SOCIOLOGY – LECTURE 6

IRUM KHAN
OBJECTIVES

 Understanding research methodology

 Define and describe the scientific method
 Applying scientific method in sociological research and understand reliability and validity in sociological
research
 Differentiate between various research methods
 Understand steps in a basic research model
 Describe ethical issues and/or guidelines that characterize sociological research.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

 Term used to define the overall systematic approach

undertaken in the process of trying to solve a research
problem(s) (Kothari, 2004)
 Research Methodology describes the overall approach
taken in a piece of research, with particular emphases on
the general principles of investigation that guides a study,
based on its underlying theoretical and philosophical
assumptions (Sim and Wright, 2000)
SCIENTIFIC METHOD

 The scientific method involves developing and testing

theories about the world based on empirical evidence
 The positivist believed in empiricism – the idea that
observation and measurement was the core of the
scientific endeavor.
 The key approach of the scientific method is the
experiment, the attempt to discern natural laws through
direct manipulation and observation.
 A hypothesis is a precise, testable statement of what the
researcher(s) predict will be the outcome of the study
PURPOSE OF SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH

 Purpose is to investigate and provide insights into how human

societies function
 Sociologists use Empirical evidence combined with scientific
method to deliver sound sociological research
 Sociologists combine research and theory in different ways.
Theory is used to interpret data (i.e. functionalism, symbolic
interaction and conflict theory provide frameworks for
interpreting research findings) and to generate research.
Research helps to generate theory.
 Real life situations often force researchers to conduct research
in ways that fall short of the ideal.
IMPORTANT RESEARCH TERMINOLOGY

Population The target group to be studied

Sample Individuals from within the target population who are intended to represent the
population to be studied

Random samples Where everyone in the target population has the same chance of being included in
the study

Stratified sample of specific subgroups (e.g. freshmen, sophomores, juniors) of the target population (a
college or university) in which everyone in the subgroup has an equal chance of being
Random Sample included in the study
Respondents People who respond to a survey
IMPORTANT RESEARCH TERMINOLOGY

Self-administered Asking respondents to complete the survey themselves

Questionnaires
Interviews Asking the questions directly from respondents

Interviewer bias Effects that interviewers have on respondents that lead to biased answers

Structured Closed-ended questions in which the answers are provided

Question
Unstructured Open-ended questions which people answer in their own words
Questions
TYPES OF RESEARCH
Qualitative Research
 Based on opinions and experiences
 Smaller sample
 In-depth analysis
 Open-ended question
 Interviews, focus groups
Quantitative Research
 Based on numbers
 Larger samples
 % of people agreed with the statement
 Mostly closed-ended questions
 Questionnaires, online surveys
VALID SOCIOLOGICAL TOPIC

 Sociologists research about every area of human behavior at both the macro and micro levels
 No human behavior is ineligible for research, whether it is routine or unusual, respectable or
reprehensible

Race, Sociology of
Sociology of Youth Social
Nationality, Mass Media Gender and
Food Cultures Movements
and Ethnicity Sexuality

Cults, Clans, Class Conflict Spirituality,

and and Superstition, Consumerism The Family
Communities Inequalities and Legends
RESEARCH METHODS IN SOCIOLOGY

2. Participant 3. Secondary
1. Surveys
observation analysis

4. Documents
6. Unobtrusive
or Written 5. Experiments
measures
Sources
1. SURVEYS

Surveys involve collecting data by having

people answer a series of questions.

Determine a Ensure unbiased Administer Establish

population and responses from questionnaires rapport and
select a sample respondents or interviews trust
2. PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION

The researcher participates in a research setting

while observing what happens in that setting

The extent to which the findings from one group (or sample) can be
Generalizability generalized or applied to other groups (or populations)is a problem in
participation observations studies

Hypothesis Results of participant observation studies can stimulate hypotheses and

Stimulation theories that can be tested in other settings, using other research methods
3. SECONDARY ANALYSIS

The analysis of data, already collected by other researchers,

is used when resources are limited and/or existing data
may provide excellent sources of information

Problem:
Because the researcher did not directly carry out the research, he or she cannot be sure
that the data were systematically gathered, accurately recorded, and biases avoided.
4. DOCUMENTS

Documents, or written sources, may

be obtained from many sources

Books
Newspaper
Police reports
Records at various organizations
5. EXPERIMENTS
Useful in determining causal relationships. A causal relation between two events exists if the occurrence of the first causes the
other. The first event is called the cause and the second event is called the effect

1. Involve dependent and independent 2. Require an experimental group and

variables a control group

Independent Variables Factors that cause a change in something

Dependent Variables Factors that are changed
Experimental Group Subjects exposed to the independent variables
Control Group Subjects not exposed to the independent variable

Read about variables: https://www.simplypsychology.org/variables.html

IV – DV - HYPOTHESIS

Hypothesis Independent Variable - IV Dependent Variable - DV

The greater the availability of affordable housing, the lower

Affordable Housing Homeless Rate
the homeless rate.

The greater the availability of math tutoring, the higher the

Math Tutoring Math Grades
math grades.

The greater the police patrol presence, the safer the

Police Patrol Presence Safer Neighborhood
neighborhood.

The greater the factory lighting, the higher the productivity. Factory Lighting Productivity

The greater the amount of observation, the higher the

Observation Public Awareness
public awareness.
6. UNOBTRUSIVE MEASURES

Observing social behavior of people who

do not know they are being studied

It presumably reduces the biases that result from the intrusion of the researcher or measurement
instrument.

Hawthorne Effect: People changing their behavior because they are being watched as part of study

It reduces the degree the researcher has control over the type of data collected
FACTORS IN SELECTING A RESEARCH METHOD

1. The researcher must consider resources like time and available money

2. Access to subjects is important; the sample may be physically inaccessible to the researcher, thereby
influencing the choice of methods

3. The researcher takes into consideration the purpose of the research, choosing the method that will be
most suitable for obtaining answers to the questions posed

4. The researcher's background or training also influences the choice of methods (Qualitative or
Quantitative methods)
RESEARCH MODEL

Selecting a Defining the Reviewing the Formulating a

topic problem literature hypothesis

Writing up Choosing a
Analyzing the Collecting the
and publishing research
results data
the results method
CONTROVERSY IN SOCIAL RESEARCH

 Social research can be very controversial be it

private, political, etc.
 Often the findings of social research threaten
those who have a stake in the matters being
studied.
 Peter Rossi’s study of the homeless population
is an example of such controversy.
GENDER IN SOCIAL RESEARCH

 Because gender can be a significant factor in social research, researchers take steps to prevent it from
biasing their findings.
 Gender can also be an obstacle to doing research, particularly when the gender of the researcher is
different from that of the research subjects and the topic under investigation is a sensitive one.
 There are also questions regarding the degree to which findings from a sample made up exclusively of
one gender can be generalized to the other.
ETHICS IN SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH

 Ethics are of fundamental concern to sociologists when it comes to doing

research.
 Ethical considerations include being open, honest, and truthful; not
harming the subject in the course of conducting the research; protecting
the anonymity of the research subjects; and not misrepresenting
themselves to the research subjects.
 The Brajuha research and Rik Scarce case demonstrates the lengths
sociologists will go to in order to protect the anonymity of research
subjects.
THANKYOU AND GOOD LUCK
IRUM.KHAN@CUST.EDU.PK