MEASUREMENT AND VECTORS
Measurement
 It is basically a process of comparison. When we
give the measurement of an object, we are comparing its
measured value to a set standard.
Two Widespread Systems of Measurement
English System
 Also known as imperial system, it was a system widely
used in former English territories
Metric System
 A system of measurement based on multiples of ten.
It was formulated in France and is considered a better
system of measurement compared to the English
system.
Accuracy and Precision
 Are often used to describe measurements mad by
devices. However, they refer to two different values:
 Accuracy refers to how close the measured value is to
the actual value.
 Precision refers to the agreement of multiple
measurements
Random and Systematic Errors
 Errors are unavoidable when measuring objects. There
are two types of errors encountered when measuring:
A. Random Error
 Refers to errors made due to
misreading/misinterpreting measurements by the
device. Repeated measurements are needed to
minimize random errors
B. Systematic Errors
 These are errors that are due to miscalibrations of the
measuring device.
VECTORS
 a quantity that possesses both magnitude and
direction. It is usually represented as a straight line
with an arrowhead at one end to indicate direction.
The length of the line represents the magnitude of the
vector.
Vector Addition
 Vectors may be added together. The sum of two
vectors may be referred to as the resultant vector
or R.
 In adding vectors, it is important to note what axis
the vectors are. If they lie in the same axis, they
may be added by simple arithmetic. Simply
remember that opposite directions equal different
signs, so left = negative and right = positive.
NOTE!: Remember that negative vectors do not mean
values below zero. Rather, they refer to a direction
opposite the other value
Vector Addition using Component Method
 This method is used if the two vectors are not
found in the same axis/plane
 Before addition, we have to resolve the vectors;
that is, split them into their x and y components.
 To resolve a vector, we use the formula V
cos(theta) for the x-component and V sin (theta)
for the y-component.
 After resolving the vectors, we may add them by
combining like terms. Apply the Pythagorean
theorem on the resulting values to compute for the
magnitude.
 Divide the resulting y-component with the
resulting x-component and multiply the result by
tan^(-1) for the direction.
Kinematics: Motion in 1-Dimension
Kinematics
 describes the motion of the bodies and deals with
finding out velocities or accelerations for various
objects.
 It is different from kinetics, which details how a
body responds when force is applied to it.
Motion
 It is described as a continuous change in position
with respect to a reference point.
 Motion is relative – Meaning whether an object is
in motion or not depends on the one who is
viewing it.
Distance vs Displacement
 Distance and displacement are two different
values.
 Distance refers to the space covered by a moving
object during its motion
 Displacement refers to the distance an object
covered from its starting point
Speed vs Velocity
 Speed refers to the distance covered by an object
in a given unit of time. It is computed by
Distance/Time
 Velocity is the rate in which an object changes its
position. It is computed by displacement/time
Example:
 Speed – The cheetah’s speed is 105 kph
 Velocity – The cheetah’s velocity is 105 kph, west.
Uniform Motion
 A body is moving with uniform velocity or uniform
motion when neither the magnitude or direction
changes.
 It can be summarized as the idealized kind of motion.
Due to the circumstances, it is practically impossible in
real-life, but it is vital for understanding complex
motions
Acceleration
 Refers to the change of velocity of an object. It can
be:
 A. A change in the magnitude of velocity (car goes
from 20m/s to 30 m/s)
 B.A change in direction of velocity ( car makes a left
turn)
 C. A change in both magnitude and direction (car
travelling at 30 m/s due north decelerates to 25 m/s
and heads east)
EQUATIONS
FREE FALL
 Occurs when an object falls under its own weight,
without any other force affecting it but gravity.
 It is a topic that has been given two interpretations by
Aristotle and Galileo
 Free-fall is an example of Uniform Accelerated Motion
 All objects, ignoring air resistance, will fall at the same
rate, g which has a value of 9.8 m/s squared.
 Due to how gravity works, this number may vary
depending on the altitude.
Free Fall can be in any of three cases:
1. A body falling from rest
A ball falls from rest at the edge of a table and hits the
ground in 0.8 seconds. Solve for the height of the table.
Given: T = 0.8 s, g = -9.8 m/s squared.
SOLUTION:
Given: Change in time: 0.8 s, g = 9.8 m/s2.
d= ½ g (change in time)2
= ½ (9.8 m/s2) (0.8 seconds)2
½(6.272m) = 3.136 m – Height of the table
2.Case 2 – a body thrown down.
A stone is thrown vertically downwards with a velocity of
20 m/s. After 1 seconds, what is the velocity of the stone?
- If it hits the ground after 5 seconds, how high was it
thrown?
Solutions:
Final Velocity = (initial velocity) + (g)(t)
= -20 m/s + (-9.8 m/s2) (1s)
= 29.8 m/s, downwards.
d= (initial velocity) (time) + (1/2) (g) (change in time)2
= (-20 m/s)(5s) + (1/2)(-9.8m/s2)(5s)2
= (-100 m) + (1/2)(-245 m)
(-100m)+(-122.5)
-222.5 m or 222.5 m downwards
3. Case 3 – A body thrown upwards
A boy throws a stone upwards. It returns to him after 4
seconds.
