Nostalgia: A Sphere and Process of Contemporary Ideology Fabio B. DaSilva Department of Sociology and Anthropology University of Notre Dame Jim Faught Department of Sociology Loyola Marymount University ABSTRACT This theoretical essay looks at the ahistorical elements of nostalgia as found in popular culture, with special emphasis on discussion within the Frankfurt School offered as alternative explanations. It is argued that the anti-critical thrust of nostalgia masks the crises of monopoly capitalism and redirects the conflicts in manageable channels. This conclusion is reached in light of analyses by Marcuse, Horkheimer, Habermas, Adorno and other critical theorists who have considered these issues. Ernest Fischer (1963) brought to the attention of contem- porary scholars the work of the German Romantic, Ludwig Tieck, who provided an early commentary on the “loss of reality” in the modern world. The loss of reality to which he referred was only vaguely sensed at one time, but today has evolved into a recurrent theme in the highly industrialized capitalist world." The world of advanced capitalism, to the acting subject, has become an outside world, one constructed of impene- trable commodity relations which deny their contingency. Under these circumstances humans, as fabricators of social Revised version of paper presented at the annual meeting of the Southwestern Social Science Association, Houston, Texas (April, 1978). Request for reprints should be sent to Fabio B. DaSilva, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556. Qualitative Sociology, Vol. 5(1), Spring 1982 (0162.04 16/8271 300-0047502.75 47 ©1982 Human Sciences Press48 QUALITATIVE SOCIOLOGY and economic life, are alienated from their self-creating activity. What is accepted as reality masks the foundation and dynamics of society. Whole sectors of modern culture positively operate in the production and reproduction of this reality, while few movements exist to lay bare subtle forms of domination. Illusion displaces contradiction as social groups attempt to retain outmoded ideas and practices, The multipli- city of consumerism rather than spawning discourse over the adequacy of goals tends toward a uniformity of minds predis- posed to packaged answers rather than complex questions. One of the most coherent and powerful phenomena in this context has been the “answer” given to the complexity of life by the nostalgic? appeals of popular culture. While the dis- juncture between ideology and material conditions manifests itself in consciousness through the preservation of antiquated notions of individuality, freedom, and rationality, which were typical of earlier stages of capitalism, the actual relation between ideology and material conditions has been reorgan- ized during the latter stages of monopoly capitalism.’ The persistence of the disjuncture, however it has been altered, Posits the question of its contribution to the production and reproduction of the social order. A clear illustration of dis- juncture is the belief in the survival of a concurrential market, one which identifies individuals simply as economic actors who participate rationally and actively in a commodity market. Within the framework of an interest in the changed role of ideology in modern society we will examine some facets of the recent expression of nostalgia in American popu- lar culture. Specifically we are concerned with the motiva- tional and structural impact of nostalgia at a particular moment in the development of monopoly capitalism. AHISTORICAL ELEMENTS OF NOSTALGIA IN POPULAR CULTURE The recent preoccupation with nostalgia has been con- structed on the selective isolation and petrification of cul- tural objects whose existence was predicated on another material basis of production. By transporting artifacts, unen- cumbered by the negativity of the past,‘ they may now be used to fictionalize past and present experience. As presentlyNOSTALGIA 49 constituted, nostalgia requires a collective emotional reac- tion toward, if not an identification with, a symbolization of the past. Even should identification with the idea or object occur, this does not imply the existence of an active subject; rather it might indicate submission to the encapsulating mood.* Objects of nostalgia frequently recall pleasurable exper- iences prior to one’s adjustment to a socially defined role. This is especially true today when the level of acquiescence demanded by the regularized and calculated routines of edu- cation and job performance leave little opportunity for the liberal association of work and play.