Chapter 1: Carnivores in human-influenced landscapes

territory where they can secure females. Strong philopatry in females may be beneficial
if conditions are favourable but detrimental if a population is suffering from intense
human-induced mortality: the sex ratio may become male-biased and reproduction may
decrease as new males are recruited into the area but resident females are killed (e.g.
Robinson et al. 2008). Flexibility in male dispersal is also important in maintaining a
balance between travelling far enough to promote genetic mixing but not so far that
human-induced mortality during dispersal becomes a risk. For example, male red foxes
and male badgers are more likely to disperse at low population densities (see Frank and
Woodroffe 2001). This behaviour probably functions to increase the probability of
finding a mate.

Concerns for cats

Understanding mechanisms of individual and population resilience can help to
identify taxa which may be at particular risk from anthropogenic threats. As discussed,
resource generalists with flexible reproduction, social systems and dispersal may be
better adapted to a human-influenced landscape than more specialist species. In a study
of habitat fragment use by carnivores in California, Crooks (2002) found that both body
size and resource specialisation of carnivores were associated with patch occupancy.
Small generalist carnivores such as raccoons, grey fox and domestic cats occupied most
fragments; and within the larger carnivores, coyotes occurred in most patches whilst
pumas were highly sensitive to fragmentation. A similar pattern was observed in a study
of carnivores in the hyper-fragmented forest landscape of southern Brazil: all cat
species, jaguar, puma, ocelot (Leopardus pardalis) and jaguarondi (Herpailurus
yaguarondi), were only found in the larger fragments, whilst matrix-tolerant
opportunistic omnivores, tayra (Eira barbara), crab-eating fox (Cerdocyon thous) and
coati, occupied most forest fragments and were not sensitive to patch size (Michalski
and Peres 2005).
Many extant carnivores are now adapted to omnivorous diets, an asset in human-
influenced landscapes. Cats (family Felidae) are perhaps the most carnivorous of all the
Carnivora families and therefore least adaptable to reductions in the availability of wild
prey; whilst simultaneously posing the greatest perceived threat to humans and their
livestock. Forty-seven percent of cat species are threatened and a further 22% are near
threatened (IUCN 2007). All 36 cat species are facing population reduction, comprising
41% of all carnivore species known to be in decline (IUCN 2007). In comparison, only

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