MULTIMEDIA 101

TABLE 2.3 Summary of Important Parameters and Associated Formulas and Equation Numbers
Equation
Parameter Formula Number
Infinitesimal area of sphere dA = r2 sin 𝜃 d𝜃 d𝜙 (2-1)
Elemental solid angle of sphere dΩ = sin 𝜃 d𝜃 d𝜙 (2-2)
1
Average power density Wav = Re[E × H∗ ] (2-8)
2
1
Radiated power/average radiated power Prad = Pav = Wav ⋅ ds = Re[E × H∗ ] ⋅ ds (2-9)
∯ 2∯
S S
Prad
Radiation density of isotropic radiator W0 = (2-11)
4𝜋r2
r2
Radiation intensity (far field) U = r2 Wrad = B0 F(𝜃, 𝜙) ≃ (2-12),
2𝜂
[ ]
× |E𝜃 (r, 𝜃, 𝜙)|2 + |E𝜙 (r, 𝜃, 𝜙)| 2 (2-12a)

U 4𝜋U 4𝜋 (2-16),
Directivity D(𝜃, 𝜙) D= = =
U0 Prad ΩA (2-23)
2𝜋 𝜋
Beam solid angle ΩA ΩA = Fn (𝜃, 𝜙) sin 𝜃 d𝜃 d𝜙
∫0 ∫0 (2-24)

F(𝜃, 𝜙) (2-25)
Fn (𝜃, 𝜙) =
|F(𝜃, 𝜙)|max
U 4𝜋Umax
Maximum directivity D0 Dmax = D0 = max = (2-16a)
U0 Prad
Partial directivities D𝜃 , D𝜙 D0 = D𝜃 + D𝜙
(2-17)
4𝜋U𝜃 4𝜋U𝜃
D𝜃 = =
Prad (Prad )𝜃 + (Prad )𝜙 (2-17a)

4𝜋U𝜙 4𝜋U𝜙
D𝜙 = = (2-17b)
Prad (Prad )𝜃 + (Prad )𝜙

4𝜋 41,253 (2-26),
Approximate maximum directivity D0 ≃ =
(one main lobe pattern) Θ1r Θ2r Θ1d Θ2d
(Kraus) (2-27)
(2-30),
32 ln 2 22.181 72,815
D0 ≃ = 2 = 2
Θ21r + Θ22r Θ1r + Θ22r Θ1d + Θ22d (2-30a),
(Tai-Pereira) (2-30b)
101
Approximate maximum directivity D0 ≃
(omnidirectional pattern) HPBW(degrees) − 0.0027[HPBW(degrees)]2
(McDonald) (2-33a)
√
1
D0 ≃ −172.4 + 191 0.818 + (2-33b)
HPBW(degrees)
(Pozar)

(continued overleaf)
102 FUNDAMENTAL PARAMETERS AND FIGURES-OF-MERIT OF ANTENNAS

TABLE 2.3 (continued)

Equation
Parameter Formula Number
[ ]
4𝜋U(𝜃, 𝜙) 4𝜋U(𝜃, 𝜙) (2-46),
G= = ecd = ecd D(𝜃, 𝜙)
Gain G(𝜃, 𝜙) Pin Prad (2-47)
Prad = ecd Pin (2-49)
Rr
Antenna radiation efficiency ecd ecd = (2-90)
Rr + RL √
l 𝜔𝜇0
Loss resistance RL RL = Rhf = (2-90b)
P 2𝜎
(straight wire/uniform current)
√
l 𝜔𝜇0
Loss resistance RL (straight wire/ RL =
2P 2𝜎
λ∕2 dipole)
Maximum gain G0 G0 = ecd Dmax = ecd D0 (2-49a)

Partial gains G𝜃 , G𝜙 G0 = G𝜃 + G𝜙 (2-50)

4𝜋U𝜃 4𝜋U𝜙 (2-50a),

G𝜃 = , G𝜙 =
Pin Pin (2-50b)
Realized gain Gre Gre = er G(𝜃, 𝜙) = er ecd D(𝜃, 𝜙) = (1 − |Γ| )ecd D(𝜃, 𝜙) (2-49a)
2

