Ch03 Lecture Presentation

Chapter 3
Cells and Tissues
Lecture Presentation by
Patty Bostwick-Taylor
Florence-Darlington Technical College
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Part I: Cells
 Cells are the structural units of all living things

 The human body has 50 to 100 trillion cells

Overview of the Cellular Basis of Life
 The Cell Theory

1. A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of
living organisms
2. The activity of an organism depends on the collective
activities of its cells
3. According to the principle of complementarity, the
biochemical activities of cells are dictated by their
structure (anatomy) which determines their function
(physiology)
4. Continuity of life has a cellular basis

Overview of the Cellular Basis of Life
 Most cells are composed of four elements:

1. Carbon
2. Hydrogen
3. Oxygen
4. Nitrogen
 Cells are about 60% water

Anatomy of a Generalized Cell
 In general, a cell has three main regions or parts:

1. Nucleus
2. Cytoplasm
3. Plasma membrane

Figure 3.1a Anatomy of the generalized animal cell nucleus.
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Plasma
membrane
(a) Generalized animal cell

The Nucleus
 Control center of the cell

 Contains genetic material known as
deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA
 DNA is needed for building proteins
 DNA is necessary for cell reproduction
 Three regions:
1. Nuclear envelope (membrane)
2. Nucleolus
3. Chromatin

Figure 3.1b Anatomy of the generalized animal cell nucleus.
Nuclear envelope
Chromatin
Nucleus
Nucleolus
Nuclear
pores
(b) Nucleus
The Nucleus
 Nuclear envelope (membrane)

 Consists of a double membrane that bounds the
nucleus
 Contains nuclear pores that allow for exchange of
material with the rest of the cell
 Encloses the jellylike fluid called the nucleoplasm

The Nucleus
 Nucleolus
 Nucleus contains one or more dark-staining nucleoli
 Sites of ribosome assembly
 Ribosomes migrate into the cytoplasm through nuclear
pores to serve as the site of protein synthesis

The Nucleus
 Chromatin
 Composed of DNA wound around histones (proteins)
 Scattered throughout the nucleus and present when
the cell is not dividing
 Condenses to form dense, rodlike bodies called
chromosomes when the cell divides

The Plasma Membrane
 Transparent barrier for cell contents

 Contains cell contents
 Separates cell contents from surrounding
environment

The Plasma Membrane
 Fluid mosaic model is constructed of:

 Two layers of phospholipids arranged “tail to tail”
 Cholesterol and proteins scattered among the
phospholipids
 Sugar groups may be attached to the phospholipids,
forming glycolipids

Figure 3.2 Structure of the plasma membrane.
Extracellular fluid Glycoprotein Glycolipid

(watery environment)
Cholesterol
Sugar group
Polar heads of
phospholipid
molecules
Bimolecular
lipid layer
containing
proteins
Channel
Nonpolar tails of Proteins Filaments of

phospholipid
molecules cytoskeleton Cytoplasm
(watery environment)

The Plasma Membrane
 Phospholipid arrangement in the plasma

membrane
 Hydrophilic (“water loving”) polar “heads” are oriented
on the inner and outer surfaces of the membrane
 Hydrophobic (“water fearing”) nonpolar “tails” form the
center (interior) of the membrane
 This interior makes the plasma membrane relatively
impermeable to most water-soluble molecules

The Plasma Membrane
 Role of proteins
 Responsible for specialized membrane functions:
 Enzymes
 Receptors for hormones or other chemical messengers
 Transport as channels or carriers

The Plasma Membrane
 Role of sugars
 Glycoproteins are branched sugars attached to
proteins that abut the extracellular space
 Glycocalyx is the fuzzy, sticky, sugar-rich area on the
cell’s surface

The Plasma Membrane
 Cell membrane junctions

 Cells are bound together in three ways:
1. Glycoproteins in the glycocalyx act as an adhesive or
cellular glue
2. Wavy contours of the membranes of adjacent cells fit
together in a tongue-and-groove fashion
3. Special cell membrane junctions are formed, which
vary structurally depending on their roles

The Plasma Membrane
 Main types of cell junctions

 Tight junctions
 Impermeable junctions
 Bind cells together into leakproof sheets
 Plasma membranes fuse like a zipper to prevent
substances from passing through extracellular space
between cells

The Plasma Membrane
 Main types of cell junctions (continued)

 Desmosomes
 Anchoring junctions, like rivets, that prevent cells from
being pulled apart as a result of mechanical stress
 Created by buttonlike thickenings of adjacent plasma
membranes

The Plasma Membrane
 Main types of cell junctions (continued)

 Gap junctions (communicating junctions)
 Allow communication between cells
 Hollow cylinders of proteins (connexons) span the width
of the abutting membranes
 Molecules can travel directly from one cell to the next
through these channels

Figure 3.3 Cell junctions.
Microvilli Tight
(impermeable)
junction
Desmosome
(anchoring
junction)
Plasma
membranes of
adjacent cells
Connexon
Underlying Extracellular Gap

basement space between (communicating)
membrane cells junction
The Cytoplasm
 The cellular material outside the nucleus and

inside the plasma membrane
 Site of most cellular activities
 Includes cytosol, inclusions, and organelles

The Cytoplasm
 Three major component of the cytoplasm

1. Cytosol: Fluid that suspends other elements and
contains nutrients and electrolytes
2. Inclusions: Chemical substances, such as stored
nutrients or cell products, that float in the cytosol
3. Organelles: Metabolic machinery of the cell that
perform functions for the cell
 Many are membrane-bound, allowing for
compartmentalization of their functions

Figure 3.4 Structure of the generalized cell.
Chromatin Nuclear envelope

Nucleolus Nucleus
Plasma
Smooth endoplasmic membrane
reticulum
Cytosol
Lysosome
Mitochondrion
Rough
endoplasmic
reticulum
Centrioles
Ribosomes
Golgi apparatus
Secretion being released

Microtubule from cell by exocytosis
Peroxisome
Intermediate
filaments
The Cytoplasm
 Mitochondria
 “Powerhouses” of the cell
 Mitochondrial wall consists of a double membrane with
cristae on the inner membrane
 Carry out reactions in which oxygen is used to break
down food into ATP molecules

The Cytoplasm
 Ribosomes
 Made of protein and ribosomal RNA
 Sites of protein synthesis in the cell
 Found at two locations:
 Free in the cytoplasm
 As part of the rough endoplasmic reticulum

The Cytoplasm
 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

 Fluid-filled tunnels (or canals) that carry substances
within the cell
 Continuous with the nuclear membrane
 Two types:
 Rough ER
 Smooth ER

The Cytoplasm
 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (continued)