* Nostalgia, despite its obfuscating tendency, does at least acknowledge a partial validity to the past in its vision of a less compulsory existence. However, the potentially emancipatory thrust of this vision is often deflected, since nostalgia has become a vicarious exper- ience based on the objectification of an illusion. In Hork- heimer’s words, ‘The inner life and the ideal [have] become conservative factors” (1972:277). Since nostalgia appeals to an undifferentiated emotion generated by an unreal, synthetic, universal image of the past it becomes, ironically, an ahistorical defense of the status quo. In effect it resembles a collective dream that facilitates a primitive exchange of sentiments, while inhibiting a realistic appraisal of contemporary social relations. Embedded in its dual imagery is the appeal of the mythical.” The mythical when played according to its own rules brings about a pseudo-reality with a sharpness of definition that establishes a hiatus of clearly drawn simplicity. Its power derives from this characteristic, which stands in stark contrast to the general flow of complexity, ambivalence, and opacity of modern life. Horkheimer’s (1972:281) observation that ‘Ele ments of culture isolated and severed from the historical process may appear as similar as drops of water; yet they are as different as Heaven and Hell” might well apply to the anal- ysis of one consequence of the “production” of nostalgia objects. Once fabricated, these objects are usually assumed to be Tepresentative of a time more tranquil than the present. How- ever, the general orientation to life encouraged by popular culture’s use of nostalgia intentionally lacks focus. It is instead a diffuse gestalt image incorporating notions from50 QUALITATIVE SOCIOLOGY personal recollections, collective memories, and their objecti- fication in past remains or newly produced replicas. Together these elements are fused into a reconstructed nexus that attempts to reestablish a context that time has passed. The process of reconstruction often ignores the historical (national and international) tensions of these earlier periods by conceptualizing the past as a moment in time, apart from its origins and consequences. With nostalgia the real time sequence of thought and material production is broken, while abstracted bits and pieces are reordered into an imaginary life context. In so doing, nostalgia fails to provide a focus that could bring about the integrated image of the past that it claims. In one sense nostalgia represents an unfulfilled search for community or, better yet, a quest for communality that ostensibly will arise from sharing the same referent of gratifi- cation (idea, materiality, or their nexus) in recreating an earlier real or mythical experience. Unfortunately, one’s experience of the object lacks the validity of the earlier real or imaginary experience and hence is forced into molds of typical or expected reactions. With its loose mixture of abstracted elements nostalgia gives one a sense of freedom from present social forces. But in effect its consequences are just the opposite. Nostalgia restrains activity by separating an object (idea, etc.) from its existential conditions. It nurtures the desire to retreat from present conditions and indirectly reinforces the existing order.* Since the activities toward which nostalgia is directed are often primary in nature, the resulting isolation from broader life experiences simply extends the range of privatism in modern society. The selling of nostalgia is commercially profitable and its sale via the mass media encourages a certain level of response. For example, imagination, which attempts to uncover alternatives for praxis, is reduced to escapism as the result of the loss of connection between the object presented for consumption and life experiences. The receiver of the nostalgic message is left only with vague impressions and feelings. It may be hypothesized that the appeal of nostalgic material is enhanced by a medium of expressions (i.e., tele- vision and film) which makes it possible to present numerous discrete details without analysis. Nevertheless, to the extent the presented material is factual, it offers the raw material forNOSTALGIA 51 conscious, critical reflection if the audience’s experiential emersion in the data can be deemphasized. Yet, by and large, most nostalgia is “busy” with imagery and minimizes active individual involvement necessary for attentive questioning and thematization. The uprooting of past activities and their commercializa- tion for purposes of mass entertainment is geared toward stereotyping thought, action, and artifacts. Objects are arbi- trarily reduced, combined, or disassociated and viewed as autonomous to the needs of the public as historical indivi- duals with concrete problems. The outcome of this procedure is a decrease in the critical capacity of memory, which corre- sponds to an advance in more subtle forms of domination, that is, those which appear to belie the necessity of force in everyday affairs.