= e0 D(𝜃, 𝜙) (2-49b)
Total antenna efficiency e0 e0 = er ec ed = er ecd = (1 − |Γ| )ecd 2
(2-52)
Reflection efficiency er er = (1 − |Γ|2 ) (2-45)
2𝜋 𝜃1
U(𝜃, 𝜙) sin 𝜃 d𝜃 d𝜙
∫0 ∫0
Beam efficiency BE BE = 2𝜋 𝜋
(2-54)
U(𝜃, 𝜙) sin 𝜃 d𝜃 d𝜙
∫0 ∫0
Polarization loss factor (PLF) PLF = |ρ̂ w ⋅ ρ̂ a |2 (2-71)
Vector effective length 𝓵 e (𝜃, 𝜙) 𝓵 e (𝜃, 𝜙) = â 𝜃 l𝜃 (𝜃, 𝜙) + â 𝜙 l𝜙 (𝜃, 𝜙) (2-91)
|𝓵 e ⋅ Einc |2
Polarization efficiency pe pe = (2-71a)
|𝓵 e |2 |Einc |2
(2-72),
Antenna impedance ZA ZA = RA + jXA = (Rr + RL ) + jXA
(2-73)
[ ] ( 2)
|V |2 1 λ (2-96),
Maximum effective area Aem Aem = T = ecd D0 |ρ̂ w ⋅ ρ̂ a |2
8W
( 2)i Rr + R L 4𝜋
(2-111),
λ
= G0 |ρ̂ w ⋅ ρ̂ a |2
4𝜋 (2-112)
Aem maximum effective area
Aperture efficiency 𝜀ap 𝜀ap = = (2-100)
Ap physical area
Pr ( )2
λ (2-118),
Friis transmission equation = G0t G0r |ρ̂ t ⋅ ρ̂ r |2
Pt 4𝜋R
[ ]2 (2-119)
Pr G0t G0r λ
Radar range equation =𝜎 |ρ̂ w ⋅ ρ̂ r |2 (2-125),
Pt 4𝜋 4𝜋R1 R2
(2-126)
 REFERENCES 103

TABLE 2.3 (continued)

Equation
Parameter Formula Number
[ ] [ ]
Radar cross section (RCS) (m2 )
W |Es |2
𝜎 = lim 4𝜋R2 s = lim 4𝜋R2 i 2
R→∞ Wi R→∞ |E |
[ ] (2-120a)
|H |
s 2
= lim 4𝜋R2 i 2
R→∞ |H |
Brightness temperature TB (𝜃, 𝜙) (K) TB (𝜃, 𝜙) = 𝜀(𝜃, 𝜙)Tm = (1 − |Γ|2 )Tm (2-144)
2𝜋 𝜋
TB (𝜃, 𝜙)G(𝜃, 𝜙) sin 𝜃 d𝜃 d𝜙
∫0 ∫0
Antenna temperature TA (K) TA = 2𝜋 𝜋 (2-145)
G(𝜃, 𝜙) sin 𝜃 d𝜃 d𝜙
∫0𝜋 ∫0

