10/22/2020 Constantine Samuel Rafinesque - Wikipedia

Constantine Samuel Rafinesque

Constantine Samuel Rafinesque-Schmaltz (October 22,
1783 – September 18, 1840) was a 19th-century polymath born Constantine Samuel
near Constantinople in the Ottoman Empire and self-educated in Rafinesque
France. He traveled as a young man in the United States,
ultimately settling in Ohio in 1815, where he made notable
contributions to botany, zoology, and the study of prehistoric
earthworks in North America. He also contributed to the study of
ancient Mesoamerican linguistics, in addition to work he had
already completed in Europe.

Rafinesque was an eccentric and erratic genius.[1] He was an

autodidact, who excelled in various fields of knowledge, as a
zoologist, botanist, writer and polyglot. He wrote prolifically on
such diverse topics as anthropology, biology, geology, and
linguistics, but was honored in none of these fields during his Born October 22, 1783
lifetime. Indeed, he was an outcast in the American scientific Galata,
community whose submissions were rejected automatically by Constantinople,
leading journals. Among his theories were that ancestors of Ottoman Empire
Native Americans had migrated by the Bering Sea from Asia to
North America,[2][3] and that the Americas were populated by Died September 18,
numerous black indigenous peoples at the time of European 1840 (aged 56)
contact.[4] Philadelphia
Nationality France
Scientific career
Contents Fields biologist
Biography Author abbrev. Raf.
Career in the United States (botany)
Death
Work
Biology
Evolution
Walam Olum
Study of prehistoric cultures
Legacy
Published Works
In popular culture
Correspondence
See also
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links

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Biography
Rafinesque was born on October 22, 1783,[5] in Galata, a suburb of Constantinople.[6][7] His father, F.
G. Rafinesque, was a French merchant from Marseilles; his mother, M. Schmaltz, was of German
descent and born in Constantinople.[6] His father died in Philadelphia about 1793.[8] Rafinesque
spent his youth in Marseilles,[6] and was mostly self-educated; he never attended university.[9][10] By
the age of 12, he had begun collecting plants for a herbarium.[11] By 14, he taught himself Greek and
Latin because he needed to follow footnotes in the books he was reading in his paternal
grandmother's libraries. In 1802, at the age of 19, Rafinesque sailed to Philadelphia in the United
States with his younger brother. They traveled through Pennsylvania and Delaware,[7] where he made
the acquaintance of most of the young nation's few botanists.[12]

In 1805, Rafinesque returned to Europe with his collection of botanical specimens, and settled in
Palermo, Sicily, where he learned Italian.[7][13] He became so successful in trade that he retired by
age 25 and devoted his time entirely to natural history. For a time Rafinesque also worked as
secretary to the American consul.[13] During his stay in Sicily, he studied plants and fishes,[5] naming
many new discovered species of each. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and
Sciences in 1808.[14]

Career in the United States

Rafinesque had a common-law wife. After their son died in 1815, he left her and returned to the
United States. When his ship Union foundered near the coast of Connecticut, he lost all his books (50
boxes) and all his specimens (including more than 60,000 shells).[15] Settling in New York,
Rafinesque became a founding member of the newly established Lyceum of Natural History.[16]
In 1817, his book Florula Ludoviciana or A Flora of the State of Louisiana was strongly criticized by
fellow botanists, which caused his writings to be ignored. By 1818, he had collected and named more
than 250 new species of plants and animals. Slowly, he was rebuilding his collection of objects from
nature.

In the summer of 1818, in Henderson, Kentucky, Rafinesque made the acquaintance of fellow
naturalist John James Audubon, and in fact stayed in Audubon's home for some three weeks.
Audubon, although enjoying Rafinesque's company, took advantage of him in practical jokes
involving fantastic, made-up species.[17]

In 1819, Rafinesque became professor of botany at Transylvania University in Lexington, Kentucky,

where he also gave private lessons in French, Italian, and Spanish.[18] He was loosely associated with
John D. Clifford, a merchant who was also interested in the ancient earthworks that remained
throughout the Ohio Valley. Clifford conducted archival research, seeking the origins of these
mounds, and Rafinesque measured and mapped them. Some had already been lost to American
development.

