5/21/2020 Going to Basics, Maximum Fault Current - IAEI Magazine

GOING TO BASICS, MAXIMUM FAULT CURRENT

Reading Time: 9 minutes

O
ne of the most basic
calculations for any power
system, and arguably the least
understood and most misrepresented, is
the calculation of available fault
current. The effort of calculating fault
currents flexes the basics of math and
engineering. This article is not going to
get into the details of the calculation;
instead, we’ll have a high-level
discussion to provide a general understanding of how that number is obtained. The
mechanics of the calculations may be a good topic for a future article. We’ll also
discuss how this relates to the NEC, especially NEC-2011 Section 110.24, Available
Fault Current.

Short Circuit Study –A Basic Power Sy stem Tool

A system short circuit study is just one of many performed on power systems.
Studies are performed for new and existing power systems, a few of which are
described below:

Short Circuit: Determine the magnitude of the prospective currents flowing

throughout the power system at various time intervals after a fault occurs. The
information is used to select fuses, breakers, and switchgear ratings in addition to
setting protective relays.

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Load Flow: A system planning tool that determines voltage, current, active, and
reactive power and power factor for a power system.

Coordination: Coordination studies select or verify the clearing characteristics of

devices such as fuses, circuit breakers, and relays used in the protection scheme.

Power Sy stem Stability : The ability of a power system, containing two or more
synchronous machines, to continue to operate after a change occurs on the system.
This is a measure of its stability.

Harmonic Analy sis: A study of power system harmonics to avoid control/computer

system interferences, heating of rotating machinery and overheating/failure of
capacitors. Predicts distortion levels of harmonic producing loads or capacitor
banks.

Motor Starting: A study to help ensure the starting of large motors and continuous
running of motors in the system operate without experiencing problems including

Fa i l i n g t o a cce l e ra t e u p t o r u n n i n g s p e e d

S t a l l i n g f ro m e x ce s s i v e v o l t a ge d ro p s

Un d e r v o l t a ge o p e ra t i n g d u r i n g m o t o r s t a r t i n g

Vo l t a ge d i p s c a u s i n g o b j e c t i o n a b l e f l i c ke r i n t h e l i g h t i n g s y s t e m

These studies help achieve the goals that the design engineer sets for the power
system. The power system engineer must evaluate initial and future system
performance, reliability, safety, and ability to grow with production and/or
operating requirements. Studies such as these are critical in the design process as
well as throughout the life of the facility.

Ty pes of Fault Current

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There are a few important parameters that help define the electric power system;
available fault current is one of those critical data points used in any and all of the
following manners:

Interrupting ratings : The overcurrent protective devices must be able to interrupt

the maximum available fault current.

Selective coordination : Time Current Characteristic (TCC) Curves are usually

overlaid with each other to determine selective coordination. The available fault
current is an important data point on these curves.

Arc flash : IEEE 1584 and NFPA 70E require fault current and clearing time to
calculate arc flash values.

Equipment ratings : Fault current and time help determine withstand ratings of
electrical equipment. The equipment has to be able to safely deliver this faulted
current until it is cleared by an overcurrent protective device.

There are four types of faults that can occur in a power system. The engineer will
have to consider more than just one fault current calculation to ultimately arrive
upon a maximum value at any one point in the power system. The following are
types of faults that can occur:

T h re e -p h a s e g ro u n d e d o r u n g ro u n d e d fa u l t s

P h a s e -t o -p h a s e ( l i n e t o l i n e ) u n g ro u n d e d fa u l t s

P h a s e -t o -p h a s e g ro u n d (d o u b l e l i n e t o g ro u n d ) fa u l t s

P h a s e -t o -g ro u n d ( s i n g l e l i n e t o g ro u n d ) fa u l t s

One of the first of many assumptions to be made during a fault study is that the
above mentioned faults are bolted. This removes the arcing impedance that is
normally a part of the circuit and yields a maximum available fault current. The