® CRITICAL THEORY ON NOSTALGIA This particular form taken in the contemporary enchant- ment with objects relating to the past can be understood in connection with the definition of socialization that Marcuse (cf. Frankfurt Institute for Social Research, 1972:31ff) de veloped in his studies of industrial society. For Marcuse, the most telling modification of the socialization process has re- sulted from the diminished role of the family and the atten- dant increasing importance of secondary associations in transmitting social norms. This shift in the relative power of agents of socialization leads to the formation of an ego structure which is more reflective of socially determined needs and values and is inherently manipulable by represen- tatives of dominant social institutions. An individual ex- periencing this kind of socialization finds it difficult to criti- cally reflect on his or her position in the social structure, or to place experiences within the context of a historical move- ment. Lacking a secure basis for questioning received norms and values, such a person is particularly vulnerable to efforts to shape his or her perception of objects, whether past, Present, or future. In this vein, the recent public receptivity to nostalgia-related popular culture can be viewed on one level as ahistorical in nature. As discussed above, the presentation of nostalgia “pieces,” at best, involves the recombination of52 QUALITATIVE SOCIOLOGY many discrete images of the past into a collage intended only to evoke consumer interest. Further, it does not require an effort on the part of the receiver to place the message within a meaningful context. This technique of production is func- tional for the social order in two ways: (1) it does not demand qualities of the audience that it does not possess; and (2) it generates support for values perceived necessary for mainte- nance of the economic system. Life is a dynamic process. However, in the modern world humans have lost a sense of direction, a circumstance which itself is tied to diminished confidence in the ability to deal with a bewildering number of complex events. Part of this malaise arises from the tendency of advanced capitalism to appear as a universal entity: a social order independent from its past and ruled solely by the forces operating within the closed boundaries of the capitalistic market. In this self per- petuating system, according to a number of critical theorists, it becomes extremely difficult to create a culture based on interpersonal needs and values. Instead we are more likely to find passive adaptation to the formally rational demands of technology (Lepenies, 1971:219). Yet, the loss of direction and confidence is only indirectly associated with the malaise. The roots of the problem lie in the severing of the vital link with one’s personal and social history, so that the past as an object may now be used as material for technical manipulation. At one point in evolution, humans viewed the past as integral with the present and thus could reasonably evaluate both from a temporary vantage point. With the eradication of this connection, the possibility of using the past as the focal point for a critique of the present and the future receded. Consequently, the present “demand” for nostalgia takes a conservative rather than radical turn; the past, severed from it context and glossed over with contemporary social amenities, serves as a commodity for mass consumption. The audience may sense a vague uneasiness about its place in history, but the critical spirit is denuded by rampant commercialism. The passivity of modern humankind has wider social impli- cations which, if understood, allow us to penetrate the ideolo- gical grounding of advanced industrial society. In fact, Habermas (1973) claims that in industrial societies passivity has become one source of societal legitimation. Citizen abdi-NOSTALGIA 53 cation of decision making responsibility in favor of the more rational cogitations of experts results in a shift of authority from political processes based on interaction to technological processes grounded in purpose-rational decision making. Ultimately, the reconstruction of man’s facility for compre- hending cultural malaise is connected with the development of individuality. Although framed within a discussion of Adorno’s critique of jazz, Martin Jay’s remark that “the decline of temporality was connected implicitly with the liquidation of the autonomous individual” (1973:187) is pertinent to our argument. The implication of his statement is that following the increased importance of functional de- cision making and standardization of life, resulting in the control of potentially disruptive conditions, the individual comes to perceive events in an ahistorical passive manner. The technically functional demand for adaptability and ac- ceptance usurps a tradition of actively participating in labor and leisure. An infusion of technological rationality into the spheres of culture and social life inhibits critical faculties in yet another way. As Ober (1972:126) has suggested, freedom implies the opportunity to explore erotic (life generating) impulses, without technical coercion. The free play of energies under such conditions encourages the exposure and elaboration of perspectives that focus on the repressive aspects of social conditions. This function typically has been performed, in part, by artistic creations. If