He was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1820.[19]

Rafinesque started recording all the new species of plants and animals he encountered in travels
throughout the state. He was considered an erratic student of higher plants. In the spring of 1826, he
left the university[20] after quarreling with its president.

He traveled and lectured in various places, and endeavored to establish a magazine and a botanic
garden, but without success. He moved to Philadelphia, a center of publishing and research, without
employment. He published The Atlantic Journal and Friend of Knowledge, a Cyclopædic Journal
and Review,[21] of which only eight issues were printed (1832–1833). He also gave public lectures
and continued publishing, mostly at his own expense.

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Death

Rafinesque died of stomach and liver cancer in Philadelphia on September 18, 1840.[22] The cancer
may have been induced by Rafinesque's self-medication years before with a mixture containing
maidenhair fern.[23] He was buried in a plot in what is now Ronaldson's Cemetery.[22] In March
1924, what were thought to be his remains were transported to Transylvania University and
reinterred in a tomb under a stone inscribed, "Honor to whom honor is overdue."[24][25]

Work

Biology

Rafinesque published 6,700 binomial names of plants, many of which have priority over more
familiar names.[26] The quantity of new taxa he produced, both plants and animals, has made
Rafinesque memorable or even notorious among biologists.[27][28]

Rafinesque applied to join the Lewis and Clark Expedition, but

was twice turned down by Thomas Jefferson.[29] After studying
the specimens collected by the expedition, he assigned scientific
names to the black-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus),
the white-footed mouse (Peromyscus leucopus), and the mule
deer (Odocoileus hemionus).

Evolution
The mule deer is one of many
Rafinesque was one of the first to use the term "evolution" in the species first named by Rafinesque.
context of biological speciation.[30]

Rafinesque proposed a theory of evolution before Charles Darwin.[31][32] In a letter in 1832,

Rafinesque wrote:

The truth is that Species and perhaps Genera also, are forming in organized beings by
gradual deviations of shapes, forms and organs, taking place in the lapse of time. There is
a tendency to deviations and mutations through plants and animals by gradual steps at
remote irregular periods. This is a part of the great universal law of perpetual mutability
in everything. Thus it is needless to dispute and differ about new genera, species and
varieties. Every variety is a deviation which becomes a species as soon as it is permanent
by reproduction. Deviations in essential organs may thus gradually become new
genera.[33]

In the third edition of On the Origin of Species published in 1861, Charles Darwin added a Historical
Sketch that acknowledged the ideas of Rafinesque.[34][35]

Rafinesque's evolutionary theory appears in a two-page article in the 1833 spring issue of the Atlantic
Journal and Friend of Knowledge (a journal founded by himself).[36] Rafinesque held that species
are not fixed; they gradually change through time. He used the term "mutations". He believed that
evolution had occurred "by gradual steps at remote irregular periods." This has been compared to the
concept of punctuated equilibrium.[37] He also held that the same processes apply to humans.[38]

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Walam Olum

In 1836, Rafinesque published his first volume of The American Nations. This included Walam
Olum, a purported migration and creation narrative of the Lenape (also known by English speakers
as the Delaware Indians). It told of their migration to the lands around the Delaware River.
Rafinesque claimed he had obtained wooden tablets engraved and painted with indigenous
pictographs, together with a transcription in the Lenape language. Based on this, he produced an
English translation of the tablets' contents. Rafinesque claimed the original tablets and transcription
were later lost, leaving his notes and transcribed copy as the only record of evidence.