 Rough endoplasmic reticulum
 Studded with ribosomes
 Synthesizes proteins
 Transport vesicles move proteins within cell
 Abundant in cells that make and export proteins

Figure 3.5 Synthesis and export of a protein by the rough ER. Slide 1
Ribosome
mRNA
1 As the protein is synthesized on the ribosome,
Rough ER it migrates into the rough ER tunnel system.
2
1 3 2 In the tunnel, the protein folds into its
functional shape. Short sugar chains may be
attached to the protein (forming a glycoprotein).
Protein
3 The protein is packaged in a tiny

membranous sac called a transport vesicle.
Transport 4
vesicle buds off
4 The transport vesicle buds from the rough ER
and travels to the Golgi apparatus for further
processing.
Protein inside
transport vesicle

Ribosome
mRNA
Protein

Ribosome
mRNA
2
1 2 In the tunnel, the protein folds into its
Protein

Ribosome
mRNA
2
Protein

Transport
vesicle buds off

Ribosome
mRNA
2
Protein

Transport 4
vesicle buds off
4 The transport vesicle buds from the rough ER
and travels to the Golgi apparatus for further
processing.
Protein inside
transport vesicle

The Cytoplasm
 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (continued)

 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
 Lacks ribosomes
 Functions in lipid metabolism
 Detoxification of drugs and pesticides

The Cytoplasm
 Golgi apparatus
 Appears as a stack of flattened membranes
associated with tiny vesicles
 Modifies and packages proteins arriving from the
rough ER via transport vesicles
 Produces different types of packages
 Secretory vesicles (pathway 1)
 In-house proteins and lipids (pathway 2)
 Lysosomes (pathway 3)

Figure 3.6 Role of the Golgi apparatus in packaging the products of the rough ER.
Rough ER Tunnels Proteins in tunnels
Membrane Lysosome fuses with

ingested substances.
Transport
vesicle
Golgi vesicle containing

digestive enzymes
becomes a lysosome.
Pathway 3
Pathway 2 Golgi vesicle containing

Golgi membrane components
apparatus fuses with the plasma
Secretory vesicles
Pathway 1 membrane and is
Proteins incorporated into it.
Golgi vesicle containing
proteins to be secreted
becomes a secretory Plasma membrane
Secretion by
vesicle. exocytosis
Extracellular fluid

The Cytoplasm
 Lysosomes
 Membranous “bags” that contain digestive enzymes
 Enzymes can digest worn-out or nonusable cell
structures
 House phagocytes that dispose of bacteria and cell
debris

The Cytoplasm
 Peroxisomes
 Membranous sacs of oxidase enzymes
 Detoxify harmful substances such as alcohol and
formaldehyde
 Break down free radicals (highly reactive chemicals)
 Free radicals are converted to hydrogen peroxide and
then to water
 Replicate by pinching in half or budding from the ER

The Cytoplasm
 Cytoskeleton
 Network of protein structures that extend throughout
the cytoplasm
 Provides the cell with an internal framework that
determines cell shape, supports organelles, and
provides the machinery for intracellular transport
 Three different types of elements form the
cytoskeleton:
1. Microfilaments (largest)
2. Intermediate filaments
3. Microtubules (smallest)

Figure 3.7 Cytoskeletal elements support the cell and help to generate movement.
(a) Microfilaments (b) Intermediate filaments (c) Microtubules
Tubulin subunits
Fibrous subunits
Actin subunit
7 nm 10 nm 25 nm
Microfilaments form the blue Intermediate filaments form Microtubules appear as gold
batlike network. the purple network surrounding networks surrounding the cells’
the pink nucleus. pink nuclei.

The Cytoplasm
 Centrioles
 Rod-shaped bodies made of nine triplets of
microtubules
 Generate microtubules
 Direct the formation of mitotic spindle during cell
division

Table 3.1 Parts of the Cell: Structure and Function (1 of 5)





Cell Extensions
 Surface extensions found in some cells

 Cilia move materials across the cell surface
 Located in the respiratory system to move mucus
 Flagella propel the cell
 The only flagellated cell in the human body is sperm
 Microvilli are tiny, fingerlike extensions of the plasma
membrane
 Increase surface area for absorption

Figure 3.8g Cell diversity.
Nucleus Flagellum
Sperm
(g) Cell of reproduction

Cell Diversity
 The human body houses over 200 different cell

types
 Cells vary in size, shape, and function
 Cells vary in length from 1/12,000 of an inch to over
1 yard (nerve cells)
 Cell shape reflects its specialized function

Cell Diversity
 Cells that connect body parts

 Fibroblast
 Secretes cable-like fibers
 Erythrocyte (red blood cell)
 Carries oxygen in the bloodstream

Figure 3.8a Cell diversity.
Fibroblasts Rough ER and

Golgi apparatus
No organelles
Secreted
fibers
Nucleus
Erythrocytes
(a) Cells that connect body parts

Cell Diversity
 Cells that cover and line body organs

 Epithelial cell
 Packs together in sheets
 Intermediate fibers resist tearing during rubbing or
pulling

Figure 3.8b Cell diversity.
Epithelial Nucleus
cells
Intermediate
filaments
(b) Cells that cover and line body organs

Cell Diversity
 Cells that move organs and body parts

 Skeletal muscle and smooth muscle cells
 Contractile filaments allow cells to shorten forcefully

Figure 3.8c Cell diversity.
Skeletal
muscle cell Nuclei
Contractile
Smooth
filaments
muscle cells
(c) Cells that move organs and body parts

Cell Diversity
 Cell that stores nutrients

 Fat cells
 Lipid droplets stored in cytoplasm

Figure 3.8d Cell diversity.
Fat cell Lipid droplet
Nucleus
(d) Cell that stores nutrients

Cell Diversity
 Cell that fights disease

 White blood cells, such as the macrophage (a
phagocytic cell)
 Digests infectious microorganisms

Figure 3.8e Cell diversity.
Lysosomes
Macrophage
Pseudopods
(e) Cell that fights disease

Cell Diversity
 Cell that gathers information and controls body

functions
 Nerve cell (neuron)
 Receives and transmits messages to other body
structures

Figure 3.8f Cell diversity.
Processes
Rough ER
Nerve cell
Nucleus
(f) Cell that gathers information and

controls body functions

Cell Diversity
 Cells of reproduction
 Oocyte (female)
 Largest cell in the body
 Divides to become an embryo upon fertilization
 Sperm (male)
 Built for swimming to the egg for fertilization
 Flagellum acts as a motile whip

Figure 3.8g Cell diversity.
Nucleus Flagellum
Sperm
(g) Cell of reproduction

Cell Physiology
 Cells have the ability to:

 Metabolize
 Digest food
 Dispose of wastes
 Reproduce
 Grow
 Move
 Respond to a stimulus

Membrane Transport
 Solution—homogeneous mixture of two or more

components
 Solvent—dissolving medium present in the larger
quantity; the body’s main solvent is water
 Solutes—components in smaller quantities within a
solution

Membrane Transport
 Intracellular fluid
 Nucleoplasm and cytosol
 Solution containing gases, nutrients, and salts
dissolved in water
 Extracellular fluid (interstitial fluid)
 Fluid on the exterior of the cell
 Contains thousands of ingredients, such as nutrients,
hormones, neurotransmitters, salts, waste products

Membrane Transport
 The plasma membrane is a selectively permeable

barrier
 Some materials can pass through, while others are
excluded
 For example:
 Nutrients can enter the cell
 Undesirable substances are kept out

Membrane Transport
 Two basic methods of transport

 Passive processes: substances are transported across
the membrane without any input from the cell
 Active processes: the cell provides the metabolic
energy (ATP) to drive the transport process

A&P FlixTM: Membrane Transport

Membrane Transport
 Passive processes: diffusion and filtration

 Diffusion
 Molecule movement is from high concentration to low
concentration, down a concentration gradient
 Particles tend to distribute themselves evenly within a
solution
 Kinetic energy (energy of motion) causes the molecules
to move about randomly
 Size of the molecule and temperature affect the speed
of diffusion

Figure 3.9 Diffusion.

Membrane Transport
 Molecules will move by diffusion if any of the

following applies:
 The molecules are small enough to pass through
the membrane’s pores (channels formed by
membrane proteins)
 The molecules are lipid-soluble
 The molecules are assisted by a membrane
carrier

Membrane Transport
 Types of diffusion
 Simple diffusion
 An unassisted process
 Solutes are lipid-soluble or small enough to pass
through membrane pores

Figure 3.10a Diffusion through the plasma membrane.
Extracellular fluid
Lipid-
soluble
solutes
Cytoplasm
(a) Simple diffusion

of lipid-soluble
solutes directly
through the
phospholipid
bilayer
Membrane Transport
 Types of diffusion (continued)

 Osmosis—simple diffusion of water across a
selectively permeable membrane
 Highly polar water molecules easily cross the plasma
membrane through aquaporins
 Water moves down its concentration gradient

Figure 3.10b Diffusion through the plasma membrane.
Water
molecules
(b) Osmosis,
diffusion of water
through a specific
channel protein
(aquaporin)
Membrane Transport
 Osmosis—A Closer Look

 Isotonic solutions have the same solute and water
concentrations as cells and cause no visible changes
in the cell
 Hypertonic solutions contain more solutes than the
cells do; the cells will begin to shrink
 Hypotonic solutions contain fewer solutes (more water)
than the cells do; cells will plump

A Closer Look 3.1 IV Therapy and Cellular “Tonics.”
(a) RBC in isotonic solution (b) RBC in hypertonic solution (c) RBC in hypotonic solution

Membrane Transport
 Types of diffusion (continued)

 Facilitated diffusion
 Transports lipid-insoluble and large substances
 Glucose is transported via facilitated diffusion
 Protein membrane channels or protein molecules that
act as carriers are used

Figure 3.10cd Diffusion through the plasma membrane.
Small lipid- Lipid-

insoluble insoluble
solutes solutes
Lipid
bilayer
(c) Facilitated (d) Facilitated diffusion via

diffusion through protein carrier specific for one
a channel protein; chemical; binding of substrate
mostly ions, causes shape change in
selected on basis transport protein
of size and charge

Membrane Transport
 Passive processes
 Filtration
 Water and solutes are forced through a membrane by
fluid, or hydrostatic, pressure
 A pressure gradient must exist that pushes solute-
containing fluid (filtrate) from a high-pressure area to a
lower-pressure area
 Filtration is critical for the kidneys to work properly

Membrane Transport
 Active processes
 ATP is used to move substances across a membrane
 Active processes are used when:
 Substances are too large to travel through membrane
channels
 The membrane may lack special protein carriers for the
transport of certain substances
 Substances may not be lipid-soluble
 Substances may have to move against a concentration
gradient

Membrane Transport
 Active processes (continued)

 Active transport and vesicular transport
 Active transport
 Amino acids, some sugars, and ions are transported by
protein carriers known as solute pumps
 ATP energizes solute pumps
 In most cases, substances are moved against
concentration (or electrical) gradients

Membrane Transport
 Active transport example: sodium-potassium

pump
 Necessary for nerve impulses
 Sodium is transported out of the cell
 Potassium is transported into the cell

Figure 3.11 Operation of the sodium-potassium pump, a solute pump. Slide 1
Extracellular fluid
Na+
Na+ K+
Na+-K+ pump Na+
Na+
Na+
K+
Pi
Pi
Na+ K+
ATP Na+
1 2 3 K+
ADP
1 Binding of cytoplasmic Na+ 2 The shape change expels 3 Loss of phosphate restores
to the pump protein stimulates Na+ to the outside. Extracellular the original shape of the pump
phosphorylation by ATP, which K+ binds, causing release of the protein. K+ is released to the
causes the pump protein to inorganic phosphate group. cytoplasm, and Na+ sites are
change its shape. ready to bind Na+ again; the
cycle repeats.
Cytoplasm

Extracellular fluid
Na+-K+ pump
Na+
Na+
Pi
ATP Na+
1
ADP
1 Binding of cytoplasmic Na+

to the pump protein stimulates
phosphorylation by ATP, which
causes the pump protein to
change its shape.
Cytoplasm

Extracellular fluid
Na+
Na+ K+
Na+-K+ pump Na+
Na+
Na+
K+
Pi
Pi
ATP Na+
1 2
ADP
1 Binding of cytoplasmic Na+ 2 The shape change expels

to the pump protein stimulates Na+ to the outside. Extracellular
phosphorylation by ATP, which K+ binds, causing release of the
causes the pump protein to inorganic phosphate group.
change its shape.
Cytoplasm

Extracellular fluid
Na+
Na+ K+
Na+-K+ pump Na+
Na+
Na+
K+
Pi
Pi
Na+ K+
ATP Na+
1 2 3 K+
ADP
1 Binding of cytoplasmic Na+ 2 The shape change expels 3 Loss of phosphate restores
to the pump protein stimulates Na+ to the outside. Extracellular the original shape of the pump
phosphorylation by ATP, which K+ binds, causing release of the protein. K+ is released to the
causes the pump protein to inorganic phosphate group. cytoplasm, and Na+ sites are
change its shape. ready to bind Na+ again; the
cycle repeats.
Cytoplasm