this is the case, then we might expect that nostalgia artifacts would encourage a critical awareness of the implications of contemporary life. On the other hand, if the realm between the social and individual is unmediated, as Marcuse claims, individual needs and values would then be shaped by the same kind of purpose rationality implicated in the production of nostalgia materials. And, by accepting the structure of technological reason humans would be incapacitated in their ability to perceive the poten- tially critical presentation of the past. History would thereby be reduced to a marketplace for producers who search for bargains that may be stripped of their meaning (e.g., The Depression as portrayed on “The Waltons,’”” World War II as it appeared in “Hogan’s Heroes”) and displayed for rapid con- sumption with a cathartic aim (Willet, 1964). The historical54 QUALITATIVE SOCIOLOGY becomes irrational to the extent that it cannot be used in the present to satisfy technologically functional needs in this world. Adorno (1967:55), in an essay on Spengler, emphasized the interdependence of the decline of a sense of historical continuity and the expansion of standardized cultural products. He saw the emergence of formulas for art, as well as mechanical reproduction, as draining the cultural product of a connectedness with history. Rather than being an expres- sion of socio-historical conditions, the product now repre- sents the prevailing mode of rationality and thus may be con- veniently replaced by a more marketable commodity. An emphasis on the evocative aspects of objects replaces the creative and participatory demands of the cultural products of previous eras, without acknowledging either the actual human process implicated in their production or the contra- dictory character of their original time period. In this way the impulse for radical creative synthesis is restrained by the leveling demand for productions that alternately shock and soothe those being entertained. For critical theory, art is more than a “reflection” of socio- economic interests (Jay, 1973:182). Adorno, in fact, regards some separation of cultural products from human ends as es- sential for minimizing the possibility of manipulating these products to achieve conformity (1967:182). When examining current popular culture and its construction of nostalgia artifacts, we must conclude that these works are basically ho- mogenized extractions, in which events and relationships are drained of their meaning. In this manner culture is integrated with the social demand for repetitive, standardized produc- tion. If we may put aside its elitist overtones, Marcuse’s formula- tion of the social significance of mass culture has a direct bearing on our discussion of the implications of nostalgia as a mode of orientation toward the past. Marcuse contends that One of the essential mechanisms of advanced industrial society is the mass diffusion of art, literature, music, philosophy; they become part of the technical equipment of the daily household and of the daily work world. In this process, they undergo a decisive transformation; they are losing the qualitative difference, namely, the essential disso- ciation from the established reality principle which was the ground of their liberating function. Now the images and ideas by virtue of whichNOSTALGIA 55 art, literature, and philosophy once indicted and transcended the given reality are integrated into the society, and the power of the reality principle is greatly extended (1970:58) The nullification of potentially critical cultural objects in this view does not result, per se, from the size of their audience. Rather it derives from a process in which selected fragments of an object are accepted as a faithful representation of the object in its totality. As an illustration of this perspective we need only consider how fragments of the jargon of social movements of the 1960s became part of the stock of everyday expressions (e.g., the “V” sign of the peace movement, or the verbal stylization “right on” of black protesters). In the process, the impact of these symbols was exhausted by constant, meaningless repetition. Thus to use the phrase “right on” or the “V” sign became the equivalent of shouting “kill the umpire” at a baseball game or waving to a friend. The neutralization of language and gesture in mass communi- cation is a single, but critical, method by which technical ra- tionality absorbs contradictory elements into its domain. NOSTALGIA AND VISION In its processual dimensions nostalgia may be understood as a type of dialectic involving a tension between the nostalgia arising from one’s longing for a condition from the past and the constructed vision of that circumstance. In addition nostalgia refers to those instances when the past becomes a model for action. But the source of the model is not the past as actually experienced and stored as recollec- tions which are then to serve as standards for the present. Rather it is a purified past, exempt