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three-phase ungrounded bolted fault is usually mistakenly assumed to be the

maximum fault current when in all actuality the single phase-to-ground fault often
produces a greater fault current under certain circumstances;

w h e n a s s o c i a t e d ge n e ra t o r s h a v e s o l i d l y g ro u n d e d n e u t ra l s o r l o w-i m p e d a n ce n e u t ra l

i m p e d a n ce s

o n w y e -g ro u n d e d s i d e o f a d e l t a -w y e g ro u n d e d t ra n s fo r m e r

In general, the power systems engineer will calculate a maximum and minimum
fault current for a given distribution system. The maximum fault current is
calculated on the following assumptions:

a l l ge n e ra t o r s a re i n s e r v i ce (co n n e c t e d t o t h e s y s t e m a n d r u n n i n g ) ;

t h e fa u l t i s a b o l t e d fa u l t ( fa u l t i m p e d a n ce i s ze ro) ;

t h e l o a d i s a m a x i m u m (y o u r o n -p e a k l o a d . M o t o r s w h i c h co n t r i b u t e fa u l t c u r re n t w i l l

b e co n n e c t e d a n d a d d t o t h e t o t a l fa u l t v a l u e . )

A minimum fault current is also calculated applying the following assumptions:

T h e n u m b e r o f ge n e ra t o r s co n n e c t e d i s m i n i m u m

T h e fa u l t i s n o t a b o l t e d fa u l t ( Fa u l t i m p e d a n ce i s n o t ze ro . A v a l u e b e t w e e n 3 0 a n d 4 0

o h m s i s co m m o n l y u s e d . )

T h e l o a d i s a m i n i m u m (o f f-p e a k l o a d . M o t o r s w h i c h co n t r i b u t e fa u l t c u r re n t w i l l n o t

b e co n n e c t e d . )

Maximum and minimum fault currents will be used in different ways. Maximum
fault currents help determine the required interrupting capacities of overcurrent
protective devices. Minimum fault currents are used in coordinating operations of
overcurrent devices, re-closers and relays.

The O ne-line Diagram

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One of the first steps a power systems engineer will take is to secure an accurate
up-to-date one-line diagram. New and existing construction projects present
challenges to the power systems engineer. Let’s first talk about existing facilities.
We have all seen one-line diagrams before, but I would say that probably very few
of those have been accurate and up-to-date. The first short-circuit study of my
career was for an existing industrial facility. After obtaining what was professed
to be the latest accurate one-line diagram, my mentor advised a walk down of the
facility. I approached that task as anyone who had the latest accurate one-line
diagram in his hands would — with very little enthusiasm and feeling as if this
task was a waste of time.

First visit: Main switchgear. Uneventful, it was exactly what I expected. The
engineer, during a walk down, records breaker ratings and trip unit settings.
Manufacturer and model numbers are very important as well. After visiting the
main switchgear, it was off to visit all of those big grey boxes that you would
expect to find throughout the facility. I spent an abnormal amount of time trying to
find a particular MCC which proved quite illusive. After pulling floor plans, I asked
questions to ensure I was in the right area. I walked that area of the plant more
than once and asked an electrician for help finding a few MCCs highlighted on my
drawings. He reviewed the drawings and grinned as he informed me that they had
removed that equipment quite a few years ago. “You’re huntin’ a ghost, son” were
his exact words.

He showed me various errors on the drawings and my efforts morphed into

updating them — at least enough for me to recreate the one-line diagram at my
desk. Some equipment was replaced and new equipment was installed. That’s the
day I learned that an accurate updated one-line diagram is not only key to a
successful short-circuit study but a rare item for some existing plants.

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Missing motors and other equipment could put your calculated fault current
numbers high or low depending upon the differences between paper and reality.
Numbers that are high will make an expensive solution that is more than what is
needed to get the job done and numbers that are low could create unsafe
applications with equipment that is undersized for the job at hand.

New construction, you would think, would have the accurate up-to-date one-line
diagram issue in the bag. Guess again. The challenge here is the lack of accurate
information until the “as-builts” are completed. Conductor lengths are estimates
and the loads you show may or may not be what actually makes it into the facility.
The one-line diagram will be continuously changing as the project is being
constructed.