For over a century after Rafinesque's publication, the Walam Olum was widely accepted by
ethnohistorians as authentically Native American in origin, but as early as 1849, when the document
was republished by Ephraim G. Squier, Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, an ethnologist who had worked
extensively in Michigan and related territories, wrote to Squier saying that he believed the document
might be fraudulent.[39] In the 1950s, the Indiana Historical Society published a "retranslation" of the
Walam Olum, as "a worthy subject for students of aboriginal culture".[40]

Since the late 20th century, studies especially since the 1980s in linguistic, ethnohistorical,
archaeological, and textual analyses suggest that the Walam Olum account was largely or entirely a
fabrication. Scholars have described its record of "authentic Lenape traditional migration stories" as
spurious.[41] After the publication in 1995 of David Oestreicher's thesis, The Anatomy of the Walam
Olum: A 19th Century Anthropological Hoax, many scholars concurred with his analysis. They
concluded that Rafinesque had been either the perpetrator, or perhaps the victim, of a hoax.[41] Other
scholars, writers, and some among the Lenape continue to find the account plausible and support its
authenticity.[41]

Study of prehistoric cultures

Rafinesque made a notable contribution to North American

prehistory with his studies of ancient earthworks of the Adena
and Hopewell cultures, especially in the Ohio Valley. He was the
first to identify these as the "Ancient Monuments of America".
He listed more than 500 such archaeological sites in Ohio and
Kentucky.[42] Rafinesque never excavated;[43] rather, he
recorded the sites visited by careful measurements, sketches, and
written descriptions. Only a few of his descriptions were
Examples of calculating the value of
published, with his friend John D. Clifford's series "Indian
Mayan numerals
Antiquities", eight long letters in Lexington's short-lived Western
Review and Miscellaneous Magazine (1819–1820).[44] Clifford
died suddenly in 1820, ending his contributions.

Rafinesque's work was used by others. For instance, he identified 148 ancient earthworks sites in
Kentucky. All sites in Kentucky that were included by E. G. Squier and Davis in their notable Ancient
Monuments of the Mississippi Valley (1848), completed for the Smithsonian Institution, were first
identified by Rafinesque in his manuscripts.[45]

Rafinesque also made contributions to Mesoamerican studies. The latter were based on linguistic
data, which he extracted from printed sources, mostly those of travelers. He designated as Taino, the
ancient language of the Caribbean island of Hispaniola.[46] Others later also used the term to identify
the ethnicity of indigenous Caribbean peoples.

Although mistaken in his presumption that the ancient Maya script was alphabetical in nature,
Rafinesque was probably first to insist that studying modern Mayan languages could lead to
deciphering the ancient script. In 1832, he was the first to partly decipher ancient Maya. He explained
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that its bar-and-dot symbols represent fives and ones, respectively.[47][48][49]

Legacy

According to historian George Daniels, Rafinesque was a brilliant

but erratic naturalist who roamed the American wilderness. His
style was offputting to the emerging professionalization of
science and achievements were controversial at the time and by
historians ever since. By 1820 he was virtually an outcast in the
scientific community as all the important publications rejected
his submissions. The two leading American scientists of the day
Benjamin Silliman and Asa Gray were harshly critical. Modern The genus Rafinesquia was named
historians agree that Rafinesque was often hasty, and tried to in Rafinesque's honor.
claim credit properly due to other researchers. Scientists were
troubled that his theory of evolution – long before Darwin –
seemed to be based more on his speculation and exaggerations than on solid research. Despite all his
faults, says Daniels, "he made enormous contributions to the natural history phase of American
science...with the establishment of 34 genera and 24 species of American fishes." He was also a
brilliant teacher at Transylvania University. [50]

In 1841, Thomas Nuttall named a new genus Rafinesquia after Rafinesque. He felt indebted to
the naturalist, who had inspired his work and given Nuttall's Flora a positive review.[51] The genus
now contains two species, Rafinesquia californica Nutt. (California plumeseed or California
chicory) and Rafinesquia neomexicana A. Gray (desert chicory or plumeseed).[52]
In 1892, James Hall and J. M. Clarke proposed the genus name Rafinesquina in honor of
Rafinesque for a number of fossil brachiopod species[53] then belonging to genus Leptaena; the
genus is now in the family Rafinesquinidae.

