) (BH)max - The poten&al magne&c energy is

measured by its maximum energy product.
Tutorial 2: Magne0c Proper0es and Materials 3

2. What property represents the softness of a magnetic material? How can the
energy loss be expressed graphically during a magnetising and
demagnetising cycle? What are the magnetic loss and electrical loss for a
core material in a transformer? Express these two losses with equations. Magnetic Properties and Materials 181

B Flux density Saturation

Answer: Bs
Retentivity

Br

a) So3 Magne7c Material: A magne7c material

Hc

-H H

with a high permeability and low coercive Magnetizing force

in opposite direction
Magnetizing force

force. Small Hc represent the so3ness of a

magne7c material. Saturation
in opposite direction
-B
Flux density in
opposite direction

184 Introduction to Electronic Materials for Engineers

b) B-H loop: During each cycle there is energy

Fig. 6.20 Hysteresis loop for a ferromagnetic material.

B(a) B
s: saturation induction - maximum value B of induction; how high

lost due to the domain wall movement. This

(b)
the magnetisation can be;
Br: remanent induction - value of B when H is decreased to zero;

is hysteresis losses.
how high the induction remaining is after the external field is re-
moved; and
H magnetic field required to decreaseHthe
Hc: coercive force - applied
magnetic induction to zero; how magnetically hard the magnetic ma-
terial is.

The internal area is a measure of energy lost (or the work done) dur-
ing the magnetising and demagnetising cycle.
 Tutorial 2: Magne0c Proper0es and Materials 4

2. What property represents the soBness of a magne2c material? How can the
energy loss be expressed graphically during a magne2sing and
demagne2sing cycle? What are the magne2c loss and electrical loss for a
core material in a transformer? Express these two losses with equa2ons.
Answer: 184 Introduction to Electronic Materials for Engineers

c) Energy losses for so3 magne7c materials consist of (a)

B
(b) B

two parts: hysteresis losses (also called magne7c

lossesMagnetic
or iron losses) and eddy
Properties current losses (also
and Materials H 183 H

called electrical losses).

ρ = resistivity of the
d) Magne7c loss:core material,
can be expressedand J =theeddy
using areascurrent density.
Fig. 6.21 Hysteresis loops for (a) a soft and (b) a hard magnetic material.
3
W/m , i.e.within the losses
energy hysteresis
in loop.
unit Itvolume.
is smaller than Materials used in these industries include high-purity iron, l

ansformer4HcBs.
carbon steels (cold-rolled lamination steels), silicon steels (electr

cores, We can be given by
d) Eddy current losses can be expressed as:
2 2
We = (π⋅b⋅f⋅Bs) ⋅σ/6 = (π⋅b⋅f⋅Bs) /(6ρ),
steels), iron-nickel alloys, iron-cobalt alloys, ferritic iron-chrome al
(solenoid-quality stainless steels), soft ferrites (ceramic magnets),
soft magnetic amorphous alloys.
6.3.1 Iron-silicon alloys
(6.12)
Fe-Si alloys are the most extensively used soft magnetic materials. T
Tutorial 2: Magne0c Proper0es and Materials 5

3. What is the fundamental difference between hard and so3 magne7c

materials?
Answer:

a) Hard magne7c materials are difficult to magne7ze and demagne7ze with

large hysteresis loops, low permeability, high remanence, high coercivity
and high magnetoresistance. They are mainly used as tape materials and
permanent magnets.

b) So3 magne7c materials are easy to magne7ze and demagne7ze, with

narrow hysteresis loops, high permeability, low remanence, low
coercivity and low magnetoresistance. These materials have high
permeability, easy magne7za7on, easy demagne7za7on, small area
surrounded by hysteresis loops and low hysteresis loss.
Tutorial 2: Magne0c Proper0es and Materials 6

4. List the most commonly used soB and hard magne2c materials.
Discuss their characteris2cs in magne2c proper2es and typical applica2ons.
Answer:

a) Hard magne7c materials are difficult to magne7ze and demagne7ze,

such as tungsten steel, ferrite, neodymium-iron-boron, etc.
b) These materials are easy to magne7ze and difficult to demagne7ze. They
are mainly used as tape materials and permanent magnets.
c) So3 magne7c materials are easy to magne7ze and demagne7ze, such as
silicon steel sheet, ferronickel alloy, cast steel, etc.
d) These materials have high permeability, easy magne7za7on, easy
demagne7za7on, small area surrounded by hysteresis loops and low
hysteresis loss. They are mostly used as magnet heads and motor cores.
Tutorial 2: Magne0c Proper0es and Materials 7