There’s no walk down for a facility that is not there and no name plates to review.
The challenge is to specify and purchase equipment based on estimated lengths of
conductors and equipment with generic manufacturer data. The one-line diagrams
should be updated based on as-built drawings to ensure accuracy. Updating
drawings can be a laborious project but one that is very important to ensure
systems analysis studies are as accurate as possible. It is one of the last tasks of
the project and sometimes one of those that falls off the radar screen. The engineer
will be making assumptions and using rules of thumb for many different aspects of
the power system but conductor lengths, transformer impedances and other
electrical equipment data that can be accurately included in systems studies
should be reflected as such. This requires updated and accurate one-line diagrams.

Even with accurate one lines, the power systems engineer will make assumptions
in calculating fault currents. Engineering judgment is used to estimate loads and
impedances. You’ll learn more of these assumptions as we take the next step in
this process, the impedance diagram.

Impedance Diagram

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If you thought putting together an accurate one-line diagram was difficult, you
haven’t created an impedance diagram. Once you have an accurate one-line, the
engineer of today will enter data in software applications that perform all of the
necessary calculations. But it is not as simple as it sounds; the details of
impedances for each of the components must be addressed. This step is critical for
your calculations. Short circuit studies are based on the following very familiar
equations.

V = IR (Eq-1)

I = V/R (Eq-2)

The impedance diagram is the tool that will give you the denominator in equation
Eq-2. Electrical components are comprised of a real and reactive component for
their impedance. Not too many electrical components are purely resistive. So the R
value above, Resistance, is broken down into a real and reactive component usually
expressed as Z shown below:

Z = R + JX (Eq-3)

The X in this equation is there due to the capacitive and reactive nature of
electrical components. The above equations can be re-written as follows:

V = I (R + jX) (Eq-4)

I = V / (R + jX) (Eq-5)

The impedance diagram is an effort that takes all of the electrical components and
replaces them with their equivalent R + JX. A single line equivalent is created with
all R+jX’s in place of the electrical components. This sounds much simpler than it
is. The challenge is on a component- or equipment-by-equipment basis. Some of
the major components that require research include the following:

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Utility

Conductors / Busway

M o t o r s ( I n d u c t i o n / Sy n c h ro n o u s )

G e n e ra t o r s ( I n d u c t i o n / Sy n c h ro n o u s )

Reactors

Tra n s fo r m e r s

As noted above, even the utility will be represented as impedance. Even if the
utility only provides available fault current, the engineer will convert that number
into impedance for the calculations. But not all electrical device impedances are
included. For example, impedances of breakers and fuses and other overcurrent
protective devices are omitted and considered to be negligible. Conductor
impedance data is readily available either from IEEE documents or NFPA 70. These
numbers are usually given on an Ohms/1000Ft basis and not something that
changes for each roll of conductor that you receive.

Transformer impedances on the other hand may not be the same as what you see
in manufacturer’s literature when it arrives on-site. The impedance numbers found
on the nameplate are calculated for each transformer when it is made. The data
found in manufacturers marketing literature are usually minimum values that the
engineer uses as assumptions for new construction projects and yield higher fault
currents than what will be expected when the actual transformer and impedance
data is used. In addition, transformer nameplates will usually only include the %Z
and not the X/R ratio that is required to separate the Z into real and reactive
components. Large transformers may have that additional test data but smaller
transformers typically do not. The engineer often assumes the resistance is
negligible and uses the number on the nameplate as X.

Similar issues arise for motors and generators. IEEE documents do provide
resources to help estimate X/R ratios and other values for various electrical
equipment. The engineer may leverage these resources as required.

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The impedance of rotating machines is not a simple value but is rather complex
and variable with time. Machines will have different values of impedance that are
used in calculations for various reasons. You may recognize the following:

X”d – Subtransient Reactance:Used to determine current during the first cycle after
a fault occurs. This is usually the smallest reactance yielding the largest
contribution of fault current.

