INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

thin layer or sheet of cells that covers the outside

of the body (skin), organs (pericardium), internal
passageways that open to the exterior of the body
(mucosa of stomach), and the lining of the
moveable joint cavities.

There are two basic types of tissue membranes:

connective tissue and epithelial membrane
The epithelial membrane is composed of epithelium attached to
a layer of connective tissue,

The mucous membrane is also a composite of connective and

epithelial tissues. Sometimes called mucosae,

These epithelial membranes line the body cavities and hollow

passageways that open to the external environment, and include
the digestive, respiratory, excretory, and reproductive tracts.
Mucous, produced by the epithelial exocrine glands, covers the
epithelial layer.

The underlying connective tissue, called the lamina propria help

support the fragile epithelial layer.
Cutaneous
Membrane
Mucous
Membrane
Serous
membrane
is an epithelial membrane composed of mesodermally derived
epithelium called the mesothelium that is supported by connective
tissue.

These membranes line cavities that do not open to the outside,

and they cover the organs located within those cavities. Serous
membranes have two layers: an outer layer that lines the body
cavity call parietal and an inner layer that covers internal organs
called visceral.
The parietal layers of the membranes line the
walls of the body cavity - refers to a cavity wall).

The visceral layer of the membrane covers the

organs .

Between the parietal and visceral layers is a very

thin, fluid-filled Serous space, or cavity.
The serous membrane covering the heart and
lining the mediastinum is referred to as the
pericardium

the serous membrane lining the thoracic cavity and

surrounding the lungs is referred to as the pleura,

lining the abdominopelvic cavity and the viscera

is referred to as the peritoneum.
■ formed solely from connective tissue.

■ These membranes encapsulate organs, such as the

kidneys, and line our movable joints.

■ A synovial membrane is a type of connective

tissue membrane that lines the cavity of a freely
movable joint

■ Fibroblasts in the inner layer of the synovial

membrane release hyaluronan into the joint
cavity.
■ The hyaluronan effectively traps available water
to form the synovial fluid, a natural lubricant that
enables the bones of a joint to move freely against
one another without much friction.

■ This synovial fluid readily exchanges water and

nutrients with blood, as do all body fluids
FUNCTIONS OF THE SKIN
SENSORY
PATHWAY
Consists of three major
regions
Epidermis – outermost
superficial region
Dermis – middle region
Hypodermis (superficial
fascia) – deepest region
 made up of stratified
EPIDERMIS squamous capable of
keratinizing
made up of
keratinocytes
avascular
The basal layer is the innermost layer of the
epidermis, and contains small round cells called
basal cells. The basal cells continually divide,
and new cells constantly push older ones up
toward the surface of the skin, where they are
eventually shed.

The basal cell layer is also known as the stratum

germinativum due to the fact that it is constantly
germinating (producing) new cells.
 ■ Outermost layer
Corneum ■ Shinglelike dead cell
remnant completely filled
with keratin cornified or
horny cells
■ Keratin is abundant in this
layer
■ Allow double coat to protect
hostile environment
■ Rub and Flakes off “basale”
25-45 day
Melanin
 ■ is a thin, clear layer of dead
Lucidum skin cells in the epidermis
named for its translucent
appearance under a
microscope.
■ It is readily visible by light
microscopy only in areas of
thick skin, which are found
on the palms of the hands
and the soles of the feet
 ■ composed of three to five
Lucidum layers of dead, flattened
keratinocytes

■ The thickness of the stratum

lucidum is controlled by the
rate of mitosis (division) of the
epidermal cells.

■ Melanosomes in the stratum

basale determine the darkness
of the stratum lucidum.
 ■ keratinocytes migrating from
granulosum the underlying stratum
spinosum become known as
granular cells in this layer.
These cells contain
keratohyalin granules, which
are filled with histidine- and
cysteine-rich proteins that
appear to bind the keratin
filaments together.