Published Works
1810: Indice d'ittiologia siciliana ossia catalogo metodico dei nomi latini, italiani, e siciliani dei
pesci, che si rinvengono in Sicilia disposti secondo un metodo naturale eseguito da un appendice
che contiene la descrizione di alcuni nuovi pesci siciliani. Opuscolo del signore C.S. Rafinesque
Schmaltz (https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/30032). Messina. 70 pp. + 2 plates.
1810: Caratteri di Alcuni Nuovi Generi e Nuove Specie di Animali e Piante della Sicilia (https://ww
w.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/185076). Palermo.
1814: Specchio delle Scienze (https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/53769). Palermo.
1814: Précis des Découvertes et Travaux Somiologiques (https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/
27701). Palermo.
1814: Principes Fondamentaux de Somiologie (https://archive.org/details/tudesurleslcyth01pottgo
og). Palermo.
1815: Analyse de la Nature ou tableau de l'univers et des corps organisés (https://www.biodiversit
ylibrary.org/item/188066). Palermo, 223 pp.
1815–1840: Autikon Botanikon (https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/6306). Philadelphia.
1817: Florula ludoviciana; or, A flora of the state of Louisiana. New York: C. Wiley & Co.
1818: Description of three new genera of fluviatile fish, Pomoxis, Sarchirus and Exoglossum.
Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 1, 417–422. (Read December 1 and
8, 1818) (BHL link (https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/79416#page/489/mode/1up))
1819: "Dissertation on Water-Snakes", published in the London Literary Gazette.
1820: Ichthyologia Ohiensis (https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/30031). Lexington.
1824: Ancient History, or Annals of Kentucky (https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/009036878).
Frankfort.
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1825: Neogenyton (https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/012446234). Lexington.

1828–1830: Medical Flora, a Manual of the Medical Botany of the United States of North America
(https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/10237) (two volumes). Philadelphia.
1830: American manual of the grape vines and the art of making wine (https://archive.org/details/
americanmanualof00rafi). Philadelphia: Printed for the author. 1830.
1832: American Florist[54]:158

1832: "Philology. Second letter to Mr. Champollion on the graphic

systems of America, and the glyphs of Otolum or Palenque, in
Central America – Elements of the glyphs". Atlantic Journal and
Friend of Knowledge. 1 (2): 40–44. 1832.
1832–1833: Atlantic Journal and Friend of Knowledge (https://catalo
g.hathitrust.org/Record/011570122). Philadelphia.
1833: Herbarium Rafinesquianum (https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Rec
ord/009083256). Philadelphia.
1836: A Life of Travels (http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k980671/f
1.table). Philadelphia.
1836: Flora Telluriana (https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/3219
1). Philadelphia: H. Probasco. Pars Prima (https://archive.org/strea
m/floratelluriana00rafi#page/n13/mode/2up), Pars Secunda (https://a
rchive.org/stream/floratelluriana00rafi#page/n125/mode/2up), Pars Atlantic Journal (1832–
Tertia (https://archive.org/stream/floratelluriana00rafi#page/n241/mo 1833)
de/2up) & Pars IV Et Ult (https://archive.org/stream/floratelluriana00r
afi#page/n345/mode/2up).
1836: The American Nations (https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/008399892) (two volumes).
Philadelphia.
1836: A Life of Travels and Researches in North America and South Europe (https://archive.org/d
etails/lifeoftravelsres00rafi)
1836: "The World", a poem.
1836–1838: New Flora and Botany of North America (https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/277
06) (four parts). Philadelphia.
1837: Safe Banking[54]:197
1837: Notes to Thomas Wright's Original Theory, or New Hypothesis of the Universe.
1838: Genius and Spirit of the Hebrew Bible (https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/006500621).
Philadelphia.
1838: Alsographia Americana (https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/81538). Philadelphia.
1838: The American Monuments of North and South America (https://archive.org/details/ancientm
onuments00rafirich). Philadelphia.
1838: Sylva Telluriana (https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/20634). Philadelphia.
1839: Celestial Wonders and Philosophy of the Visible Heavens.[54]:200
1840: The Good Book (Amenities of Nature). (http://resource.nlm.nih.gov/101203231)
Philadelphia.
1840: Pleasure and Duties of Wealth (https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/233408).

In popular culture

John Jeremiah Sullivan's essay La-Hwi-Ne-Ski: Career of an Eccentric Naturalist, which appears in
his 2011 collection, Pulphead, chronicles the life and times of Rafinesque.

