1.9.

1 Consequences If The Ocean Is Polluted

- Oceans are the largest water bodies on the planet Earth. Over the last few
decades, excessive human activities have severely affected marine life on the
Earth’s oceans. Ocean pollution, also known as marine pollution. Marine
pollution is the spreading of harmful substances such as oil, plastic, industrial,
agriculture waste and chemical particles into the ocean.
- Since oceans provide the home to a wide variety of marine animals and plants,
it is the responsibility of every citizen to play his/her part in making these
oceans clean so that marine species can thrive for a longer period of time.
- Mining for materials such as copper and gold is a major source of
contamination in the ocean. For example, copper is a major source of pollutants
in the ocean and can interfere with the life cycles of numerous marine
organisms and life.

1.9.2 Various Causes Of Ocean Pollution

1) Sewage
 Pollution can enter the ocean directly. Sewage or polluting substances
flow through sewage, rivers, or drainages directly into the ocean. This
is often how minerals and substances from mining camps find their
way into the ocean.
 The release of other chemical nutrients into the ocean’s ecosystem
leads to reductions in oxygen levels, the decay of plant life, and a
severe decline in the quality of the seawater itself. As a result, all
levels of oceanic life, plants and animals, are highly affected.

2) Toxic Chemicals From Industries

 Industrial and agricultural waste is another most common form of
wastes that is directly discharged into the oceans, resulting in ocean
pollution.
 The dumping of toxic liquids in the ocean directly affects marine life
as they are considered hazardous. Secondly, they raise the temperature
of the ocean, a phenomenon known as thermal pollution, as the
temperature of these liquids is quite high. Animals and plants that
cannot survive at higher temperatures eventually perish.
3) Land Runoff
 Land runoff is another source of pollution in the ocean. This occurs
when water infiltrates the soil to its maximum extent, and the excess
water from rain, flooding or melting flows over the land and into the
ocean.
 Often, this water picks up man-made, harmful contaminants that
pollute the ocean, including fertilizers, petroleum, pesticides and other
forms of soil contaminants. Fertilizers and waste from land
animals and humans can be hugely detrimental to the ocean
by creating dead zones.

4) Large Scale Oil Spills

 Ship pollution is a huge source of ocean pollution, the most
devastating effect of which is oil spills. Crude oil lasts for years in the
sea and is extremely toxic to marine life, often suffocating marine
animals to death once it entraps them. Crude oil is also extremely
difficult to clean up, unfortunately, meaning that when it is split, it is
usually there to stay.
 Besides, many ships lose thousands of crates each year due to storms,
emergencies, and accidents. This causes noise pollution (excessive,
unexpected noise that interrupts the balance of life, most often caused
by modes of transportation), excessive algae, and ballast water.
 Often, other species can also invade an ecosystem and do harm to it
by interrupting the life cycles of other organisms, causing a clash of
nature that has already been damaged by the overflow of pollution.

5) Ocean Mining
 Ocean mining in the deep sea is yet another source of ocean pollution.
Ocean mining sites drilling for silver, gold, copper, cobalt, and zinc
 create sulfide deposits up to three and a half thousand meters down
into the ocean.
 While we yet to have the gathering of scientific evidence to fully
explain the harsh environmental impacts of deep-sea mining, we do
have a general idea that deep-sea mining causes damage to the lowest
levels of the ocean and increases the toxicity of the region. This
permanent damage dealt also causes leaking, corrosion and oil spills
that only drastically further hinder the ecosystem of the region.

6) Littering
 Pollution from the atmosphere is, believe it or not, a huge source of
ocean pollution. This occurs when far inland objects are blown by the
wind over long distances and end up in the ocean.
 These objects can be anything from natural things like dust and sand
to man-made objects such as debris and trash. Most debris,
especially plastic debris, cannot decompose and remains suspended in
the ocean’s current for years.
 Animals can become snagged on the plastic or mistake it for
food, slowly killing them over a long period of time. Animals who are
most often the victims of plastic debris include turtles, dolphins, fish,
sharks, crabs, sea birds, and crocodiles.
 Also, the temperature of the ocean is highly affected by carbon
dioxide and climate changes, which primarily impacts the ecosystems
and fish communities that live in the ocean. In particular, the rising
levels of Co2 acidify the ocean in the form of acid rain.
 Even though the ocean can absorb carbon dioxide that originates from
the atmosphere, the carbon dioxide levels are steadily increasing, and
the ocean’s absorbing mechanisms, due to the rising of the ocean’s
temperatures, are unable to keep up with the pace.