■ Therefore, the main function of

keratohyalin granules is to bind
intermediate keratin filaments
together
 ■ Their spiny appearance is due to shrinking
of the microfilaments between
Spinosum desmosomes that occurs when stained with
H&E. Keratinization begins in the stratum
spinosum.
■ This layer is composed of polyhedral
keratinocytes. They have large
pale-staining nuclei as they are active in
synthesizing fibrilar proteins, known as
cytokeratin, which build up within the
cells aggregating together forming
tonofibrils.

■ The tonofibrils go on to form the

desmosomes, which allow for strong
connections to form between adjacent
keratinocytes.
 ■ The stratum basale is primarily
basale made up of basal keratinocyte stem
cells, which can be considered the
stem cells of the epidermis. They
divide to form the keratinocytes of
the stratum spinosum, which
migrate superficially.
■ Other types of cells found within
the stratum basale are melanocytes
(pigment-producing cells),
Langerhans cells (immune cells),
and Merkel cells (touch receptors)
oval-shaped mechanoreceptors essential
for light touch sensation and found in the
skin of vertebrates.

They are abundant in highly sensitive

skin like that of the fingertips in humans,
and make synaptic contacts with
somatosensory afferent nerve fibers.

Although uncommon, these cells may

become malignant and form a Merkel
cell carcinoma—an aggressive and
difficult to treat skin cancer
Second major skin region containing strong, flexible connective
tissue
Cell types include fibroblasts, macrophages, and occasionally
mast cells and white blood cells
Composed of two layers – papillary and reticular
▪ Papillary layer
▪ Areolar connective tissue with collagen and elastic fibers
▪ Its superior surface contains peglike projections called
dermal papillae
▪ Dermal papillae contain capillary loops, Meissner’s
corpuscles, and free nerve endings
Meissner's Corpuscle..

localize in the dermis between epidermal ridges.

They contain an unmyelinated nerve ending
surrounded by Schwann cells. Meissner's corpuscles
are touch receptors and enriched in fingers and toes
Reticular layer

Accounts for approximately 80% of the thickness

of the skin
Collagen fibers in this layer add strength and
resiliency to the skin
Elastin fibers provide stretch-recoil properties
The lower, reticular layer, is thicker and made of
thick collagen fibers that are arranged in parallel
to the surface of the skin.

The reticular layer is denser than the papillary

dermis, and it strengthens the skin, providing
structure and elasticity. It also supports other
components of the skin, such as hair follicles,
sweat glands, and sebaceous glands.
The subcutis is the innermost layer of the skin

consists of a network of fat and collagen cells.

The subcutis is also known as the hypodermis or

subcutaneous layer, and functions as both an insulator,
conserving the body's heat, and as a shock-absorber,
protecting the inner organs.
It also stores fat as an energy reserve for the body. The
blood vessels, nerves, lymph vessels, and hair follicles
also cross through this layer. The thickness of the subcutis
layer varies throughout the body and from person to
person
■ Three pigments contribute to skin color
■ Melanin – yellow to reddish-brown to black pigment, responsible for dark skin colors
■ Freckles and pigmented moles – result from local accumulations of melanin
■ Carotene – yellow to orange pigment, most obvious in the palms and soles of the feet
■ Hemoglobin – reddish pigment responsible for the pinkish hue of the skin
Hair and Hair Follicles
Hair is made of a tough protein called
keratin. A hair follicle anchors each
hair into the skin.

The hair bulb forms the base of the

hair follicle. In the hair bulb, living
cells divide and grow to build the hair
shaft.

Blood vessels nourish the cells in the

hair bulb, and deliver hormones that
modify hair growth and structure at
different times of life.
Matrix- (growth zone) formed at a
division nourished by stratum
basale epithelial cell
Helping to maintain warmth

Alerting the body to presence of

insects on the skin

Guarding the scalp against

physical trauma, heat loss, and
sunlight
Hair is distributed over the entire
skin surface

except
Palms, soles, and lips
Nipples and portions of the
external genitalia
▪ Root sheath

extending from the epidermal surface into

the dermis
Deep end is expanded forming a hair bulb
A knot of sensory nerve endings (a root
hair plexus) wraps around each hair bulb
Bending a hair stimulates these endings,
hence our hairs act as sensitive touch
receptors
Hair grows out of the follicles in
cycles.