from claims and contradictions of everyday experience. The nostalgic recon- struction of history offers a bucolic image of unrestrained social relations in which hardships are overcome by good in- tentions, In this fashion the model becomes a myth incapable of conveying the reality of domination, inequality, and injustice to the extent they existed. In myth, or in symbol, ideas often achieve a measure of co- herence and objective stability. They gradually become things grounded in reality instead of remaining ideational56 QUALITATIVE SOCIOLOGY constructs. Myth and symbol as sources of nostalgia appear more real than everyday experience, which itself is beset by ambiguity and flux. The past is compacted into a cohesive, unitary whole that appears as a kind of goodness-in-itself-to- tality, above reproach and criticism. Under these conditions it is impervious to any critical appraisal of its foundations. It is interesting that one’s experience of the reconstructed past may take on a greater validity, at least in the feeling of certi- tude, than was the case for the experiences that gave birth to the myth. Furthermore, by granting reality status to mythical Teconstructions we are encouraged to believe that the past was not as oppressive as the present.'° This conviction contributes to the belief that one can create a space and time, outside of real space and real time, in which such recollections can be “naturally” played out (e.g. as a chef; in an area kept as a Victorian garden; holding “court” in the arts; or even getting into pre-fabricated cer- amics, pre-mixed bread, pre-ordered and designed costumes). These activities certainly do not confront the reality of a world increasingly marred by the problems of scarcity, nor the reality of the extended and enticing appeal of consumer goods."' If we direct our attention toward the intentional nexus of nostalgia generated from objects we realize that it places the mode of human realization in the past. This of course is a re- collected past, one arbitrarily reconstructed through pro- specting interrelated meanings found in the crevices of one’s memory. The “iconic” nature of the past exists as a mystifica- tion, robbing history of its dynamic reality, while at the same time denying its real human context. Yet, to the extent the past may be grasped as a totality, '? its truth content, presently veiled in recollection and thematization, stands as a potentially effective tool to be used for confronting and negating the present. Positive and negative elements remain latent in this form of orientation and experience. The closer nostalgic feconstruction corresponds to the previous experience, the greater its potential as a standard of comparison for the present. !t may serve as a device for identifying as yet unachieved goals, unresolved conflicts, and widened constraints. The greater the distortion manifested in the reconstructed past. the less its potential for negating the present.NOSTALGIA 57 The neutralization of negativity may be accomplished through the operation of ‘‘tromp d’oeil” devices (which are kaleidoscopic reconstructions of the past through the use of selective materials) that suffuse the final construct with ambiguity. The “tromp d’oeil” technique, on the one hand, creates a real displacement of an object that once had a definite existence (i.e., the full context of the past) while, on the other hand, fictionalizing another object (i.e., the past in its unfulfilled promises) by subjectively imputing to it the character of the real object (ie., the past embedded with hopes and conflicts). One possible consequence of the use of the “tromp d’oeil” technique is a cognition based on a “double-take” effect. It arises from the discovery of falsity in the constructed object and the resulting emotional states of happiness/sadness of submission/revolt, depending on the congruence of the subject with the results reached. As a result of its increasing ambiguity the diffuseness of the constructed past is such that every person (or for that matter social groups or publics) may tead into it what they wish. In effect, the constructed object can be used as a tension decreasing mechanism by contribut- ing to the isolation of the subject from present conflicts.” Nevertheless to emphasize the “reality” aspects of the re- constructed past is not to say that the past now becomes truly real. This is, in fact, impossible since it is being created after the fact in the interstices of the present.’