REFERENCES

1. A. Z. Elsherbeni and C. D. Taylor Jr., “Antenna Pattern Plotter,” Copyright  c 1995, Electrical Engineering
Department, The University of Mississippi, University, MS.
2. W. R. Scott Jr., “A General Program for Plotting Three-dimensional Antenna Patterns,” IEEE Antennas
and Propagation Society Newsletter, pp. 6–11, December 1989.
3. A. Z. Elsherbeni and C. D. Taylor Jr., “Interactive Antenna Pattern Visualization,” Software Book in Electro-
magnetics, Vol. II, Chapter 8, CAEME Center for Multimedia Education, University of Utah, pp. 367–410,
1995.
4. J. S. Hollis, T. J. Lyon, and L. Clayton Jr. (eds.), Microwave Antenna Measurements, Scientific-Atlanta,
Inc., July 1970.
5. J. D. Kraus, Antennas, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1988.
6. J. D. Kraus, Radio Astronomy, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1966.
7. A. Z. Elsherbeni and P. H. Ginn. “Interactive Analysis of Antenna Arrays,” Software Book in Electromag-
netics, Vol. II, Chapter 6, CAEME Center for Multimedia Education, University of Utah, pp. 337–366,
1995.
8. J. Romeu and R. Pujol, “Array,” Software Book in Electromagnetics, Vol. II, Chapter 12, CAEME Center
for Multimedia Education, University of Utah, pp. 467–481, 1995.
9. R. S. Elliott, “Beamwidth and Directivity of Large Scanning Arrays,” Last of Two Parts, The Microwave
Journal, pp. 74–82, January 1964.
10. C.-T. Tai and C. S. Pereira, “An Approximate Formula for Calculating the Directivity of an Antenna,” IEEE
Trans. Antennas Propagat., Vol. AP-24, No. 2, pp. 235–236, March 1976.
11. N. A. McDonald, “Approximate Relationship Between Directivity and Beamwidth for Broadside Collinear
Arrays,” IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagat., Vol. AP-26, No. 2, pp. 340–341, March 1978.
12. D. M. Pozar, “Directivity of Omnidirectional Antennas,” IEEE Antennas Propagat. Mag., Vol. 35, No. 5,
pp. 50–51, October 1993.
13. C. A. Balanis, Advanced Engineering Electromagnetics, Second Edition, John Wiley and Sons, New York,
2012.
14. H. Poincaré, Theorie Mathematique de la Limiere, Georges Carre, Paris, France, 1892.
15. G. A. Deschamps, “Part II—Geometrical Representation of the Polarization of a Plane Electromagnetic
Wave,” Proc. IRE, Vol. 39, pp. 540–544, May 1951.
16. E. F. Bolinder, “Geometrical Analysis of Partially Polarized Electromagnetic Waves,” IEEE Trans. Anten-
nas Propagat., Vol. AP-15, No. 1, pp. 37–40, January 1967.
17. G. A. Deschamps and P. E. Mast, “Poincaré Sphere Representation of Partially Polarized Fields,” IEEE
Trans. Antennas Propagat., Vol. AP-21, No. 4, pp. 474–478, July 1973.
 INFINITESIMAL DIPOLE 151

102
5

2 2 2
⎜1.0/(kr)⎜ = ⎜λ /(2π r)⎜
10
5 Energy basically real (radiated)
Magnitude

2
1.0
1
5

Energy
⎜1.0/(kr)⎜ = ⎜λ /(2 πr)⎜
2
basically
10–1 imaginary
(stored)
5

2
10–2
10–2 2 5 10–1 2 5 1 2 5 10 2 5 102
radian distance (r = 1/2 π ) r (λ)

Figure 4.2 Magnitude variation, as a function of the radial distance, of the field terms radiated by an infinites-
imal dipole.

d. The sphere with radius equal to the radian distance (r = λ∕2𝜋) is referred as the radian sphere,
and it defines the region within which the reactive power density is greater than the radiated
power density [1]–[3]. For an antenna, the radian sphere represents the volume occupied
mainly by the stored energy of the antenna’s electric and magnetic fields. Outside the radian
sphere the radiated power density is greater than the reactive power density and begins to
dominate as r ≫ λ∕2𝜋. Therefore the radian sphere can be used as a reference, and it defines
the transition between stored energy pulsating primarily in the ±𝜃 direction [represented
by (4-12b)] and energy radiating in the radial (r) direction [represented by the first term of
(4-12a); the second term represents stored energy pulsating inwardly and outwardly in the
radial (r) direction]. Similar behavior, where the power density near the antenna is primarily
reactive and far away is primarily real, is exhibited by all antennas, although not exactly at
the radian distance.

