EARTH SCIENCE – the study of the land, air, and water of the earth and the space that

surrounds it.

MAJOR DIVISIONS OF THE EARTH

1. Lithosphere – the solid sphere of the earth
2. Hydrosphere – the earth’s envelope of water
3. Atmosphere – the blanket of air surrounding the earth

THE EARTH’S PAST

1. Principle of Superposition
2. Principle of Uniform Process

CERTAIN EVIDENCES WHICH POINT TO AN OLD EARTH

1. Saltiness of the ocean
2. The age of river valleys
3. Fossil evidences
4. Deposit of sediments
5. Study of radioactivity

FOSSILS – the remains of dead organisms

SEVERAL WAYS FOSSILS FORM

1. Petrification
2. Preservation
Amber – the sap of a tree from long ago
3. Traces of imprints
Carbon imprint – fossil formed when a thin film of carbon remains
4. Through molds and casts
Mold – cavity that remains in a rock
Cast – fossil that forms when mineral fill a cavity
Trilobites – ancient sea animal that no longer exist
Index fossil – fossil found over large geographic areas and during a very short
time span

MINERAL – a natural inorganic substance with a definite chemical composition

MINERALOGY – study of minerals
MINERALOGIST – expert with minerals

5 CHARACTERISTICS OF MINERALS

1. All minerals are solids

2. Minerals form naturally
3. Substances that make up minerals were never part of living things, nor were they
formed by living things
 J.T.II Olivar
Faculty of Arts and Letters
University of Santo Tomas
4. Each kind of mineral has a definite chemical composition or a limited range of
composition
5. Atoms of minerals are connected to one another in an orderly repetitive arrangement

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

1. Hardness – the ability of minerals to resist abrasion
Friedrich Mohs (1822) – German mineralogist who arranged ten of the better
known minerals into a scale known as the MOH’S Scale of hardness

TEST HARDNESS NUMBER EXAMPLE

Scratched easily by
fingernails
Scratched by fingernail with
extra pressure
Scratched by copper coin
Scratched by knife easily
Scratched by knife with
extra pressure
Scratched by steel file
Can scratch glass
Can scratch topaz
Can scratch minerals in the
scale 1 – 8
Can scratch all minerals
1 Talc
2 Gypsum
3 Calcite
4 Fluorite
5 Apatite
6 Feldspar
7 Quartz
8 Topaz
9 Corundum
10 Diamond

2. Color – the outside color of the mineral may have changed y the atmosphere, hence it
is safe to examine the color of a fresh surface by breaking it apart
3. Streak – the color of a thin layer of powdered mineral
4. Luster – the appearance of the surface of a mineral in reflected light
a. earthly
b. resinous
c. brilliant
d. dull
5. Cleavage - the breaking of a mineral so that it yields definite flat surfaces
6. Fracture – the way in which a mineral breaks when it does not yield a cleavage
surface
7. Conchoidal – a common fracture showing concentric arcs
8. Specific gravity – the relative weight of a mineral compared tov an equal volume of
water

SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

1. Magnetism property to attract objects made of iron
a. Magnetite (iron oxide) – e.g Lodestone (natural magnet)
b. Pyrrhotite (iron ores)
c. Iron
d. Cobalt

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 J.T.II Olivar
Faculty of Arts and Letters
University of Santo Tomas
e. Nickel
2. Fluorescence and Phosphorescence – a mineral is said to be fluorescent if it can
absorb the ultraviolet and give off visible rays. A mineral described as
phosphorescent if it continues to give off light rays even after the ultraviolet light rays
are cut off.
3. Radioactivity – the spontaneous breakdown of uranium and other elements to produce
invisible radiations

CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS
I. Silicious minerals – includes those containing the element silicon. Since silicon is
never found free in nature, these minerals exist in the form of silicates.
II. Non-metallic minerals – includes the carbonates, sulfates, and other compounds
or native elements such as sulfur
III. Metal-ore minerals – includes the common metal ores. Ore is a rock or mineral
deposit from which a metal may be extracted.
IV. Gem minerals – includes minerals made into precious and semi-precious stones.

PETROLOGY – study of rocks

I. IGNEOUS ROCKS – formed by molten minerals that have cooled and solidified
A. Extrusive igneous – rocks formed when magma flows out over the earth’s
surface
B. Intrusive igneous – rocks formed when magma solidifies inside the earth
II. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS – formed by the accumulations of mud, sand, and
gravel deposited and cemented or from materials that precipitated from solutions
in water
A. Fragmental sedimentaries
B. Chemical sedimentaries
III. METAMORPHIC ROCKS – may have originated as igneous or sedimentary but
have been changed in texture or mineral composition or both through heat and
pressure

WEATHERING – refers to the natural processes that breaks the rocks into little pieces

TWO TYPES OF WEATHERING

I. MECHANICAL OR PHYSICAL WEATHERING
A. rapid changes in temperature
B. water trapped in crevices, expands when freezes thus splitting rocks
C. growing roots of trees
D. burrowing animals
E. wind with load of fine particles which may rub against exposed rock surfaces
F. rocks may wear away other rocks by rubbing or by the force of its weight
G. the beating force of water such as waves and raindrops can break rock apart

II. CHEMICAL WEATHERING

A. Carbonation

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 J.T.II Olivar
Faculty of Arts and Letters
University of Santo Tomas
B. Oxidation
C. Hydration
D. Solution
E. Lichens