1.9.3 Devastating Effects of Ocean Pollution

1) Effect of Toxic Wastes on Marine Animals
 The oil spill is dangerous to marine life in several ways. The oil
spilled in the ocean could get on to the gills and feathers of marine
animals, which makes it difficult for them to move or fly properly or
 feed their children. The long term effect on marine life can include
cancer, failure in the reproductive system, behavioral changes, and
even death.

2) Disruption to the Cycle of Coral Reefs

 Oil spill floats on the surface of the water and prevents sunlight from
reaching to marine plants and affects the process of photosynthesis.
Skin irritation, eye irritation, lung and liver problems can
impact marine life over a long period of time.

3) Depletes Oxygen Content in Water

 Most of the debris in the ocean does not decompose and remain in the
ocean for years. It uses oxygen as it degrades. As a result of
this, oxygen levels go down. When oxygen levels go down, the
chances of survival of marine animals like whales, turtles, sharks,
dolphins, penguins for a long time also goes down.

4) Failure in the Reproductive System of Sea Animals

 Industrial and agricultural wastes include various poisonous
chemicals that are considered hazardous for marine life. Chemicals
from pesticides can accumulate in the fatty tissue of animals, leading
to failure in their reproductive system.

5) Effect on Food Chain

 Chemicals used in industries and agriculture get washed into the
rivers and from there are carried into the oceans. These chemicals do
not get dissolved and sink at the bottom of the ocean. Small animals
ingest these chemicals and are later eaten by large animals, which then
affects the whole food chain.

6) Affects Human Health

 Animals from impacted food chain are then eaten by humans, which
affects their health as toxins from these contaminated animals get
 deposited in the tissues of people and can lead to cancer, birth defects
or long term health problems.

1.9.4 Extinction Animals from Ocean Pollution

Edestus
  All of the species of Edestus are known only from their teeth.
  The largest species of Edestus could reach 6 m (20 ft) in length.
 The teeth of Edestus are sharp and serrated, so all of the species are
presumed to have been carnivorous.
 The species of Edestus grew teeth in curved brackets, and did not shed
the teeth as they became worn.
 Only a single row of teeth occurred in each jaw, so the mouth would
have resembled a monstrous pair of pinking shears.
 The degree of curvature in the teeth brackets, along with size, are
distinct in each species.

Hybodus
 Hybodus species grew to about 2 metres (6.6 ft) in length.
 It was not very big, but had the classic streamlined shark shape.
 they had two different types of teeth, suggesting a wide diet.
 The sharper teeth would have been used to catch slippery prey, while
the flatter teeth probably helped them crush shelled creatures.
  They had a bony blade on their dorsal fin that probably served a
defensive function.
 There are several Hybodus Species, including Hybodus Houtienensis,
Hybodus Obtusus, Hybodus Fraasi and Hybodus Basani.

Cretoxyrhina
 Cretoxyrhina is an extinct genus of large mackerel shark that lived
about 107 to 73 million years ago
 Measuring up to 8 meters (26 ft) in length and weighing over 4,944
kilograms (4.866 long tons; 5.450 short tons)
 The calculated weight of a 7-meter individual, Cretoxyrhina was one
of the largest sharks of its time.
 Cretoxyrhina was also among the fastest-swimming sharks, with
hydrodynamic calculations suggesting burst speed capabilities of up
to 70 kilometers per hour
 It has been speculated that Cretoxyrhina hunted by lunging at its prey
at high speeds to inflict powerful blows, similar to the great white
shark today, and relied on strong eyesight to do so.
 Cretoxyrhina grew rapidly during early ages and reached sexual
maturity at around four to five years of age.
 Its lifespan has been calculated to extend to nearly forty years.