4.2.4 Near-Field (kr ≪ 1) Region

An inspection of (4-8a)–(4-8b) and (4-10a)–(4-10c) reveals that for kr ≪ λ or r ≪ λ∕2𝜋 they can
be reduced in much simpler form and can be approximated by

⎫
I0 le−jkr⎪
Er ≃ −j𝜂 cos 𝜃
2𝜋kr3 ⎪ (4-20a)
⎪
I0 le−jkr ⎪
E𝜃 ≃ −j𝜂 sin 𝜃 ⎪ (4-20b)
4𝜋kr3 ⎬ kr ≪ 1
E 𝜙 = Hr = H𝜃 = 0 ⎪ (4-20c)
⎪
−jkr ⎪
I le ⎪
H𝜙 ≃ 0 2 sin 𝜃 ⎪
(4-20d)
4𝜋r ⎭
152 LINEAR WIRE ANTENNAS

The E-field components, Er and E𝜃 , are in time-phase but they are in time-phase quadrature with the
H-field component H𝜙 ; therefore there is no time-average power flow associated with them. This is
demonstrated by forming the time-average power density as

Wav = 12 Re[E × H∗ ] = 12 Re[â r E𝜃 H ∗ 𝜙 − â 𝜃 Er H ∗ 𝜙 ] (4-21)

which by using (4-20a)–(4-20d) reduces to

[ ]
1 𝜂 | I0 l |2 sin2 𝜃 𝜂 |I0 l|2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
Wav = Re −̂ar j | | + ̂
a j =0 (4-22)
| 4𝜋 | r5 𝜃
2 k | | k 8𝜋 2 r5

The condition of kr ≪ 1 can be satisfied at moderate distances away from the antenna provided that
the frequency of operation is very low. Equations (4-20a) and (4-20b) are similar to those of a static
electric dipole and (4-20d) to that of a static current element. Thus we usually refer to (4-20a)–
(4-20d) as the quasistationary fields.

4.2.5 Intermediate-Field (kr > 1) Region

As the values of kr begin to increase and become greater than unity, the terms that were dominant
for kr ≪ 1 become smaller and eventually vanish. For moderate values of kr the E-field components
lose their in-phase condition and approach time-phase quadrature. Since their magnitude is not the
same, in general, they form a rotating vector whose extremity traces an ellipse. This is analogous to
the polarization problem except that the vector rotates in a plane parallel to the direction of prop-
agation and is usually referred to as the cross field. At these intermediate values of kr, the E𝜃 and
H𝜙 components approach time-phase, which is an indication of the formation of time-average power
flow in the outward (radial) direction (radiation phenomenon).
As the values of kr become moderate (kr > 1), the field expressions can be approximated again
but in a different form. In contrast to the region where kr ≪ 1, the first term within the brackets in
(4-8b) and (4-10a) becomes more dominant and the second term can be neglected. The same is true
for (4-10b) where the second and third terms become less dominant than the first. Thus we can write
for kr > 1

I0 le−jkr
Er ≃ 𝜂 cos 𝜃 ⎫
2𝜋r2 ⎪ (4-23a)
⎪
kI0 le−jkr ⎪
E𝜃 ≃ j𝜂 sin 𝜃 ⎪ (4-23b)
4𝜋r ⎬ kr > 1
E𝜙 = Hr = H𝜃 = 0 ⎪ (4-23c)
⎪
−jkr ⎪
kI0 le
H𝜙 ≃ j sin 𝜃 ⎪⎭
(4-23d)
4𝜋r

The total electric field is given by

E = â r Er + â 𝜃 E𝜃 (4-24)

whose magnitude can be written as

√
|E| = |Er |2 + |E𝜃 |2 (4-25)
 INFINITESIMAL DIPOLE 153

4.2.6 Far-Field (kr ≫ 1) Region

Since (4-23a)–(4-23d) are valid only for values of kr > 1 (r > λ), then Er will be smaller than E𝜃
because Er is inversely proportional to r2 where E𝜃 is inversely proportional to r. In a region where
kr ≫ 1, (4-23a)–(4-23d) can be simplified and approximated by

kI0 le−jkr ⎫
E𝜃 ≃ j𝜂 sin 𝜃 ⎪ (4-26a)
4𝜋r ⎪
⎪
Er ≃ E𝜙 = Hr = H𝜃 = 0 ⎬ kr ≫ 1 (4-26b)
⎪
kI0 le−jkr ⎪
H𝜙 ≃ j sin 𝜃 ⎪ (4-26c)
4𝜋r ⎭