Membrane Transport
 Active processes (continued)

 Vesicular transport: substances are moved across the
membrane “in bulk” without actually crossing the
plasma membrane
 Types of vesicular transport
 Exocytosis
 Endocytosis
 Phagocytosis
 Pinocytosis

Membrane Transport
 Exocytosis
 Mechanism cells use to actively secrete hormones,
mucus, and other products
 Material is carried in a membranous sac called a
vesicle that migrates to and combines with the plasma
membrane
 Contents of vesicle are emptied to the outside
 Refer to pathway 1 in Figure 3.6

Figure 3.6 Role of the Golgi apparatus in packaging the products of the rough ER.
Membrane Transport
 Exocytosis (continued)
 Exocytosis docking process
 Docking proteins on the vesicles recognize plasma
membrane proteins and bind with them
 Membranes corkscrew and fuse together

Figure 3.12a Exocytosis.
Extracellular Plasma
fluid membrane
docking
protein
1 The membrane-
bound vesicle
Vesicle
migrates to the
docking plasma membrane.
protein
Molecule
to be
secreted
Secretory
vesicle Cytoplasm
Fusion pore formed

2 There, docking
proteins on the
vesicle and plasma
membrane bind, the
vesicle and
Fused membrane fuse, and
docking a pore opens up.
proteins
3 Vesicle contents
are released to the
cell exterior.
(a) The process of exocytosis

Figure 3.12b Exocytosis.
(b) Electron micrograph of a

secretory vesicle in
exocytosis (190,000×)

Membrane Transport
 Endocytosis
 Extracellular substances are enclosed (engulfed) in a
membranous vesicle
 Vesicle detaches from the plasma membrane and
moves into the cell
 Once in the cell, the vesicle typically fuses with a
lysosome
 Contents are digested by lysosomal enzymes
 In some cases, the vesicle is released by exocytosis
on the opposite side of the cell

Figure 3.13a Events and types of endocytosis. Slide 1
Extracellular
fluid Cytoplasm Plasma
membrane
Vesicle
Lysosome
1 Vesicle
forms and fuses
with lysosome Release of
for digestion. 2A contents to
cytosol
2 Transport to plasma
membrane and exocytosis
of vesicle contents
Detached vesicle
2B
Ingested
substance
3 Membranes and receptors

(if present) recycled to
Pit plasma membrane
(a) Endocytosis (pinocytosis)

Extracellular
fluid Plasma
membrane
1 Vesicle
forms and fuses
with lysosome
for digestion.

Extracellular
membrane
Vesicle
Lysosome
1 Vesicle
forms and fuses
with lysosome
for digestion.
of vesicle contents
Detached vesicle

Extracellular
membrane
Vesicle
Lysosome
1 Vesicle
forms and fuses
cytosol
of vesicle contents
Detached vesicle

Extracellular
membrane
Vesicle
Lysosome
1 Vesicle
forms and fuses
cytosol
of vesicle contents
Detached vesicle
2B

Extracellular
membrane
Vesicle
Lysosome
1 Vesicle
forms and fuses
cytosol
of vesicle contents
Detached vesicle
2B
Ingested
substance

Pit plasma membrane

Membrane Transport
 Types of endocytosis
1. Phagocytosis—“cell eating”
 Cell engulfs large particles such as bacteria or dead
body cells
 Pseudopods are cytoplasmic extensions that separate
substances (such as bacteria or dead body cells) from
external environment
 Phagocytosis is a protective mechanism, not a means
of getting nutrients

Figure 3.13b Events and types of endocytosis.
Cytoplasm
Extracellular
fluid
Bacterium
or other
particle
Pseudopod
(b) Phagocytosis

Membrane Transport
 Types of endocytosis (continued)

2. Pinocytosis—“cell drinking”
 Cell “gulps” droplets of extracellular fluid containing
dissolved proteins or fats
 Plasma membrane forms a pit, and edges fuse around
droplet of fluid
 Routine activity for most cells, such as those involved in
absorption (small intestine)

Figure 3.13a Events and types of endocytosis.
Extracellular
membrane
Vesicle
Lysosome
1 Vesicle
forms and fuses
cytosol
of vesicle contents
Detached vesicle
2B
Ingested
substance

Pit plasma membrane

Membrane Transport
 Types of endocytosis (continued)

3. Receptor-mediated endocytosis
 Method for taking up specific target molecules
 Receptor proteins on the membrane surface bind
only certain substances
 Highly selective process of taking in substances
such as enzymes, some hormones, cholesterol,
and iron

Figure 3.13c Events and types of endocytosis.
Membrane
receptor
Target molecule
(c) Receptor-mediated
endocytosis

Cell Division
 Cell life cycle is a series of changes the cell

experiences from the time it is formed until it
divides
 Cell life cycle has two major periods
1. Interphase (metabolic phase)
 Cell grows and carries on metabolic processes
 Longer phase of the cell cycle
2. Cell division
 Cell reproduces itself

Cell Division
 Preparations: DNA Replication

 Genetic material is duplicated and readies a cell for
division into two cells
 Occurs toward the end of interphase

Cell Division
 Process of DNA replication

 DNA uncoils into two nucleotide chains, and each side
serves as a template
 Nucleotides are complementary
 Adenine (A) always bonds with thymine (T)
 Guanine (G) always bonds with cytosine (C)
 For example, TACTGC bonds with new nucleotides in
the order ATGACG

Figure 3.14 Replication of the DNA molecule at the end of interphase.
KEY:
Adenine
Thymine
Cytosine
Guanine
New
Old Newly strand Old (template)
(template) synthesized forming strand
strand strand
DNA of one sister chromatid
Cell Division
 Events of cell division

 Mitosis—division of the nucleus
 Results in the formation of two daughter nuclei
 Cytokinesis—division of the cytoplasm
 Begins when mitosis is near completion
 Results in the formation of two daughter cells

A&P Flix™: Mitosis

Cell Division
 Events of mitosis: prophase

 Chromatin coils into chromosomes; identical strands
called chromatids are held together by a centromere
 Centrioles direct the assembly of a mitotic spindle
 Nuclear envelope and nucleoli have broken down

Cell Division
 Events of mitosis: metaphase

 Chromosomes are aligned in the center of the cell on
the metaphase plate (center of the spindle midway
between the centrioles)
 Straight line of chromosomes is now seen

Cell Division
 Events of mitosis: anaphase

 Centromere splits
 Chromatids move slowly apart and toward the
opposite ends of the cell
 Anaphase is over when the chromosomes stop moving