* Rather it lies in its significance in bringing about liberating praxis. In this sense the truth value of an object is not unlike that of an artistic creation. This evaluation is consistent with Hegel’s contention that: art liberates the real import of appearances from the semblance and deception of this bad and fleeting world and imparts to phenomenal semblances a higher reality; born of mind, the appearance of art, far from being mere semblances, have the higher reality and the more genuine existence in comparison with the realities of common life (Hegel, 1970-31). Our interpretation of the disjunction between the nostalgia fabrications of popular culture and the potentially liberating conception of the past which might appear in art parallels Hegel’s notions that:58 QUALITATIVE SOCIOLOGY 1. The work of art is a product of human creative character, embedded in praxis, resounding of dialectics of con- sciousness and surrounding practicum inerte; 2. Intentionality cannot be severed from art; it is always es- sentially for humankind. Borrowed from the sensual it always aims at coinciding with common sense. From this comes its potential as a device for guiding consciousness, as well as the possibility of fettering consciousness to the sensual level and thus failing to move to the higher level of mind and reason; 3. Art cannot be simply viewed as a container, as an end. It does not exist for itself but has a goal which must be analyzed in all the particularities of the situation, whether these involve mystification or critical conscious- ness. Again it should be emphasized that the truthfulness of art is not ascertained by its complete depiction of faithfulness to a lived reality, but appears in its import for persons not in the abstract, but as they really exist. This analysis leads us to consider, at least in a preliminary fashion, the real artistic creation as manifesting itself in visions of the future. The truthfulness of art refers to its po- tential for clarifying present conditions by presenting possible directions for future development.'’ From the position taken here, untruthfulness refers to its actual non-reality and to the possibility that it may contribute to an unrepresentative ob- jectification of an idea, as if it were existent. The most direct role of nostalgia as a form of escape lies in its link to political economy. It manipulates present conflicts while working to deflect attention from contemporary crisis of monopoly capitalism. As one of its most important conse- quences, the obscurantism of nostalgia impedes understand- ing of this system’s global character. There is nevertheless, one critical attribute in this aspect of nostalgia that should be mentioned. Looking to the past, even if it is only grasped amorphously, produces the basis for de- veloping a critique of the present (i.e., a critique of general components of American ideology: its messianic role in the world; its supremacy; its exemplary character). Certainly, this aspect of nostalgia is salient only to the extent that it develops a “critical dimension” for evaluating humankind’s relation to the present.NOSTALGIA 59 Nonetheless, the anti-critical thrust of nostalgia has so far prevailed. By masking the present crisis and the various rup- tures in the monopoly capitalist order it becomes ideologi- cally manipulative and redirects conflicts into maneagable channels. The past is transformed into a warehouse in which ideas and artifacts are stored for use as reconstituted com- modities whenever it is necessary to reinvigorate the consumer market (by selling such items as peasant dresses, jukeboxes, and assorted “antiques’”). Producers create appealing products with minor capital disbursements and minimal (if any) expansion of labor required for production. The entire process gives the false impression that individuals are going back to their communal roots, when in fact they are furthering their isolation from collective action and increas- ing their atomization within the masses. NOTES ‘The subsequent analysis, although focusing on advanced capitalist society, does not deny the existence of powerlessness and ideology in other periods of history. However under earlier stages of capitalism as well as other forms of social organiza- tion inequality of power and other resources seemed less abstract. *Since much of this article is directed toward a definition of nostal; temporary society, it would be premature to give an overly precise spec the term before the work has been done. Still, it needs to be emphasized that in general we agree with the conventional understanding of the term, which identifies as its central component the wistful longing for something located in the past. Our concern is with the peculiar conception of the past in popular culture's version of nostalgia, >The growing influence of ideology is recognized in current studies of legitimation crisis (Habermas, 1975), commodity consumption (Ewen, 1976), and privatism (Sennett, 1978). None of the writers noted here deny the significance of economic or- ganization in shaping work and non-work associations. However, they do attribute greater independence to thought and speech, not just in shoring up the existing order, but in providing directives for its growth, e.g., the expansion of science and human services, The contours of monopoly capitalism have been examined by Baran and Sweezy (1968) and Braverman (1974). “The phrase “negativity of the past” refers to the notion that an idea or object is created within a specific historical context and hence within those