 What is the initial velocity of the stone?
 How high will it be after 1 second?
SOLUTION:
Time to reach highest point – 2 seconds.
Final velocity = initial velocity + gt
Initial velocity = final velocity- gt
= 0 - (-9.8 m/s2) (2s)
= 19.6 m/s.
d= (19.6m/s)(1)+(1/2)(-9.8 m/s2)(1s)2
= 14.7 m
Projectile Motion
Projectile Motion
 A type of uniformly accelerated motion in which a
projectile is launched and travels forward until it
reaches the ground
 In simpler terms, it can be described as a
combination of uniformly accelerated motion
(horizontal) and free-fall motion (vertical).
Projectile: An object launched by an external force and
continuing in motion by its own inertia
Range: The horizontal distance travelled by a projectile
Height: The vertical displacement of a projectile
NOTE:The higher the angle a projectile is launched, the
higher its maximum height and flight time will be
The closer the angle of an object is to 45 degrees, the
longer its maximum distance will be
How to compute for projectile motion? (case 1)
For motion along the horizontal:
Velocity(along x) = (range/time)
Range = (velocity along x) multiplied by time
Time = range/Velocity along x
For motion along y:
Velocity along y = g(t)
Height = ½ (g)t squared
David stood on a platform and used a slingshot to
launch a stone that travels horizontally at a velocity of
30 m/s. If the stone hits the ground after 0.3 seconds:
A. Solve for the range of the stone
B. How high did David launch the stone?
SOLUTIONS:
Range: (velocity along x) time
= (30m/s)( 0.3 seconds) = 9 m
Height: (1/2) (g) (time squared)
= (1/2) ( 9.8 m/seconds squared)(0.3 s)squared
= 0.44 m
Hanzo joins an archery contest, and fires an arrow that
travels with a velocity of 80 m/s. If his bow was held 1.4
m above ground and has a flight time of 1.2 s.
A. Solve for the velocity along y of the arrow.
B. Suppose the target is positioned 100m away from
Hanzo. Did he launch the arrow with sufficient force to
hit the target?
SOLUTION:
Given: t= 1.2 s
Velocity along y = gt
=(9.8 m/sq. s)(1.2s)
= 11.76 m/s
Given: V = 80 m/s
t= 1.2 s
=(80 m/s)(1.2s)
=96 m
How to compute for Projectile Motion (case 2)
 The initial velocity is at an angle with the horizontal.
Therefore, it has a vertical and horizontal component,
which may solved using vector resolution, so initial
velocity y and x = Vcos(theta) or Vsin(theta)
 Time of flight is computed by: 2(Vsin y)/g. Due to the
nature of the motion, an object spends half of this
time rising, and the other half falling
 Velocity – horizontal is constant, but vertical
consistently changes. Thus the velocity for y may be
computed as (initial velocity y) – gt
 Acceleration is 0 at x, but at y is equal to g.
A cannon angled at 45 degrees launches cannon shells at
an initial velocity of 30m/s. Solve for:
A. flight time of its projectiles
B. Maximum height reached by the projectile
SOLUTION:
A. Flight time = 2( Vsin Theta)/g
= 2(30 sin45)/9.8 m/sq. Seconds
= 2(21.21320344)/9.8 m/sq. seconds
= 4.33 seconds – Flight time
B. Maximum height: (V sin Theta)(Time to Reach Max h) +
½ (g)(time squared)
(21.21320344 m/s) (2.17s) +(1/2)(-9.8 m/sq. seconds)(2.17
seconds squared)
= 46.03265146 m+(-23.07361 m) = 22.96 m
Uniform Circular Motion
 A type of motion in which a body moves around in a
circular path with constant speed.
 In this motion, despite the speed being constant, the
direction always changes. Therefore, we can say that
it has constant acceleration, and thus, no constant
velocity
 A type of motion in which a body moves around in a
circular path with constant speed.
 In this motion, despite the speed being constant, the
direction always changes. Therefore, we can say that
it has constant acceleration, and thus, no constant
velocity
Revolution vs Rotation
 A rotation happens when an object spins in place on
an axis
 A revolution happens when an object travels around a
closed pathway
 A complete revolution around the circular path covers
the circumference of the circle, or 2Πr. The time it
takes for one complete revolution is the period of
revolution, or T. Thee constant speed of the body in a
uniform circular motion may thus be calculated using
2Πr/T
Centripetal Force
 Centripetal Force – Refers to the force that causes
objects to move in a circular path
 Centripetal Acceleration – the acceleration caused by
Centripetal force
 The centripetal acceleration was first derived in
1673 by Christian Huygens, and is computed using
the formula V2/r
 A body accelerating towards the center of the
circle does so due to the net force in that direction,
called the centripetal force. Considering force is
computed using the formula F = ma, centripetal
force is therefore computed using the formula:
F=mv2/r, where m is the mass, v is the velocity and
r is the radius.