Correspondence

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Betts, Edwin M. (1944). "The Correspondence between Constantine Samuel Rafinesque and
Thomas Jefferson". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 87 (5): 368–380.
JSTOR 985288 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/985288).
Boewe, Charles (1980). "Editing Rafinesque holographs: the case of the short letters". Filson
Club History Quarterly. 54 (1): 37–49. PMID 11616973 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1161697
3).

See also
Rafinesque's big-eared bat

References
1. Flannery 1998
2. Long 2005
3. Gilbert 1999
4. Rafinesque 1833, p. 85.
5. Belyi 1997
6. Fitzpatrick 1911, p. 11
7. Wilson, J. G.; Fiske, J., eds. (1900). "Rafinesque, Constantine Samuel" (https://en.wikisource.or
g/wiki/Appletons%27_Cyclop%C3%A6dia_of_American_Biography/Rafinesque,_Constantine_Sa
muel). Appletons' Cyclopædia of American Biography. New York: D. Appleton.
8. Fitzpatrick 1911, p. 12
9. Discovering Lewis & Clark: biography of Rafinesque (http://lewis-clark.org/content/content-article.
asp?ArticleID=518); accessed : November 17, 2010
10. "The oddest of characters" (http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/1985/4/1985_
4_58.shtml) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20090108135020/http://www.americanheritag
e.com/articles/magazine/ah/1985/4/1985_4_58.shtml) January 8, 2009, at the Wayback Machine,
American Heritage, April 1985; accessed November 17, 2010.
11. Fitzpatrick 1911, p. 13
12. Fitzpatrick 1911, pp. 15–17
13. Fitzpatrick 1911, p. 19
14. "Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter R" (http://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMember
s/ChapterR.pdf) (PDF). American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Retrieved September 9, 2016.
15. Rafinesque, C. S. (1836). Life of Travels (https://archive.org/details/lifeoftravelsres00rafi). pp. 46
(https://archive.org/details/lifeoftravelsres00rafi/page/46)–49. Cited in Fitzpatrick 1911, pp. 21–22.
16. Fitzpatrick 1911, pp. 22–24
17. Rhodes 2004, pp. 133–135.
18. Fitzpatrick 1911, pp. 27–28
19. "MemberListR" (http://www.americanantiquarian.org/memberlistr). Americanantiquarian.org.
Retrieved September 17, 2017.
20. Fitzpatrick 1911, p. 34
21. Fitzpatrick 1911, p. 38
22. Fitzpatrick 1911, p. 42
23. Ambrose 2010b
24. Boewe 1987
25. Barefoot 2004, p. 78
26. Boewe 2005, p. 1
27. Boewe 2005, p. 2

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28. Payne, Ansel (April 7, 2016). "Why Do Taxonomists Write the Meanest Obituaries?" (http://nautil.u
s/issue/35/boundaries/why-do-taxonomists-write-the-meanest-obituaries). Nautilus. Retrieved
September 17, 2017.
29. Warren 2004, p. 98
30. Örstan 2014.
31. Weslager 1989, p. 85.
32. Rothenberg 2012, p. 466.
33. Warren 2004, p. 31.
34. Darwin 1861, p. xv.
35. Ambrose 2010a.
36. Rafinesque, C.S. (Spring 1833). "Principles of the Philosophy of New Genera and new species of
Plants and Animals" (https://books.google.com/books?id=nVAEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA163). Atlantic
Journal and Friend of Knowledge: 163–164.
37. Chambers 1992.
38. Rafinesque, C.S. (Summer 1833). "Complexions of Mankind &c." (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=nVAEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA172) Atlantic Journal and Friend of Knowledge: 172–173.
39. Jackson & Rose 2009
40. Walam Olum: or, Red Score, The Migration Legend of the Lenni Lenape or Delaware Indians.
See Voegelin 1954
41. Oestreicher 2005
42. Warren 2004, p. 91
43. Boewe 2000, p. xxiii
44. Clifford & Rafinesque 2000.
45. Boewe 2000, p. xxv
46. Hulme 1993
47. Rafinesque 1832, pp. 42
(https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/104571#page/50/mode/1up):"This page of Demotic has
letters and numbers, these represented by strokes meaning 5 and dots meaning unities as the
dots never exceed 4."
48. Houston, Stuart & Chinchilla Mazariegos 2001, p. 45
49. Chaddha 2008
50. George H. Daniels, "Rafinesque, Constantine Samuel" in John A. Garraty, Encyclopedia of
American Biography (1974) pp 886–887.
51. Beidleman 2006, p. 139
52. Morhardt & Morhardt 2004, p. 71
53. Meyer & Davis 2009, p. 272
54. Fitzpatrick, T. J. (1911). Rafinesque; a sketch of his life, with bibliography (http://archive.org/detail
s/rafinesquesketch00fitzuoft). Des Moines Historical Department of Iowa.