Cell Division
 Events of mitosis: telophase

 Reverse of prophase
 Chromosomes uncoil to become chromatin
 Spindles break down and disappear
 Nuclear envelope re-forms around chromatin
 Nucleoli appear in each of the daughter nuclei

Cell Division
 Cytokinesis
 Division of the cytoplasm
 Begins during late anaphase and completes during
telophase
 A cleavage furrow (contractile ring of microfilaments)
forms to pinch the cells into two parts
 Two daughter cells exist

Cell Division
 In most cases, mitosis and cytokinesis occur

together
 In some cases, the cytoplasm is not divided
 Binucleate or multinucleate cells result
 Common in the liver and skeletal muscle

Figure 3.15 Stages of mitosis. Slide 1
Centrioles Chromatin Centrioles Spindle Centromere
microtubules
Forming
mitotic
spindle
Centromere
Plasma Nuclear Chromosome, Fragments of

membrane envelope consisting of two nuclear envelope
sister chromatids
Nucleolus
Interphase Early prophase Late prophase
Metaphase Nucleolus
plate forming
Cleavage
furrow
Nuclear
Mitotic Sister Daughter envelope
spindle chromatids chromosomes forming
Metaphase Anaphase Telophase and cytokinesis

Figure 3.15 Stages of mitosis (1 of 6). Slide 2
Centrioles Chromatin
Plasma Nuclear
membrane envelope
Nucleolus
Interphase

Centrioles
Forming
mitotic
spindle
Centromere
Chromosome,
consisting of two
sister chromatids
Early prophase

Spindle Centromere
microtubules
Fragments of
nuclear envelope
Late prophase

Metaphase
plate
Mitotic Sister
spindle chromatids
Metaphase

Daughter
chromosomes
Anaphase

Nucleolus
forming
Cleavage
furrow
Nuclear
envelope
forming
Telophase and cytokinesis

Protein Synthesis
 DNA serves as a blueprint for making proteins

 Gene: DNA segment that carries a blueprint for
building one protein or polypeptide chain
 Proteins have many functions
 Fibrous (structural) proteins are the building materials
for cells
 Globular (functional) proteins can act as enzymes
(biological catalysts)

Protein Synthesis
 DNA information is coded into a sequence of

bases
 A sequence of three bases (triplet) codes for an
amino acid
 For example, a DNA sequence of AAA specifies
the amino acid phenylalanine

Protein Synthesis
 The role of DNA

 Most ribosomes, the manufacturing sites of proteins,
are located in the cytoplasm
 DNA never leaves the nucleus in interphase cells
 DNA requires a decoder and a messenger to carry
instructions to build proteins to ribosomes
 Both the decoder and messenger functions are carried
out by RNA (ribonucleic acid)

Protein Synthesis
 How does RNA differ from DNA?

 RNA is single-stranded
 RNA contains ribose sugar instead of deoxyribose
 RNA contains uracil (U) base instead of thymine (T)

Protein Synthesis
 Three varieties of RNA

 Transfer RNA (tRNA): Transfers appropriate amino
acids to the ribosome for building the protein
 Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): Helps form the ribosomes
where proteins are built
 Messenger RNA (mRNA): Carries the instructions for
building a protein from the nucleus to the ribosome

Protein Synthesis
 Protein synthesis involves two major phases:

 Transcription
 Translation
 We will detail these two phases next

Protein Synthesis
 Transcription
 Transfer of information from DNA’s base sequence to
the complementary base sequence of mRNA
 DNA is the template for transcription; mRNA is the
product
 Each DNA triplet corresponds to an mRNA codon
 If DNA sequence is AAT-CGT-TCG, then the mRNA
corresponding codons are UUA-GCA-AGC

Figure 3.16a Protein synthesis (1 of 2).
Nucleus DNA Cytoplasm

(site of transcription) gene (site of translation)
1 mRNA specifying
one polypeptide is
made from a gene on
the DNA template by an
enzyme (not shown).
2 mRNA leaves nucleus

Amino and attaches to ribosome,
mRNA acids and translation begins.
Nuclear pore
Nuclear membrane Correct amino

acid attached to Synthetase
each type of enzyme
tRNA by an
enzyme

Protein Synthesis
 Translation
 Base sequence of nucleic acid is translated to an
amino acid sequence; amino acids are the building
blocks of proteins
 Occurs in the cytoplasm and involves three major
varieties of RNA

Protein Synthesis
 Translation (continued)
 Steps correspond to Figure 3.16 (step 1 covers
transcription)
 Step 2: mRNA leaves nucleus and attaches to
ribosome, and translation begins
 Step 3: incoming tRNA recognizes a complementary
mRNA codon calling for its amino acid by temporarily
binding its anticodon to the codon

Figure 3.16 Protein synthesis. Slide 1
1 mRNA specifying
one polypeptide is
made from a gene on
enzyme (not shown).

Nuclear pore

each type of enzyme
tRNA by an
enzyme
IIe 3 Incoming tRNA

recognizes a complementary
Growing mRNA codon calling for its
polypeptide amino acid by temporarily
Met
chain
Gly
binding its anticodon to the
4 As the ribosome moves codon.
along the mRNA, a new amino Ser
tRNA “head”
acid is added to the growing Phe bearing anticodon
protein chain.
Ala
Peptide bond
5 Released tRNA
reenters the cytoplasmic
pool, ready to be recharged Large ribosomal subunit
with a new amino acid.
Codon
Direction of ribosome
Small ribosomal subunit reading; ribosome
Portion of moves the mRNA strand
mRNA already along sequentially
translated as each codon is read.

Figure 3.16 Protein synthesis (1 of 2). Slide 2

1 mRNA specifying
one polypeptide is
made from a gene on
enzyme (not shown).
Amino
mRNA acids
Nuclear pore

each type of enzyme
tRNA by an
enzyme


1 mRNA specifying
one polypeptide is
made from a gene on
enzyme (not shown).
2 mRNA leaves
Amino nucleus and attaches to
mRNA acids ribosome, and
translation begins.
Nuclear pore

each type of enzyme
tRNA by an
enzyme

IIe 3 Incoming tRNA

mRNA codon calling for its
amino acid by temporarily
codon.
tRNA “head”
bearing anticodon
Large ribosomal subunit
Codon

Protein Synthesis
 Translation (continued)
 Steps correspond to Figure 3.16
 Step 4: as the ribosome moves along the mRNA, a new
amino acid is added to the growing protein chain
 Step 5: released tRNA reenters the cytoplasmic pool,
ready to be recharged with a new amino acid

IIe 3 Incoming tRNA

Met
chain binding its anticodon to the
4 As the ribosome moves along Gly codon.
the mRNA, a new amino acid is Ser
added to the growing protein tRNA “head”
chain. Phe bearing anticodon
Ala
Peptide bond
Large ribosomal subunit
Codon

IIe 3 Incoming tRNA

Met
chain binding its anticodon to the
4 As the ribosome moves along Gly codon.
the mRNA, a new amino acid is Ser
added to the growing protein tRNA “head”
chain. Phe bearing anticodon
Ala
Peptide bond
5 Released tRNA
Codon

Figure 3.16 Protein synthesis. Slide 7
1 mRNA specifying
one polypeptide is
made from a gene on
enzyme (not shown).

