Chapter 1: Carnivores in human-influenced landscapes

Introduction
Twenty-three percent of terrestrial mammalian species are threatened with
extinction, averaging approximately one third of the species in each order (mean ± SD =
0.35 ± 0.29, IUCN 2007). Contemporary declines in terrestrial mammal populations are
associated with regions of high human density or their resultant impacts such as
intensive agriculture, urbanisation and hunting (Ceballos and Ehrlich 2002, Cardillo et
al. 2004). An estimated 83% of the land on Earth is influenced by human activity
(Sanderson et al. 2002a). The current human population is predicted to increase from
6.6 billion to 9 billion by 2042 (US Census Bureau 2007). The survival of terrestrial
mammal species will increasingly depend on their ability to co-exist with people in
human-influenced landscapes.
Carnivores have a worldwide distribution. Many have suffered population
declines and range contractions over the past 200 years; for example the range of tigers
(Panthera tigris) has decreased by 93% (Dinnerstein et al. 2007), grizzly bears (Ursus
arctos horribilis) by 95-98% (Pyare et al. 2004), and the range of grey wolves (Canis
lupus), originally the widest of all mammals, has reduced by one-third (Mech and
Boitani 2004). Twenty-eight percent of terrestrial carnivore species are now threatened
(IUCN 2007). The population status of only 108 of 245 terrestrial carnivores is known,
but of these 82% are in decline (IUCN 2007). It is not surprising then that biological
characteristics associated with extinction vulnerability are frequently found in carnivore
species (Gittleman et al. 2001): low genetic variability; small geographical range; few,
small or declining populations; low population densities; large home ranges; large body
size; and specialized niche requirements. The effect of these biological traits may be
exacerbated by human activity and modification of the landscape. For example, Cardillo
et al. (2004) showed that carnivore biology interacts with human population density to
determine extinction risk: 38% of the variation in extinction risk of carnivore species
with low exposure to humans was explained by biology, specifically density and
geographic range; whilst in those with high exposure to humans, biology (geographic
range, density and gestation length) explained 80% of the variation.
Carnivore declines may be expected where there is human population growth
(Woodroffe 2000) because human activity, whether intentional or accidental, is major
cause of carnivore mortality (Woodroffe and Ginsberg 1998, Woodroffe 2001, Riley et
al. 2003) and this has been correlated with local human density (in Africa) (Harcourt et