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Ancient Maya Writing (https://archive.org/details/deciphermentofan0000unse). University of
Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-3204-4.
Hulme, Peter (1993). "Making sense of the native Caribbean" (http://www.kitlv-journals.nl/index.php/n
wig/article/view/3301). New West Indian Guide / Nieuwe West-Indische Gids. 67 (3&4): 189–
220. doi:10.1163/13822373-90002665 (https://doi.org/10.1163%2F13822373-90002665).
Jackson, Brittany; Rose, Mark (2009). "Walam Olum Hokum" (http://www.archaeology.org/online/feat
ures/hoaxes/walam_olum.html). Archaeology.
Long, Michael (2005). "75 Years of "Middletown" ". Indiana Magazine of History. 101 (3): 302–304.
JSTOR 27792653 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/27792653). |chapter= ignored (help)
Meyer, David L.; Davis, Richard Arnold (2009). A Sea Without Fish: Life in the Ordovician Sea of the
Cincinnati Region. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-35198-2.
Morhardt, Sia; Morhardt, Emil (2004). "Asteraceae (Compositae)" (https://books.google.com/books?i
d=1XyN-u-Bk40C&pg=PA71). California Desert Flowers: an Introduction to Families, Genera,
and Species. University of California Press. pp. 29–80. ISBN 978-0-520-24003-2.

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Oestreicher, David M. (2005). "The Tale of a Hoax: Translating the Walam Olum". In Brian Swann
(ed.). Algonquian Spirit: Contemporary Translations of the Algonquian Literatures of North
America (https://archive.org/details/algonquianspirit00swan_796). Lincoln: University of
Nebraska Press. pp. 3 (https://archive.org/details/algonquianspirit00swan_796/page/n31)–41.
ISBN 0-8032-4314-6. OCLC 58721152 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/58721152).
Örstan, Aydin (2014). "Two early nineteenth-century uses of the term "evolution" to denote biological
speciation". Archives of Natural History. 41 (2): 360–362. doi:10.3366/anh.2014.0255 (https://
doi.org/10.3366%2Fanh.2014.0255).
Rothenberg, Marc (2012). History of Science in United States: An Encyclopedia (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=CWy0pUAquCEC&pg=PA466). New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-
58318-7.
Voegelin, C. F., ed. (1954). Walam Olum; or, Red Score, the Migration Legend of the Lenni Lenape or
Delaware Indians. A new translation, interpreted by linguistic, historical, archaeological,
ethnological, and physical anthropological studies. Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society.
OCLC 1633009 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1633009).
Warren, Leonard (2004). "Kentucky 1819–1826" (https://books.google.com/books?id=bjQpEAIGpAk
C&pg=PA98). Constantine Samuel Rafinesque: a Voice in the American Wilderness.
University Press of Kentucky. pp. 79–99. ISBN 978-0-8131-2316-5.
Weslager, C. A. (1989). The Delaware Indians: A History (https://books.google.com/books?id=5k34L
ON-MUwC&pg=PA85). Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-1494-9.