Nuclear pore

each type of enzyme
tRNA by an
enzyme
IIe 3 Incoming tRNA

Met
chain
Gly
4 As the ribosome moves codon.
along the mRNA, a new amino Ser
tRNA “head”
acid is added to the growing Phe bearing anticodon
protein chain.
Ala
Peptide bond
5 Released tRNA
Codon

Part II: Body Tissues
 Tissues
 Groups of cells with similar structure and function
 Four primary types:
1. Epithelial tissue (epithelium)
2. Connective tissue
3. Muscle tissue
4. Nervous tissue

Epithelial Tissue
 Locations:
 Body coverings
 Body linings
 Glandular tissue
 Functions:
 Protection
 Absorption
 Filtration
 Secretion

Epithelial Tissue
 Hallmarks of epithelial tissues:

 Cover and line body surfaces
 Often form sheets with one free surface, the apical
surface, and an anchored surface, the basement
membrane
 Avascular (no blood supply)
 Regenerate easily if well nourished

Epithelial Tissue
 Classification of epithelia
 Number of cell layers
 Simple—one layer
 Stratified—more than one layer
 Shape of cells
 Squamous—flattened, like fish scales
 Cuboidal—cube-shaped, like dice
 Columnar—shaped like columns

Figure 3.17a Classification and functions of epithelia.
Apical surface
Basal Simple
surface
Apical surface
Basal
surface Stratified
(a) Classification based on number
of cell layers
Figure 3.17b Classification and functions of epithelia.
Squamous
Cuboidal
Columnar
(b) Classification based on
cell shape
Figure 3.17c Classification and functions of epithelia.
Number of layers
Cell shape One layer: simple epithelial More than one layer: stratified
tissues epithelial tissues
Squamous Diffusion and filtration Secretion in Protection
serous membranes
Cuboidal Secretion and absorption; ciliated types Protection; these tissue types are rare
propel mucus or reproductive cells in humans
Columnar Secretion and absorption; ciliated types
propel mucus or reproductive cells
Transitional No simple transitional epithelium exists Protection; stretching to accommodate

distension of urinary structures
(c) Function of epithelial tissue related to tissue type

Epithelial Tissue
 Simple epithelia
 Functions in absorption, secretion, and filtration
 Very thin (so not suited for protection)

Epithelial Tissue
 Simple squamous epithelium

 Single layer of flat cells
 Locations—usually forms membranes
 Lines air sacs of the lungs
 Forms walls of capillaries
 Forms serous membranes (serosae) that line and cover
organs in ventral cavity
 Functions in diffusion, filtration, or secretion in
membranes

Figure 3.18a Types of epithelia and examples of common locations in the body.
Air sacs of
lungs
Nucleus of Nuclei of
squamous squamous
epithelial cell epithelial
cells
Basement
membrane Photomicrograph: Simple squamous
epithelium forming part of the alveolar
(a) Diagram: Simple squamous (air sac) walls (275×).

Epithelial Tissue
 Simple cuboidal epithelium

 Single layer of cubelike cells
 Locations
 Common in glands and their ducts
 Forms walls of kidney tubules
 Covers the surface of ovaries
 Functions in secretion and absorption; ciliated types

Figure 3.18b Types of epithelia and examples of common locations in the body.
Nucleus of Simple
simple cuboidal
cuboidal epithelial
epithelial cells
cell
Basement
Basement membrane
membrane
Connective
tissue
Photomicrograph: Simple cuboidal

(b) Diagram: Simple cuboidal epithelium in kidney tubules (250×).

Epithelial Tissue
 Simple columnar epithelium

 Single layer of tall cells
 Goblet cells secrete mucus
 Locations
 Lining of the digestive tract from stomach to anus
 Mucous membranes (mucosae) line body cavities
opening to the exterior
 Functions in secretion and absorption; ciliated types

Figure 3.18c Types of epithelia and examples of common locations in the body.
Nuclei of simple Mucus of a

columnar epithelial cells goblet cell
tend to line up
Simple columnar
epithelial cell
Basement
Basement membrane
membrane
Photomicrograph: Simple columnar

(c) Diagram: Simple columnar epithelium of the small intestine (575×).

Epithelial Tissue
 Pseudostratified columnar epithelium

 All cells rest on a basement membrane
 Single layer, but some cells are shorter than others
giving a false (pseudo) impression of stratification
 Location: respiratory tract, where it is ciliated and
known as pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
 Functions in absorption or secretion

Figure 3.18d Types of epithelia and examples of common locations in the body.
Pseudo-
stratified Cilia
epithelial
layer
Pseudostratified
Basement epithelial layer
membrane
Basement
Nuclei of membrane
pseudostratified
cells do not line up Connective tissue
Photomicrograph: Pseudostratified
(d) Diagram: Pseudostratified (ciliated) ciliated columnar epithelium lining
columnar the human trachea (560×).

Epithelial Tissue
 Stratified epithelia
 Consist of two or more cell layers
 Function primarily in protection

Epithelial Tissue
 Stratified squamous epithelium

 Most common stratified epithelium
 Named for cells present at the free (apical) surface,
which are squamous
 Functions as a protective covering where friction is
common
 Locations—lining of the:
 Skin (outer portion)
 Mouth
 Esophagus

Figure 3.18e Types of epithelia and examples of common locations in the body.
Nuclei
Stratified
squamous
epithelium Stratified
squamous
epithelium
Basement Basement
membrane membrane
Connective
Photomicrograph: Stratified tissue
squamous epithelium lining of
(e) Diagram: Stratified squamous the esophagus (140×).

Epithelial Tissue
 Stratified cuboidal epithelium—two layers of

cuboidal cells; functions in protection
 Stratified columnar epithelium—surface cells are
columnar, and cells underneath vary in size and
shape; functions in protection
 Stratified cuboidal and columnar
 Rare in human body
 Found mainly in ducts of large glands

Epithelial Tissue
 Transitional epithelium
 Composed of modified stratified squamous epithelium
 Shape of cells depends upon the amount of stretching
 Functions in stretching and the ability to return to
normal shape
 Location: lining of urinary system organs

Figure 3.18f Types of epithelia and examples of common locations in the body.
Basement
membrane
Transi-
tional
epithelium
Transitional
Basement epithelium
membrane
Connective
tissue
Photomicrograph: Transitional epithelium lining of

the bladder, relaxed state (270×); surface rounded cells
(f) Diagram: Transitional flatten and elongate when the bladder fills with urine.