Sarcroprion
 Sarcoprion was best known for its extremely bizarre tooth
morphology compared to other species of sharks
 Sarcoprion had a jaw and mouth structure which allowed it to be more
hydrodynamic
 Sarcroprion reduce the size and shape of the tooth whorl and
increasing the size of the rostrum.
 Estimations on its size suggested an average length of 6 m (20 ft)
from the two specimens discovered in Greenland.
 Sarcoprion hunted a large variety of species, diving at them with high
speed and sawing vulnerable areas.
  Any creatures that were wedged between its rostrum and its teeth
were vertically thrashed to inflict maximum damage.

Cladoselache
 This primitive shark grew to be up to 1.8 metres (5.9 ft) long and
roamed the oceans of North America.
 Cladoselache is known to have been a fast-moving and fairly
agile predator due to its streamlined body and deeply forked tail.
 Cladoselache exhibited a combination of derived and ancestral
characteristics.
 Cladoselache had a streamlined body, from five to seven gill slits, and
a short, rounded snout that had a terminal mouth opening at the front
of the skull.
 Cladoselache had a very weak jaw joint compared with modern-day
sharks
 Cladoselache compensated for that with very strong jaw-closing
muscles.
 Cladoselache teeth were multi-cusped and smooth-edged, making
them suitable for grasping, but not tearing or chewing.
 Cladoselache also had a blade-like structure which was positioned in
front of the dorsal fins.
 These anatomical features made the Cladoselache swims easier and
faster.
Xenacanthus
 Xenacanthus had a number of features that distinguished it from
modern sharks.
 This freshwater shark was usually about one meter (3.3 feet) in
length, and never longer than 2 m (6.6 ft).
  The dorsal fin was ribbon like, ran the entire length of the back and
round the tail, where it joined with the anal fin.
 This arrangement resembles that of modern conger eels,
and Xenacanthus probably swam in a similar manner.
 A distinctive spine projected from the back of the head
 The spike has even been speculated to have been venomous, perhaps
in a similar manner to a sting ray.
  The teeth had an unusual "V" shape, and it probably fed on
small crustaceans and heavily scaled palaeoniscid fishes.
 There are several Xenacanthus species, including Xenacanthus
Atriossis, Xenacanthus compressus, Xenacanthus decheni,
Xenacanthus denticulatus, Xenacanthus erectus, Xenacanthus
gibbosus, Xenacanthus gracilis, Xenacanthus howsei, Xenacanthus
laevissimus, Xenacanthus latus, Xenacanthus luedernesis,
Xenacanthus moorei, Xenacanthus ossiani, Xenacanthus ovalis,
Xenacanthus parallelus, Xenacanthus parvidens, Xenacanthus
ragonhai, Xenacanthus robustus, Xenacanthus serratus, Xenacanthus
slaughteri, Xenacanthus taylori.
Stethacanthus
 Stethacanthus was about 70 centimetres (2.3 ft) long, and in many
respects, had a shark-like appearance.
 Stethacanthus is best known for its unusually shaped dorsal fin, which
resembled an anvil or ironing board.
 Small spikes (enlarged versions of the dermal denticles commonly
covering shark skin) covered this crest, and the ratfish's head as well.
 These fin whips contain at least 22 axial cartilages and extended past
the pelvic fins.
 The tooth files are whorl-shaped and the palatoquadrate is scalloped
with 6-7 recesses to allow for the tooth families.
 The individual teeth are widely separated from each other in the tooth
whorls.
 The teeth themselves are of the cladodont variety; the bases of the
teeth are broadest on the lingual side, and each support a single large
cusp and two pairs of smaller accessory cusps for a total of five cusps.
 There was some caudal fin variety among Stethacanthus species;
while some had low angle heterocercal tails, some had tails
approaching homocercal.

Orthacanthus

 The basal tubercle of a typical tooth file is on the apical button of the
underlying tooth.

 The periodic nature of the dentine layer deposits could be due to

variation in calcium phosphate deposition following the changes in
water temperature.

 Spines of individuals with 1-2 dentine layers are likely juveniles and
result in the smallest sizes, whereas individuals showing at least 3-4
dentine layers result in two separate size classes.
 Orthacanthus was also a member of a group of ancient sharks called
xenacanths, all of which were freshwater sharks with long fins down
their backs and a spine at the start of the fin.
 Orthacanthus was the largest of the known xenacanths at 3 meters (10
feet) and 45 kg (100 lbs).