circumstances expressed the anxieties, conflicts, antagonisms, and interests of various classes and groups. As long as the idea or object survived under those conditions it could potentially become the basis for criticism of the existing order. However, when such artifacts are extracted from their original setting, they may be idealized, romanti- cized, and purified in their subsequent use as accessories in a different culture. ‘This is akin to false aura (which has been described by Walter Benjamin, 1969) since it takes much of its meaning from the mechanical process of industrial reproduction ‘The routinization of work-time and the separation of work from the rest of life did not occur without opposition from the working class. The dynamics of this process have been examined by Hearn (1978) and Thompson (1967). i60 QUALITATIVE SOCIOLOGY "Mythical figures, scenes, and encounters are the heritage of all groups. In fact, the mythical element of society may often point to persistent goals and values that are overlooked in practical everyday activity. “Nostalgia is not necessarily conservative. If remembrance and recollection of an idea, object, or activity are incorporated into the life style of a group, nostalgia may be the source of a thorough criticism of widely accepted practices. It could thus be a condition of change. It needs to be emphasized that it is the disconnectedness of nostalgia in popular culture from real life experiences that contributes to disengage- ment from social activity. ‘The effectiveness of “one dimensional” culture in suppressing dissent is of course, a major theme in Marcuse (1964). ‘This may be in fact true, but there is a tendency of myth to foreclose any questioning of this assumption. In a dialectical sense, rapture the past does have a potentially critical intent but as a result of nostalgic idealization this dimension is rarely considered. “Through a curious logic the consumer is held ethically responsible for maintain- ing the competitive imbalance of the present system. This is exemplified in the call from utility companies for consumers to save so as, among other things, these companies can cope with problems of competition for resources, In effect, the aim is to assure an edge in the “political” manipulation of the market and, while increasing prices, to accomplish a sufficient level of capital appropriation to the national market. "The general approach of the “Annales” school of history is consistent with this notion. Historians such as Febvre, Bloch, Braudel, and Le Roy Ladurie have advocated a method that recognizes the “individuality” of a given moment (object, event, thought) while at the same time demanding consideration of the “total” context of human action (see Iggers, 1975:43-45). “Various treatments of this theme appear in Adorno (1967:17; 51; 173), Marcuse (1965:3-42), and Benjamin (1969:217). “in this respect, see Adorno’s (1973:187-191) critique of the use of time in Stravinsky's music. "The reader may recall similar approaches found in Sartre’s (1968) conception of the plan and Althusser's (1970) conception of the three stages of the development of scientific theory. REFERENCES Adorno, Theodore 1967 Prisms. Boston: Beacon. 1973 The Philosophy of Modern Music. New York: Seabury. Althusser, Louis 1970 For Marx. New York: Vintage. Baran, Paul and Paul Sweezy 1968 Monopoly Capital. New York: Monthly Review Press. Benjamin, Walter 1969 Illuminations. New York: Schocken. Braverman, Harry 1974 Labor and Monopoly Capital. New York: Monthly Review Press. Ewen, Stuart 1976 Captains of Consciousness. New York: Columbia. Fischer, Ernest 1963 The Necessity of Art. New York: Arno Press. Frankfurt Institute of Social Research 1972 Aspects of Sociology. Boston: Beacon. Habermas, JurgenNOSTALGIA 61 1973 Theory and Practice. Boston: Beacon. 1975 Legitimation Crisis. Boston: Beacon. Hearn, Francis 1978 Domination, Legitimation, and Resistance. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood. Hegel, G.W. F. 1970 On Art, Religion, Philosophy. New York. Harper. Horkheimer, Max 1972. Critical Theory. New York: Seabury. Iggers, Georg C. 1975 New Directions in European Historiography. Middletown, Connecticut: Wesleyan University Press. Jay, Martin 1973 The Dialectical Imagination. Boston: Beacon. Lepenies, Wold 1971 “Anthropology and social criticism.” The Human Context (Juiy}:205-225. Marcuse, Herbert 1964 One-Dimensional Man. Boston: Beacon. 1965 Negations. Boston: Beacon. 1970 Five Lectures. Boston: Beacon. Ober, John D. 1972 “On sexuality and politics in the work of Herbert Marcuse.” in Paul Breines (ed), Critical Interruptions. New York: Herder and Herder, Pp 101-135. Sartre, Jean Paul 1968 Search for a Method, New York: Vintage Sennett, Richard 1978 The Fall of Public Man. New York: Vintage. Thompson, E.P. 1967. “Time, work-discipline, and industrial capitalism.” Past and Present 38 (December):56-97. Willett, John 1964 Bertold Brecht on Theater. New York: New Directions Publishing Co. 1 iCopyright © 2003 EBSCO Publishing