X’d – Transient Reactance:This impedance is used for calculations around 0.1

seconds. It helps calculate the current after several cycles at 60 Hz.

Xd – Sy nchronous Reactance:The impedance used for calculating currents above

from .5 to 2 seconds. These currents determine the current flow after a steady-state
condition.

Detailed data may or may not be readily available and assumptions may be needed
to represent rotating machines in the system modeling. Again, engineering
judgment and IEEE documents help provide those rules of thumb necessary to get
you in the ballpark with respect to short circuit numbers. These documents and
other similar documents provide industry standard assumptions that help fill in
the gaps of information.

In most cases, the assumptions made are conservative in that a higher than actual
fault current is a result. In most cases the higher fault current is the worse
condition. But this is not always the case as such calculations as arc flash require
lower available fault currents to produce longer clearing times which result in
higher energy values. Smaller rotating machines will have less available data from
the manufacturer as standard. Large motors will have the most detail as more data
is necessary for protection schemes they require. These are larger investments for
a facility and hence more detail around motor and generator performance is

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provided to help protect this investment. Again, this data is not something that you
will find in marketing or engineering generic literature. This data is specific to the
motor that was manufactured.

Short Circuit Calculation / Closing

Once the impedance diagram is created, most of the hard work has been achieved.
The rest of the work is a process of mathematical equations that reduce the
impedance diagram into a voltage source and impedance (Thévenin Equivalent) to
calculate fault current by the equation above. The important work and most
laborious efforts are made when constructing an accurate one-line diagram and its
equivalent impedance diagram.

Calculating fault currents is more of an art than it is a science. The values

calculated are the best possible numbers available based on nameplate data,
engineering assumptions and the use of sophisticated software programs. The use
of available fault currents must be done so with an understanding of the number
being used and what it represents. Arriving upon a maximum fault current is a
journey for the engineer during which time the power system is thoroughly
investigated. The result of this effort can be easily misapplied when care is not
taken.

As always, keep safety at the top of your list so that you and those that work
around you live to see another day.

R E L AT E D S T O R I E S

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ESTABLISHING AN ELECTRICALLY SAFE WORK ELECTRICAL SAFETY: A CRITICAL TRIAD OF PROPER

CONDITION INSTALLATION, MAINTENANCE, AND SAFE WORK
MAY 1 , 2 02 0
PRACTICES
MAY 1 , 2 02 0

OSHA AND NFPA 70E WORKPLACE ELECTRICAL SAFETY ELECTRICAL

MAY 1 , 2 02 0
INCIDENTS: 2003-2018
MAY 1 , 2 02 0

Y O U M AY A L S O L I K E

CALCULATING GENERAL LIGHTING LOADS FOR RESIDENTIAL DWELLINGS

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AP R I L 8, 2 02 0

SIGNIFICANT NEC-2020 CHANGES TO MEASUREMENT REQUIREMENTS IN ARTICLE 210

MAR C H 3 0, 2 02 0

NEC REQUIREMENTS FOR GFCI PROTECTION: SECTION 210.8

F EB R UARY 6, 2 02 0

OUTSIDE IN: DESIGNING BUILDING ENVELOPES TO WITHSTAND CLIMATE CHANGE

JAN UARY 5 , 2 02 0

READ NEX T

VOLTAGE DROP CALCULATIONS

O CTO B ER 1 5 , 2 01 9

BACK TO BASICS — THE 480/277 V TO 208/120 V WYE

TRANSFORMER INSTALLATION
AU G U S T 1 4, 2 01 9

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SHORT-CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS USING TRANSFORMER AND

SOURCE IMPEDANCE
S EP TEM B ER 2 7, 2 01 8

OBSOLETING THE ABSENCE-OF-VOLTAGE TEST?

AU G U S T 8, 2 01 8

PV MODULES PART 2. CALCULATIONS, THIS WON’T HURT—

MUCH
O CTO B ER 3 0, 2 01 7

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