The ratio of E𝜃 to H𝜙 is equal to

E𝜃
Zw = ≃𝜂 (4-27)
H𝜙

where

Zw = wave impedance
𝜂 = intrinsic impedance (377 ≃ 120𝜋 ohms for free-space)

The E- and H-field components are perpendicular to each other, transverse to the radial direction
of propagation, and the r variations are separable from those of 𝜃 and 𝜙. The shape of the pattern is
not a function of the radial distance r, and the fields form a Transverse ElectroMagnetic (TEM) wave
whose wave impedance is equal to the intrinsic impedance of the medium. As it will become even
more evident in later chapters, this relationship is applicable in the far-field region of all antennas of
finite dimensions. Equations (4-26a)–(4-26c) can also be derived using the procedure outlined and
relationships developed in Section 3.6. This is left as an exercise to the reader (Prob. 4.15).

Example 4.2
For an infinitesimal dipole determine and interpret the vector effective length [see Section 2.15,
Figure 2.29(a)]. At what incidence angle does the open-circuit maximum voltage occurs at the
output terminals of the dipole if the electric-field intensity of the incident wave is 10 mV/m? The
length of the dipole is 10 cm.
Solution: Using (4-26a) and the effective length as defined by (2-92), we can write that

kI0 le−jkr kI e−jkr

E𝜃 = j𝜂 sin 𝜃 = −̂a𝜃 j𝜂 0 ⋅ (−̂a𝜃 l sin 𝜃)
4𝜋r 4𝜋r
kI e −jkr
= −̂a𝜃 j𝜂 0 ⋅ 𝓵e
4𝜋r

Therefore, the effective length is

𝓵 e = −̂a𝜃 l sin 𝜃
 MULTIMEDIA 217

TABLE 4.3 Summary of Important Parameters and Associated Formulas and Equation Numbers for
a Dipole in the Far Field
Parameter Formula Equation Number
Infinitesimal Dipole
(l ≤ λ∕50)
Normalized power pattern U = (E𝜃n )2 = C0 sin2 𝜃 (4-29)
( ) ( )2 ( )2
Radiation resistance Rr 2𝜋 l l (4-19)
Rr = 𝜂 = 80𝜋 2
3( )λ( ) λ( )
Input resistance Rin 2𝜋 l 2 l 2 (4-19)
Rin = Rr = 𝜂 = 80𝜋 2
3 λ λ
E
Wave impedance Zw Zw = 𝜃 ≃ 𝜂 = 377 ohms
H𝜙
3
Directivity D0 D0 = = 1.761 dB (4-31)
2
3λ2
Maximum effective area Aem Aem = (4-32)
8𝜋
Vector effective length 𝓁e 𝓵 e = −̂a𝜃 l sin 𝜃 (2-92)
|𝓵 e |max = λ Example 4.2
Half-power beamwidth HPBW = 90◦ (4-65)
√ √
l 𝜔𝜇0 l 𝜔𝜇0
Loss resistance RL RL = = (2-90b)
P 2𝜎 2𝜋b 2𝜎
Small Dipole
(λ∕50 < l ≤ λ∕10)
Normalized power pattern U = (E𝜃n )2 = C1 sin2 𝜃 (4-36a)
( )2
l
Radiation resistance Rr Rr = 20𝜋 2 (4-37)
λ
( )2
l
Input resistance Rin Rin = Rr = 20𝜋 2 (4-37)
λ
E
Wave impedance Zw Zw = 𝜃 ≃ 𝜂 = 377 ohms (4-36a), (4-36c)
H𝜙
3
Directivity D0 D0 = = 1.761 dB
2
3λ2
Maximum effective area Aem Aem =
8𝜋
l
Vector effective length 𝓁e 𝓵 e = −̂a𝜃 sin 𝜃 (2-92)
2
l
|𝓵 e |max = (4-36a)
2
Half-power beamwidth HPBW = 90◦ (4-65)

Half Wavelength Dipole

(l = λ∕2)
( ) 2
⎡ cos 𝜋 cos 𝜃 ⎤
⎢ 2 ⎥
⎥ ≃ C2 sin 𝜃
3
Normalized power pattern U = (E𝜃n )2 = C2 ⎢ (4-87)
⎢ sin 𝜃 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
𝜂
Radiation resistance Rr Rr = C (2𝜋) ≃ 73 ohms (4-93)
4𝜋 in
(continued overleaf )
218 LINEAR WIRE ANTENNAS