5. What is mechanism behind magnetostric2on?

Answer:

Ø Magnetostric7on is a property of ferromagne7c materials which causes

them to expand or contract in response to a magne7c field. This effect
allows magnetostric7ve materials to convert electromagne7c energy into
mechanical energy. As a magne7c field is applied to the material, its
molecular dipoles and magne7c field boundaries rotate to align with the
field. This causes the material to strain and elongate
Tutorial 2: Magnetic Properties and Materials 8

6. A magne2c “bit” (binary digit) can be represented by the direc2on of

magne2za2on in a certain region of material.
(a) What is the smallest size (physically) could one isolated bit be?
Choose from: subatomic, atomic, 1000 atoms, µm, and mm etc.
(b) What factors might limit the size of a bit in pracAce?
(c) Suppose we have a disc coated with single-domain bit of ~0.1 µm in size.
EsAmate the bit-capacity of a disc with 0.01 m2 of useful area.
(d) The disc in (c) spins at a linear speed of ~36 m/s. At what rate could data be
transferred to or from the disc?
(e) What magneAc and other properAes should be considered for the recording
disc applicaAon?
Tutorial 2: Magne0c Proper0es and Materials 9

a) The magne7c surface is conceptually divided into many small sub-

micrometer-sized magne7c regions, referred to as magne7c domains,
(although these are not magne7c domains in a rigorous physical sense),
each of which has a mostly uniform magne7sa7on. Due to the
polycrystalline nature of the magne7c material each of these magne7c
regions is composed of a few hundred magne7c grains. Magne7c grains
are typically 10 nm in size and each form a single true magne7c domain.
 the ratio of magnetic to nonmagnetic volume in the film is decreasing
Tutorial 2: Magne0c Proper0es and Materials
faster than the average grain size, which results in the number of grain
per bit decreasing faster than the average grain size.
10

To overcome these problems, perpendicular recording technology i

being actively developed and is now starting to supplant longitudina
b) Storage density is related to the type of recording system. Perpendicular
recording. In perpendicular recording the magnetization in the recording
media is held perpendicular to the surface and higher information
recording technology is being ac7vely developed and is now star7ng to
density stabilizes the bit against demagnetization. Thus it is no longe
supplant longitudinal recording. necessary to prepare thinner recording media for improvements in
recording density in longitudinal recording.

Fig. 6.31 Improvements in magnetic recording densities for hard disk drives (afte
Tutorial 2: Magne0c Proper0es and Materials 11

(c) Suppose we have a disc coated with single-domain bit of ~0.1 µm in size.
Es7mate the bit-capacity of a disc with 0.01 m2 of useful area.
!.!# × #!! × #!! %&!
Answer: Bit-capacity =
!.# × !.# %&!

= 1012 Bites

= 1 TB
!.!'() × !.!'() × #!! × #!! %&!
Density per In2 =
!.# × !.# %&!

= 64.5 × 109 Bites

In 2015, Seagate introduced
= 64.5 Gb/In2 a hard drive with a density of
1.34 Tbit/in2
Tutorial 2: Magne0c Proper0es and Materials 12

(d) The disc in (c) spins at a linear speed of ~36 m/s. At what rate could data be
transferred to or from the disc?

Answer:
"#
*+ × #!! ( $ ) 0.1 𝛍m
Rate =
!.# %&//0

12
= 3.6 × 108
3

= 360 MB/s

Ø A typical 7200 RPM HDD will deliver

a read/write speed of 80-160MB/s.
Tutorial 2: Magne0c Proper0es and Materials 13

(e) What magne7c and other proper7es should be considered for the
recording disc applica7on?

Ø Examples of digital recording are floppy disks and hard disk drives (HDDs).
Digital recording only needs two stable magne7c states, which are the +Ms
and -Ms on the hysteresis loop.

Ø For high density recording, fine grain,

uniform distribu7on, high anisotropy,
good magne7c coupling of grains, narrow
alignment of c-axis in cobalt alloy and
small distance from SUL to the hard
magne7c recording layer are desired.
Diagram showing the magne/c read-write
in a perpendicular recording medium.
Tutorial 2: Magne0c Proper0es and Materials 14

7. What are the poten2al energies that are related to magne2c domains?
Briefly explain how these energies influence the size and shape of the
domains.