Epithelial Tissue
 Glandular epithelia
 One or more cells responsible for secreting a particular
product
 Secretions contain protein molecules in an aqueous
(water-based) fluid
 Secretion is an active process

Epithelial Tissue
 Two major gland types develop from epithelial

sheets
 Endocrine glands
 Ductless; secretions (hormones) diffuse into blood
vessels
 Examples include thyroid, adrenals, and pituitary
 Exocrine glands
 Secretions empty through ducts to the epithelial surface
 Include sweat and oil glands, liver, and pancreas (both
internal and external)

Connective Tissue
 Found everywhere in the body to connect body

parts
 Includes the most abundant and widely
distributed tissues
 Functions
 Protection
 Support
 Binding

Connective Tissue
 Characteristics of connective tissue

 Variations in blood supply
 Some tissue types are well vascularized
 Some have a poor blood supply or are avascular
 Extracellular matrix
 Nonliving material that surrounds living cells

Connective Tissue
 Two main elements of the extracellular matrix

1. Ground substance—mostly water, along with
adhesion proteins and polysaccharide molecules
2. Fibers
 Collagen (white) fibers
 Elastic (yellow) fibers
 Reticular fibers (a type of collagen)

Connective Tissue
 Types of connective tissue from most rigid to

softest, or most fluid:
 Bone
 Cartilage
 Dense connective tissue
 Loose connective tissue
 Blood

Connective Tissue
 Bone (osseous tissue)

 Composed of:
 Osteocytes (bone cells) sitting in lacunae (cavities)
 Hard matrix of calcium salts
 Large numbers of collagen fibers
 Functions to protect and support the body

Figure 3.19a Connective tissues and their common body locations.
Osteocytes
(bone cells)
in lacunae Central canal
Lacunae
(a) Diagram: Bone Photomicrograph: Cross-sectional view

of bone (165×).

Connective Tissue
 Cartilage
 Less hard and more flexible than bone
 Found in only a few places in the body
 Chondrocyte (cartilage cell) is the major cell type
 Types
 Hyaline cartilage
 Fibrocartilage
 Elastic cartilage

Connective Tissue
 Hyaline cartilage
 Most widespread type of cartilage
 Abundant collagen fibers hidden by a glassy, rubbery
matrix
 Locations
 Trachea
 Attaches ribs to the breastbone
 Covers ends of long bones
 Entire fetal skeleton prior to birth
 Epiphyseal (growth) plates in long bones

Figure 3.19b Connective tissues and their common body locations.
Chondrocyte
(cartilage cell)
Chondrocyte
in lacuna
Lacunae Matrix
(b) Diagram: Hyaline cartilage Photomicrograph: Hyaline cartilage

from the trachea (400×).

Connective Tissue
 Elastic cartilage (not pictured)

 Provides elasticity
 Location: supports the external ear
 Fibrocartilage
 Highly compressible
 Location: forms cushionlike discs between vertebrae of
the spinal column

Figure 3.19c Connective tissues and their common body locations.
Chondrocytes
in lacunae
Chondro-
cytes in
lacunae Collagen fiber
Collagen
fibers
(c) Diagram: Fibrocartilage Photomicrograph: Fibrocartilage of an

intervertebral disc (150×).

Connective Tissue
 Dense connective tissue (dense fibrous tissue)

 Main matrix element is collagen fiber
 Fibroblasts are cells that make fibers
 Locations
 Tendons—attach skeletal muscle to bone
 Ligaments—attach bone to bone at joints and are more
elastic than tendons
 Dermis—lower layers of the skin

Figure 3.19d Connective tissues and their common body locations.
Ligament
Tendon
Collagen
fibers
Collagen
fibers
Nuclei of
Nuclei of fibroblasts
fibroblasts
(d) Diagram: Dense fibrous Photomicrograph: Dense fibrous connective

tissue from a tendon (475×).

Connective Tissue
 Loose connective tissue

 Softer, have more cells and fewer fibers than other
connective tissues (except blood)
 Types
 Areolar
 Adipose
 Reticular

Connective Tissue
 Areolar connective tissue

 Most widely distributed connective tissue
 Soft, pliable tissue like “cobwebs”
 Functions as a universal packing tissue and “glue” to
hold organs in place
 Layer of areolar tissue called lamina propria underlies
all membranes
 All fiber types form a loose network
 Can soak up excess fluid (causes edema)

Figure 3.19e Connective tissues and their common body locations.
Mucosal
epithelium
Lamina Elastic
propria fibers
Collagen
fibers
Elastic Fibroblast
fibers of nuclei
matrix
Nuclei of
fibroblasts
Collagen
fibers
(e) Diagram: Areolar Photomicrograph: Areolar connective tissue, a
soft packaging tissue of the body (270×).

Connective Tissue
 Adipose connective tissue

 An areolar tissue in which adipose (fat) cells dominate
 Functions
 Insulates the body
 Protects some organs
 Serves as a site of fuel storage
 Locations
 Subcutaneous tissue beneath the skin
 Protects organs, such as the kidneys
 Fat “depots” include hips, breasts, and belly

Figure 3.19f Connective tissues and their common body locations.
Nuclei of
fat cells
Vacuole
containing
fat droplet
Nuclei of
fat cells
Vacuole
containing
fat droplet
(f) Diagram: Adipose Photomicrograph: Adipose tissue from the

subcutaneous layer beneath the skin (570×).

Connective Tissue
 Reticular connective tissue

 Delicate network of interwoven fibers with reticular
cells (like fibroblasts)
 Forms stroma (internal framework) of organs
 Locations
 Lymph nodes
 Spleen
 Bone marrow

Figure 3.19g Connective tissues and their common body locations.
Spleen
White blood cell

(lymphocyte)
Reticular
cell Reticular fibers
Blood
cell
Reticular
fibers
(g) Diagram: Reticular Photomicrograph: Dark-staining network

of reticular connective tissue (400×).