Scapanorhynchus
 Their extreme similarities to the living goblin shark
 Scapanorhynchus had an elongated, albeit flattened snout and
sharp awl-shaped teeth ideal for seizing fish, or tearing chunks of
flesh from its prey.
 Scapanorhynchus was a small shark normally measuring about 65 cm,
though the largest species
 The largest teeth reported from this genus are anterior teeth
from Scapanorhynchus texanus, which can reach lengths up to 7 cm.

Mosasaurs
 Mosasaurs breathed air, were powerful swimmers, and were well-
adapted to living in the warm, shallow inland seas prevalent.
 They most likely gave birth to live young, rather than returning to the
shore to lay eggs as sea turtles do.
 The smallest-known Mosasaur was Dallasaurus Turneri, which was
less than 1 m (3.3 ft) long.
 Larger Mosasaurs were more typical, with many species growing
longer than 4 m (13 ft).
 Mosasaurus Hoffmannii, the largest known species, may have reached
up to 17 m (56 ft) in length.
  Their limb bones were reduced in length and their paddles were
formed by webbing between their long finger and toe bones.
 Their tails were broad, and supplied their locomotive power. Until
recently, Mosasaurs were assumed to have swum in a method similar
to the one used today by conger eels and sea snakes, undulating their
entire bodies from side to side.
1.9.5 Solutions To Reduce Ocean Pollution

1) Reduce Your Use of Single-Use Plastics

 Wherever you live, the easiest and most direct way that you can get
started is by reducing your own use of single-use plastics.

 Single-use plastics include plastic bags, water bottles, straws, cups,

utensils, dry cleaning bags, take-out containers, and any other plastic
items that are used once and then discarded.
 The best way to do this is by refusing any single use plastics that you
don’t need (e.g. straws, plastic bags, take out utensils, take out
containers), reusable versions of those products, including reusable
grocery bags, produce bags, bottles, utensils, coffee cups, and dry
cleaning garment bags.
 When you refuse single-use plastic items, help businesses by letting
them know that you would like them to offer alternatives.

2) Recycle Properly

 When you use single use plastics that can be recycled, always be sure
to recycle them.

 At present, just 9% of plastic is recycled worldwide.

 Recycling helps keep plastics out of the ocean and reduces the
amount of “new” plastic in circulation.

 It's also important to check with your local recycling centre about the
types of plastic they accept.

3) Participate In (or Organize) a Beach or River Cleanup

 Help remove plastics from the ocean and prevent them from getting
there in the first place by participating in or organizing a cleanup of
your local beach or waterway.
  This is one of the most direct and rewarding ways to fight ocean
plastic pollution.

 You can just go to the beach or waterway and collect plastic waste on
your own or with friends or family, or you can join a local
organization’s cleanup or an international event like the International
Coastal Cleanup.

4) Support Bans

 Many municipalities around the world have enacted bans on single

use plastic bags, takeout containers, and bottles.
 You can support the adoption of such policies in your community.

5) Avoid Products Containing Microbeads

 Tiny plastic particles, called “microbeads,” have become a growing

source of ocean plastic pollution in recent years.
 Microbeads are found in some face scrubs, toothpastes, and
bodywashes, and they readily enter our oceans and waterways
through our sewer systems, and affect hundreds of marine species.
 Avoid products containing plastic microbeads by looking for
“polythelene” and “polypropylene” on the ingredient labels of your
cosmetic products.

6) Spread the Word

 Stay informed on issues related to plastic pollution and help make

others aware of the problem.
 Tell your friends and family about how they can be part of the
solution, or host a viewing party for one of the many plastic pollution
focused documentaries, like A Plastic Ocean, Garbage Island: An
Ocean Full of Plastic, Bag It, Addicted to Plastic, Plasticized,
or Garbage Island.

7) Support Organizations Addressing Plastic Pollution

 There are many non-profit organizations working to reduce and

eliminate ocean plastic pollution in a variety of different ways,
including Oceanic Society, Plastic Pollution Coalition, 5
Gyres, Algalita, Plastic Soup Foundation, and others.
  These organizations rely on donations from people like you to
continue their important work.

 These seven ideas only scratch the surface for ways you can help problem
of plastic pollution in the oceans.