a) The domain structure of a ferromagne7c material is determined by the

related energies. The most stable structure is obtained when the overall
poten7al energy is a minimum. The total magne7c energy is the sum of
the following five energies:
1) Magne&c exchange energy,
2) Magnetosta&c energy,
3) Magnetocrystalline energy,
4) Domain wall energy, and
5) Magnetostric&on energy.
Tutorial 2: Magnetic Properties and Materials
7. What are the poten2al energies that are related to magne2c domains?
Briefly explain how these energies influence the size and shape of the
domains.
1) Magne(c exchange energy,
2) Magnetosta(c energy,
3) Magnetocrystalline energy,
4) Domain wall energy, and
5) Magnetostric(on energy.
4) The poten+al energy associated with the
disorder of dipole moments in the wall area
is called domain wall energy.
5) It appears that large domains with less domain
wall length would have a lower energy. However,
magnetostriction will be greater for larger
domains. Small domains have smaller
magnetostriction energy.
15
1) This is the energy associated with the coupling
of individual dipoles into a single domain. It is a
poten+al energy within a domain and is
minimised when all the dipoles are aligned in
one direc+on.
2) This is the magne+c poten+al energy due to
the external magne+c field surrounding a
magnet. It is produced by its external field. This
poten+al energy can be minimised by small
domain forma+on and spliAng.
3) Magnetocrystalline (anisotropy) energy is the
energy required during the magne+sa+on of a
ferromagne+c material to rotate the magne+c
domains because of crystalline anisotropy.
Tutorial 2: Magne0c Proper0es and Materials 16

7. What are the poten2al energies that are related to magne2c domains?
Briefly explain how these energies influence the size and shape of the
domains.
1) This is the energy associated with the coupling
1) Magne(c exchange energy, of individual dipoles into a single domain. It is a
Ewall and is
poten+al energy within a domain
2) Magnetosta(c energy, minimised when all the dipoles are aligned in
one direc+on.
3) Magnetocrystalline energy,

Energy
4) Domain wall energy, and
5) Magnetostric(on energy.
4) The poten+al energy associated with the
disorder of dipole moments in the wall area
is called domain wall energy.
5) It appears that large domains with less domain
wall length would have a lower energy. However,
magnetostric+on will be greater for larger
domains. Small domains have smaller
magnetostric+on energy. Fig. 6.18 Relationship among magnetic exchange energy, magnetocrysta
Eanisotropy
2) This is the magne+c poten+al energy due to
the external magne+c field surrounding a
magnet. It is produced by its external field. This
poten+al energy can be minimised by small
domain forma+on and spliAng.
Eexchange
3) Magnetocrystalline (anisotropy) energy is the
energy required during the magnetisation of a
ferromagnetic material to rotate the magnetic
domains
100because
nm of crystalline anisotropy.
Wall width
Tutorial 2: Magne0c Proper0es and Materials 17

Magnetic Properties and Materials

8. Understand the effect of temperature on ferromagne2sm and Curie
The Curie temperature depends on the type of material an
temperature. Plot out the maximum magne2sa2on
changed by alloyingofelements.
Fe, CoFor
and
Gd,Ni
Ni,versus
Fe and Co, Tcurie =
temperature. 770 and 1131°C, respectively.

a) The exchange energy that aligns the dipoles is 300

counter-balanced by the randomising effects

Saturation magnetization
of the thermal energy. Therefore, the σ0
Fe
maximum magne7sa7on decreases with 20
σ0 Co
temperature.
10
σ0
b) When the temperature increases to a certain Ni

level, the ferromagne7sm in this material Tc Tc Tc

0 500 1000 1500
completely disappears and the material Temperature (K)
becomes paramagne7c. This temperature is Fig.magnetisation
Fig. 6.9 Saturation 6.9 Satura+onof Fe,magne+sa+on of Fe, of tempe
Co, and Ni as a function
called “Curie temperature” (Tc). Co, and Ni as a func+on of temperature.
6.2.8 Ferromagnetic anisotropy and magnetostriction
Tutorial 2: Magne0c Proper0es and Materials 18

9. A magne2c field of 1,000 A/m is applied to an Fe-Si alloy which has a rela2ve
permeability of 30,000. Calculate
(a) the magne2za2on,
(b) the permeability, and
(c) the magne2c induc2on.
The magne2c constant in vacuum µ0 = 4π × 10-7 H/m.
Answer: H = 1000 (A/m)
Rela7ve permeability, µr = µ/µ0 = 30000
1) 𝜒𝑚 = µr – 1 = 30,000-1 = 29,999
2) The magne7za7on: M = 𝜒𝑚𝐻 = 29,999 × 1,000 (𝐴/𝑚)
3) The permeability: µ = µ0µr = 30,000 × 4π × 10−7 (H/m) = 3.768 × 10−2 (H/m)
4) The magne7c induc7on: B = µ0µrH = 3.768 × 10−2 (H/m) × 1,000 (A/m)
= 37.68 (HA/m2 = Wb/m2 = Tesla)
Tutorial 2: Magne0c Proper0es and Materials 19