TABLE 4.3 (continued)

Parameter Formula Equation Number
𝜂
Input resistance Rin Rin = Rr = C (2𝜋) ≃ 73 ohms (4-79), (4-93)
4𝜋 in
Input impedance Zin Zin = 73 + j42.5 (4-93a)
E
Wave impedance Zw Zw = 𝜃 ≃ 𝜂 = 377 ohms
H𝜙
4
Directivity D0 D0 = ≃ 1.643 = 2.156 dB (4-91)
Cin (2𝜋) ( )
𝜋
cos cos 𝜃
λ 2
Vector effective length 𝓁e 𝓵 e = −̂a𝜃 (2-91)
𝜋 sin 𝜃
λ
|𝓵 e |max =
= 0.3183λ (4-84)
𝜋
Half-power beamwidth HPBW = 78◦ (4-65)
√ √
l 𝜔𝜇0 l 𝜔𝜇0
Loss resistance RL RL = = Example (2-13)
2P 2𝜎 4𝜋b 2𝜎

Quarter-Wavelength Monopole
(l = λ∕4)
( ) 2
⎡ cos 𝜋 cos 𝜃 ⎤
⎢ 2 ⎥
⎥ ≃ C2 sin 𝜃
3
Normalized power pattern U = (E𝜃n )2 = C2 ⎢ (4-87)
⎢ sin 𝜃 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
𝜂
Radiation resistance Rr Rr = C (2𝜋) ≃ 36.5 ohms (4-106)
8𝜋 in
𝜂
Input resistance Rin Rin = Rr = C (2𝜋) ≃ 36.5 ohms (4-106)
8𝜋 in
Input impedance Zin Zin = 36.5 + j21.25 (4-106)
E𝜃
Wave impedance Zw Zw = ≃ 𝜂 = 377 ohms
H𝜙
Directivity D0 D0 = 3.286 = 5.167 dB
( )
λ 𝜋
Vector effective length 𝓁e 𝓵 e = −̂a𝜃 cos cos 𝜃 (2-91)
𝜋 2
λ
|𝓵 e |max = = 0.3183λ (4-84)
𝜋

REFERENCES

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September 1958 (correction, Vol. 48, p. 328, March 1960).
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1959.
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1975.
4. C. H. Walter, Traveling Wave Antennas, McGraw-Hill, 1965, pp. 32–44.
5. W. R. Scott, Jr., “A General Program for Plotting Three-Dimensional Antenna Patterns,” IEEE Antennas
Propagat. Soc. Newsletter, pp. 6–11, December 1989.
 REFERENCES 219

6. S. K. Schelkunoff and H. T. Friis, Antennas: Theory and Practice, Wiley, New York, 1952, pp. 229–244,
351–353.
7. C. A. Balanis, Advanced Engineering Electromagnetics, Second Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New
York, 2012.
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1967.
9. R. F. Harrington, Field Computation by Moment Methods, Macmillan, New York, 1968.
10. R. Mittra (Ed.), Computer Techniques for Electromagnetics, Pergamon, New York, 1973.
11. J. Moore and P. Pizer (Eds.), Moment Methods in Electromagnetics: Techniques and Applications, Research
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12. J. J. Wang, Generalized Moment Methods in Electromagnetics, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York,
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13. IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagation, Special Issue on Artificial Magnetic Conductors, Soft/Hard Surfaces,
and Other Complex Surfaces, vol. 53, no. 1, Jan. 2005.
14. V. G. Veselago, “The Electromagnetics of Substances with Simultaneous Negative Values of 𝜀 and 𝜇,” Sov.
Phys.-Usp., vol. 47, pp. 509–514, Jan.–Feb. 1968.
15. P. M. Valanju, R. M. Walser, and A. P. Valanju, “Wave Refraction in Negative-Index Media; Always Positive
and very Inhomogeneous,” Phys. Rev. Lett., vol. 88, no. 18, 187401:1–4, May 2002.
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