Connective Tissue
 Blood (vascular tissue)

 Blood cells surrounded by fluid matrix known as blood
plasma
 Soluble fibers are visible only during clotting
 Functions as the transport vehicle for the
cardiovascular system, carrying:
 Nutrients
 Wastes
 Respiratory gases

Figure 3.19h Connective tissues and their common body locations.
Blood cells
in capillary Plasma (fluid
matrix)
Neutrophil
(white blood
cell)
White Red blood

blood cell cells
Monocyte
Red (white blood
blood cells cell)
(h) Diagram: Blood Photomicrograph: Smear of human blood (1290×)

Muscle Tissue
 Function is to contract, or shorten, to produce

movement
 Three types of muscle tissue
1. Skeletal
2. Cardiac
3. Smooth

Muscle Tissue
 Skeletal muscle tissue

 Packaged by connective tissue sheets into skeletal
muscles, which are attached to the skeleton and pull
on bones or skin
 Voluntarily (consciously) controlled
 Produces gross body movements or facial expressions
 Characteristics of skeletal muscle cells
 Striations (stripes)
 Multinucleate (more than one nucleus)
 Long, cylindrical shape

Figure 3.20a Types of muscle tissue and their common locations in the body.
Striations
Multiple nuclei
per fiber
Part of muscle
fiber
(a) Diagram: Skeletal muscle Photomicrograph: Skeletal muscle (195×).

Muscle Tissue
 Cardiac muscle tissue

 Involuntarily controlled
 Found only in the heart
 Pumps blood through blood vessels
 Characteristics of cardiac muscle cells
 Striations
 One nucleus per cell
 Short, branching cells
 Intercalated discs contain gap junctions to connect cells
together

Figure 3.20b Types of muscle tissue and their common locations in the body.
Intercalated
discs
Nucleus
(b) Diagram: Cardiac muscle Photomicrograph: Cardiac muscle (475×).

Muscle Tissue
 Smooth (visceral) muscle tissue

 Involuntarily controlled
 Found in walls of hollow organs such as stomach,
uterus, and blood vessels
 Peristalsis, a wavelike activity, is a typical activity
 Characteristics of smooth muscle cells
 No visible striations
 One nucleus per cell
 Spindle-shaped cells

Figure 3.20c Types of muscle tissue and their common locations in the body.
Nuclei
Smooth
muscle cell
(c) Diagram: Smooth muscle Photomicrograph: Sheet of smooth muscle (360×).

Nervous Tissue
 Function is to receive and conduct

electrochemical impulses to and from body parts
 Irritability
 Conductivity
 Composed of neurons and nerve support cells
 Support cells called neuroglia insulate, protect, and
support neurons

Figure 3.21 Nervous tissue.
Brain
Nuclei of
Spinal neuroglia
cord (supporting
cells)
Nuclei of Cell body

neuroglia of neuron
(supporting
cells)
Cell body Neuron
of neuron processes
Neuron
processes
Diagram: Nervous tissue Photomicrograph: Neurons (320×)

Summary of Tissues
 Figure 3.22 summarizes the tissue types and

functions in the body

Figure 3.22 Summary of the major functions, characteristics, and body locations of the four tissue types: epithelial, connective, muscle, and
nervous tissues.
Nervous tissue: Internal communication and control
Hallmarks: irritable, conductive
• Brain, spinal cord, and nerves
Muscle tissue: Contracts to cause movement

Hallmarks: irritable, contractile
• Muscles attached to bones (skeletal)
• Muscles of heart wall (cardiac)
• Muscles of walls of hollow organs (smooth)
Epithelial tissue: Forms boundaries between different

environments, protects, secretes, absorbs, filters
Hallmarks: one free (apical) surface, avascular
• Lining of GI tract and other hollow organs
• Skin surface (epidermis)
Connective tissue: Supports, protects, binds

other tissues together
Hallmarks: extracellular matrix, varying vascularity
• Cartilage
• Bones
• Tendons
• Fat and other soft padding tissue

Tissue Repair (Wound Healing)
 Tissue repair (wound healing) occurs in two ways:

1. Regeneration
 Replacement of destroyed tissue by the same kind of
cells
2. Fibrosis
 Repair by dense (fibrous) connective tissue (scar
tissue)

 Whether regeneration or fibrosis occurs depends

on:
1. Type of tissue damaged
2. Severity of the injury
 Clean cuts (incisions) heal more successfully
than ragged tears of the tissue

 Events of tissue repair

 Inflammation sets the stage
 Capillaries become very permeable
 Clotting proteins migrate into the area from the
bloodstream
 A clot walls off the injured area
 Granulation tissue forms
 Growth of new capillaries
 Phagocytes dispose of blood clot and fibroblasts
 Rebuild collagen fibers

 Events of tissue repair (continued)

 Regeneration and fibrosis effect permanent repair
 Scab detaches
 Whether scar is visible or invisible depends on severity
of wound

 Tissues that regenerate easily

 Epithelial tissue (skin and mucous membranes)
 Fibrous connective tissues and bone
 Tissues that regenerate poorly
 Skeletal muscle
 Tissues that are replaced largely with scar tissue
 Cardiac muscle
 Nervous tissue within the brain and spinal cord

Developmental Aspects of Cells and Tissues
 Growth through cell division continues through

puberty
 Cell populations exposed to friction (such as
epithelium) replace lost cells throughout life
 Connective tissue remains mitotic and forms
repair (scar) tissue
 With some exceptions, muscle tissue becomes
amitotic by the end of puberty
 Nervous tissue becomes amitotic shortly after
birth
 Injury can severely handicap amitotic tissues

 The cause of aging is unknown, but chemical and
physical insults, as well as genetic programming,
have been proposed as possible causes

 Neoplasms, both benign and cancerous,

represent abnormal cell masses in which normal
controls on cell division are not working
 Hyperplasia (increase in size) of a tissue or organ
may occur when tissue is strongly stimulated or
irritated
 Atrophy (decrease in size) of a tissue or organ
occurs when the organ is no longer stimulated
normally

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Chapter 3

Cells and Tissues

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Cells are the structural units of all living things

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 The Cell Theory

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Most cells are composed of four elements:

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 In general, a cell has three main regions or parts:

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© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Control center of the cell

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 Nuclear envelope (membrane)

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© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Transparent barrier for cell contents

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Fluid mosaic model is constructed of:

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Extracellular fluid Glycoprotein Glycolipid

Nonpolar tails of Proteins Filaments of

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 Phospholipid arrangement in the plasma

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© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

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 Cell membrane junctions

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 Main types of cell junctions

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 Main types of cell junctions (continued)

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 Main types of cell junctions (continued)

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Underlying Extracellular Gap

 The cellular material outside the nucleus and

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 Three major component of the cytoplasm

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Chromatin Nuclear envelope

Secretion being released

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 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

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 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (continued)

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3 The protein is packaged in a tiny

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© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

3 The protein is packaged in a tiny

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

3 The protein is packaged in a tiny

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (continued)