10. A supermalloy is surrounded by a 20 m long, 30 turn coil of a conductor

through which a current of 5 A is passed. Calculate
(a) the magne7c field H,
(b) the magne7za7on M, and
(c) the induc7on B.
20.2 Basic Concepts • 805
(The rela7ve permeability of this alloy is 800,000)
Answer: I
B0 = !0 H
I B = !H

45 *! × ( (789: ;)
1) 𝐻 = = = 7.5 (A/m)
6 '! &
H H
l
2) M = 𝜒𝐻 = (800,000-1) × 7.5 (𝐴/𝑚)
≅ 6 × 10+ (A/m) N turns

3) B = 𝜇𝐻 = 𝜇0𝜇𝑟𝐻 I
I

= 1.257 × 10<+ × 800,000 ×7.5 (a) (b)

= 7.542N (H/m) (A/m) = 7.542 (Tesla) Figure 20.3 (a) The magnetic field
H as generated by a cylindrical coil is
Tutorial 2: Magne0c Proper0es and Materials 20

11. A Ni-Cu alloy is prepared which has a ladce constant of 0.354 nm. The
maximum magne2za2on of the alloy is measured as 1.46 × 106 A/m. Assuming
no interac2ons between Ni and Cu atoms, es2mate the wt.%Cu in the alloy.
Both Ni and Cu have a fcc structure with four atoms in a unit cell.
Tutorial 2: Magne0c Proper0es and Materials 21

11. A Ni-Cu alloy is prepared which has a lamce constant of 0.354 nm. The
maximum magne7za7on
2. Fundamentals of Magnetism of the alloy is measured as 1.46 × 106 A/m.
12

Assuming no interac7ons between Ni and Cu atoms, es7mate the wt.%Cu in

the alloy.
q Origins Both Ni and
of Magnetic Cu have a fcc structure with four atoms in a unit cell.
Moments

Bohr magneton
mB = 9.27 x 10-24 Am2.
Tutorial 2: Magnetic Properties and Materials 22

11. A Ni-Cu alloy is prepared which has a lamce constant of 0.354 nm. The
maximum magne7za7on of the alloy is measured as 1.46 × 106 A/m.
Assuming no interac7ons between Ni and Cu atoms, es7mate the wt.%Cu in
the alloy. Both Ni and Cu have a fcc structure with four atoms in a unit cell.

a) The satura7on magne7za7on is equal to the product of the number N

of Bohr magnetons per cubic meter of Ni-Cu alloy, and the magne7c
moment per Bohr magneton mB.
Bohr magneton
Ms= N× mB mB = 9.27 x 10-24 Am2.
%
#.)+ ×#!! (#)
N = Ms/mB = = 0.156 × 10*! m-3
=.'> × #!&'( ;& !

B) Now, Bohr magnetons per unit cell nB is N mul7ply by the unit cell volume: VC
nb = N× Vc = 0.156 × 10*! (m-3) × 0.354 ×10<= 3 (m3/unit cell)
= 6.92 /unit cell
Tutorial 2: Magne0c Proper0es and Materials 23

11. A Ni-Cu alloy is prepared which has a lamce constant of 0.354 nm. The
maximum magne7za7on of the alloy is measured as 1.46 × 106 A/m.
Assuming no interac7ons between Ni and Cu atoms, es7mate the wt.%Cu in
the alloy. Both Ni and Cu have a fcc structure with four atoms in a unit cell.

B) Now, Bohr magnetons per unit cell nB is N mul7ply by the unit cell volume: VC
nb = N× Vc = 0.156 × 10*! (m-3) × 0.354 ×10<= 3 (m3/unit cell)
= 6.92 (Bohr magnetons/unit cell)
Symbol: Cu
c) In one unit cell, there are 4 Atoms (Cu = 1, Ni = 2) Atomic mass: 63.546

𝑥 + 2 4 − 𝑥 = 6.92 Symbol: Ni
Atomic number: 28
𝑥 = 1.08 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 Atomic mass: 58.6934
#.!? × +*.()+
wt.%Cu = #.!? × +*.()+@'.=' × (?.+=*) = 28.59 (wt.%)
Q & A:
Email: yongxiang.li@rmit.edu.au

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Office: B12-08-13
Some useful rela,onships, constants, and units 25