EROSION – the transfer of rock particles from where they are formed

AGENTS OF EROSION:
A. Water – ground water and running water
1. Stream erosion – rocks are eroded at a rate varying with its slope
2. Raindrop erosion – can erode loose soil by the force of their fall
3. Sheet erosion – water flowing in broad sheets over a wide area
4. Erosion by solution – dissolving action of water is responsible for the removal
of minerals and other soluble minerals from the rocks
B. Wind
1. Deflation – process by which wind blows loose particles of rock from place to
place
2. Sand dunes -hills of sand form from sediments deposited by wind
3. Abrasion – process in which the cutting force of sharp-edged rock particles
carried by the wind slowly wears out
C. Gravity – causes separated rocks particles to fall to a lower level due to their weight

SOIL – the layer of fine loose materials that compose the rock mantle of the earth.
1. Residual soil
2. Transported soil
3. Humus
4. Topsoil
5. Subsoil
6. Bedrock

SIZES OF SOIL PARTICLES (in diameter)

1. Boulder – about 15 cm or more in diameter
2. Gravel – 1-2 mm in
3. Sand – 1 mm-0.5 mm
4. Silt – 0.05-0.005 mm
5. Clay – less than 0.005 mm

TYPES OF SOIL
1. Sandy soil – mostly sand plus little clay
2. Clay soil – mostly clay plus little sand and humus
3. Loam – has amounts of gravel, sand, and clay plus large amount of humus

DIASTROPHISM – refers to all movements of the solid parts of the earth

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 J.T.II Olivar
Faculty of Arts and Letters
University of Santo Tomas

TERMS TO DESCRIBE EARTH MOVEMENTS ACCORDING TO THE DIRECTION

THEY TAKE
1. Uplift – rising of the crust
2. Subsidence – sinking of the crust
3. Thrust – sideways or horizontal movement of the crust

THEORIES THAT EXPLAIN THE OCCURRENCE OF DIASTROPHISM

1. Theory of Isostasy – everything on the earth’s surface maintains a state of balance
2. Contraction theory – earth is gradually sinking since it is cooling
3. Convection theory – currents are formed under the crust
4. Continental Drift theory – Pangaea by Alfred Wegener (German scientist)
5. Expansion theory – earth is becoming hotter
6. Plate Tectonics theory – the surface of the earth is broken into 20 large sections
called plates

TYPES OF PLATE BOUNDARIES

1. Spreading boundaries
2. Colliding boundaries
3. Fault boundaries

EARTHQUAKE – refers to the shaking of the earth’s crust due to faulting

Fault – is a fracture or a point along which a slippage has occurred

Focus (Foci) – the center of a shock
Epicenter – the point or line on the surface directly above the focus
Fissure – an open fracture on rock surface

TYPES OF EARTHQUAKES:
1. Tectonic earthquakes
2. Volcanic earthquakes
3. Landslips

Seismograph – an instrument that detects and records earthquake vibrations

Seismic wave – type of energy that moves through the earth across the earth’s surface in
waves

THREE TYPES OF SEISMIC WAVES

1. P-waves (primary) – fastest seismic waves that travel through any material in the
earth
2. S-waves (secondary) – seismic waves that move about half as fast as the P-waves and
cannot travel through liquids
3. L-waves (long) – seismic waves that move along the surface of the earth

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 J.T.II Olivar
Faculty of Arts and Letters
University of Santo Tomas
PAGASA – Philippine Atmospherical Geophysical Astronomical Services Administration
PHIVOCS – Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology

RICHTER SCALE – open-ended scale describing the strength of earthquakes based on the
amount of energy released. It was named after Charles Richter

ROSSI-FOREL SCALE – another earthquake scale which is based on observations of

people. It is most commonly used in indicating earthquake intensities

VOLCANISM – it includes all types of activity due to the movement of magma

Volcano – a conical mountain which contains molten rock materials
Crater – the opening in a volcano

TYPES OF VOLCANOES ACCORDING TO THE ERUPTION THEY MAKE

1. Quiet volcanoes
2. Explosive volcanoes
3. Intermediate volcanoes

CLASSIFICATION OF VOLCANOES IN TERMS OF THEIR ACTIVITIES

1. Active volcanoes – those that still erupt or have recently erupted
2. Dormant volcanoes – those that do not show signs of and have not erupted for a
considerable time
3. Extinct volcanoes – those which have not had any volcanic activity for a long time

Materials Expelled from Volcanoes

1. steam and other gases
2. fragmental materials such as volcanic blocks, volcanic bombs, cinders, and ashes
3. lava

RING OF FIRE OR PACIFIC BELT OF FIRE – a circular volcanic belt including the
western coasts of North and South America and the eastern coast of Asia, including Japan
and the Philippines

Hot Spring – formed when a groundwater comes contact with magma and the surrounding
igneous rocks before it finds a natural outlet

Geysers – are formed when a hot spring shoots up water and steam at regular intervals

Volcanoes in the solar system

1. Olympus Mons – largest volcano on Mars which is 600 kilometers across at its base.
It is three times higher than the highest land mountain on earth
2. Volcanoes on Io – Jupiter’s moon
3. Montes Maxwell – larger than Mt. Everest