There are three different phases

of this cycle:
■ Anagen (growth)
phase. The hair begins
to grow from the root.
This phase usually
lasts between three
and seven years.
■ Catagen (transitional)
phase. The growth
slows down and the
follicle shrinks in this
phase. This lasts
between two and four
months
■ Telogen (resting)
phase. The old hair
falls out and new hair
begins to grow from
the same hair follicle.
This lasts between
three and four months
■ On average, hair grows about half an inch each month. hair growth rate can be
affected by your age, hair type, and your overall health.

■ Hair follicles aren’t just responsible for how much the hair grows, they also
influence what the hair looks like. The shape of the follicle determines how curly the
hair is. Circular follicles produce straight hair while oval follicles produce curlier
hair.

■ Hair follicles also play a part in determining the color of the hair. As with skin, the
hair gets its pigment from the presence of melanin. There are two types of melanin:
eumelanin and pheomelanin.
■ The genes determine whether the person have eumelanin or
pheomelanin, as well as how much of each pigment they have.
An abundance of eumelanin makes hair black, a moderate
amount of eumelanin makes hair brown, and very little
eumelanin makes hair blonde. Pheomelanin, on the other
hand, makes hair red.
■ This melanin is stored in hair follicle cells, which then determine the color of the
hair. The follicles can lose their ability to produce melanin as a person age, which
results in the growth of gray or white hair.

■ If hair is pulled out of the hair follicle, it can regrow. It’s possible that a damaged
follicle will stop producing hair. Certain conditions, such as alopecia, can cause
follicles to stop producing hair altogether.
A nail is a horn-like keratinous
envelope covering the tips of
the fingers and toes in most
primates.
Nails evolved from claws.

Fingernails and toenails are

made of a tough protective
protein called alpha-keratin
which is found in the hooves,
hair, claws and horns of
vertebrates
The matrix, sometimes
called matrix unguis,
keratogenous membrane,
nail matrix, or
onychostroma, is the tissue
(or germinal matrix) which
the nail protects. It is the part
of the nail bed that is beneath
the nail and contains nerves,
lymph and blood vessels
The matrix will continue to produce
cells as long as it receives nutrition
and remains in a healthy condition.

As new nail plate cells are made,

they push older nail plate cells
forward; and in this way older cells
become compressed, flat, and
translucent.

This makes the capillaries in the

nail bed below visible, resulting in a
pink color
The lunula ("small moon") is the
visible part of the matrix, the
whitish crescent-shaped base of the
visible nail.

The lunula can best be seen in the

thumb and may not be visible in the
little finger.
The nail bed is the skin beneath the
nail plate Like all skin, it is made of
two types of tissues: the deeper
dermis, the living tissue which
includes capillaries and glands, and
the epidermis, the layer just beneath
the nail plate, which moves toward
the finger tip with the plate.
The epidermis is attached to the
dermis by tiny longitudinal
"grooves“ called matrix crests
(cristae matricis unguis).

In old age, the nail plate becomes

thinner, and these grooves become
more visible.
A healthy fingernail has the function of protecting the distal
phalanx, the fingertip, and the surrounding soft tissues from
injuries.

It also serves to enhance precise delicate movements of the distal

digits through counter-pressure exerted on the pulp of the finger.
The nail then acts as a counter-force when the end of the finger
touches an object, thereby enhancing the sensitivity of the
fingertip,

although the nail itself has no nerve endings. Finally, the nail
functions as a tool enabling, for instance, a so-called "extended
precision grip" (e.g. pulling out a splinter in one's finger), and
certain cutting or scraping actions.
Thermal Burn
Chemical burn
Electrical Burn
Radiation Burn