For example:
An Olympic hammer weighing 10 kilograms is attached
to a 0.4 m cord. If the athlete spins it at a rate of 4m/s
solve for its centripetal force
Given: m = 10 kg, v = 4m/s, R = 0.4m.
To be solved:Fc
SOLUTION:
F=mv2/r
=(10 kg) (4m/s)2/0.4m
= (160 kg.m/s2)/0.4 m
= 400 kg.m2/s2 or 400 N
Centrifugal Force
 It refers to an apparent force that acts when an
object experiences centripetal force. As per the
Law of Interaction, for every action, there is an
equal and opposite reaction. For example, if you
twirl a stone attached to a string overhead, the
centripetal force keeps the motion circular, and the
centrifugal force is the string’s reaction to your
hand spinning it.
 A common misconception is that when a bucket
filled with water is spun rapidly, water stays inside
the bucket because of Centrifugal Force. THIS IS
INCORRECT.
 Newton’s First Law states that in the absence of
any force, an object in motion will continue in a
straight path.
 Thus, since in the example, centripetal force acts
ONLY on the bucket, water tends to move in a
straight path, but due to the circular motion of the
bucket, the water and bucket collide, as a result,
water stays inside the bucket.
Newton’s Three Laws of Motion
Isaac Newton
 He was a scientist and mathematician who
formulated the Laws of Motion
 He was born on the same day Galileo Galilei died.
 In his book Principia, he laid down multiple
principles that would eventually become the
foundation of many disciplines, such as Physics,
Calculus and Algebra
 Most of Isaac Newton’s discoveries were made
during his 18-month confinement in his house at
Woolsthorpe due to the Great Plague
 “If I have seen further than others, it is by standing
on the shoulders of giants”
Newton’s Three Laws of Motion
 They were three Laws Isaac Newton formulated
which served as the basic theory of mechanics for
two hundred years
 They were successful explanations of the aspects
of motion that were known at the time
 They are composed of the Law of Inertia, Law of
Acceleration and Law of Interaction
 Newton’s First Law of Motion
 “An object at rest remains at rest, and a body in
uniform motion remains at uniform motion unless an
outside force acts on it”
 This law states that for an object to change its state
(rest to motion, motion to rest), force must be
applied.
 This is best exemplified by a stationary chair. A chair
at rest will remain at rest unless an outside force acts
on the chair.
Friction!
 Friction is force that resists the motion of one surface
relative to another with which it is in contact with.
 All objects in contact experience friction
 Because of friction, any moving object, if no further
force is applied to it, will eventually stop.
 It is because of friction that is why no machine is 100%
efficient, since a machine needs to expend some of its
energy to overcome friction
Types of Friction
 Kinetic/Sliding Friction: The friction between two
sliding surfaces.
 Static Friction – The friction between two objects at
rest. A value of static friction, sometimes referred to
as “Starting Friction” needs to be overcome for
motion to happen
 Rolling Friction – The friction between a rolling object
and another surface
Coefficient of Friction
 An important factor that affects friction is the normal
force. The Normal Force is the upward force pressing
two surfaces together.
 This affects friction because the greater the normal
force, the greater the frictional force.
 This means that normal force is directly proportional
to frictional force.
 This constant of proportionality, represented by μ, is
known as the coefficient of friction.
Kate wishes to drag a large carton along the floor. The box
weighs 60N. The coefficient of static friction between the
surfaces is 0.35 and the coefficient of kinetic friction is
0.30. What is the magnitude of frictional force if:
A. Kate does not apply any force
B. Kate applies 10N of force to the right
C. Kate applies 20 N of force to the right
D. Kate applies a constant 30N to the right
SOLVING:
First, we need to solve for the starting friction (the friction
that must be overcome for the object to move). This is
computed by multiplying the weigh of the object by the
coefficient of static friction.
The object will only move if the frictional force is less than
the force applied. To reiterate:
Solution: (0.35)(60N) = 21N
A. 0 force applied, no movement
B. 10 N force applied, no movement
C. 20N force applied, no movement
D. 30 N force applied, there is movement
Action-Reaction Pair
 The interaction of friction and a uniform force is an
example of an action-reaction pair
 In an action-reaction pair, a force reacts in
opposite to another force.
 An Action-Reaction pair may result in Balanced or
Unbalanced force
 An example of this is a book placed on the table.
Gravity is supposed to pull the book downwards,
but in response to gravity, the table exerts an
upward force equal to gravity. As a result, the book
remains at rest
Important notes to remember:
 When analyzing the motion of a body, it is vital to
identify all the forces acting on an object.
 Since the forces that are acting on the object are
vectors, they must be added using vector addition.
 Applying a contact force on a stationary object will
cause it to move. If this force is removed, only
friction will act on the object and thus, it will not
move.
 This also gives us the definition of force: A force is
a push or pull that produces a change in the
motion of the body.
Inertia
 The Law of inertia therefore can be summated as
the sum of all forces acting in each axis of an
object.