Further reading
Binney, Wm. G. & George W. Tryon Jr, ed. (1864). The complete writings of Constantine Smaltz
Rafinesque [sic] on recent & fossil conchology (https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/34561).
Bailliere Brothers; [etc., etc.] A comprehensive work which contains all of Rafinesque's
malacological writings, including all his plates.
Boewe, Charles, ed. (1982). Fitzpatrick's Rafinesque: A Sketch of His Life with Bibliography, revised
by Charles Boewe. Weston, MA: M & S Press. ISBN 978-0-87730-011-3.
Boewe, Charles, ed. (2001). Mantissa: A Supplement to Fitzpatrick's Rafinesque. Providence, RI: M
& S Press. ISBN 978-0-87730-016-8.
Boewe, Charles, ed. (2003). Profiles of Rafinesque. Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press.
ISBN 978-1-57233-225-6.
Boewe, Charles (2004). "C. S. Rafinesque and Ohio Valley Archaeology". Ancient America.
Monograph Series. Barnardsville, NC: Center for Ancient American Studies. 6.
Boewe, Charles (2011). The Life of C.S. Rafinesque, A Man of Uncommon Zeal. Philadelphia, PA:
American Philosophical Society. ISBN 978-1-60618-922-1.
Call, Richard Ellsworth (1895). The Life and Writings of Rafinesque: Prepared for the Filson Club and
read at its Meeting, Monday, April 2, 1894 (https://web.archive.org/web/20050308114924/htt
p://kdl.kyvl.org/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=kyetexts). Filson Club Publications, no. 10. Louisville, KY:
John P. Morton. OCLC 51849712 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/51849712). Archived from
the original (http://kdl.kyvl.org/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=kyetexts;cc=kyetexts;view=toc;idno=b92-46
-26946886) (Electronic reproduction [2002], Kentuckiana Digital Library) on March 8, 2005.
Retrieved June 13, 2008.
Chambers, Kenton L (1992). "Evolution Before Darwin: The Musings of Constantine Rafinesque" (htt
p://www.npsoregon.org/kalmiopsis/kalmiopsis02/chambers1.pdf) (PDF). Kalmiopsis. 2: 5–9.
Clifford, John D.; Rafinesque, Constantine Samuel (2000). Boewe, Charles E. (ed.). John D. Clifford's
Indian Antiquities (https://archive.org/details/johndcliffordsin00john). Univ. of Tennessee
Press. ISBN 978-1-57233-099-3.
Dupre, Huntley (1945). Rafinesque in Lexington, 1819–1826. Lexington, KY: Bur Press.
Holthuis, L. B. (1954). "С. S. Rafinesque as a carcinologist: an annotated compilation of the
information on Crustacea contained in the works of that author" (http://www.repository.naturali
s.nl/record/317812). Zoologische Verhandelingen. 25 (1): 1–43.

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Holthuis, L. B. (1955). "A supplementary note on the carcinological work of C. S. Rafinesque" (http://
www.repository.naturalis.nl/record/319355). Zoologische Mededelingen. 33 (26): 279–281.
Merrill, Elmer D. (1949). Index Rafinesquianus. Jamaica Plain, MA: Arnold Arboretum. (Indexes
Rafinesque's plant names.)
Rafinesque, Constantine Samuel (1833). Atlantic Journal and Friend of Knowledge (https://archive.or
g/details/atlanticjournal00rafigoog). p. 85 (https://archive.org/details/atlanticjournal00rafigoog/
page/n94).
Rhodes, Richard (2004). John James Audubon (https://archive.org/details/johnjamesaudubon00rich).
New York: Knopf. pp. 133 (https://archive.org/details/johnjamesaudubon00rich/page/133)–
135. ISBN 0-375-41412-6.
Sloan, De Villo (2008). The Crimsoned Hills of Onondaga: Romantic Antiquarians and the Euro-
American Invention of Native American Prehistory. Amherst, NY: Cambria Press. ISBN 978-1-
60497-503-1. OCLC 183392534 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/183392534).
Sterling, K. B., ed. (1978). Rafinesque. Autobiography and Lives. New York, NY: Arno Press.
(Reprints Rafinesque's autobiography and the books by Call and Fitzpatrick.)
Stuckey, Ronald L. (1971). "The first public auction of an American herbarium including an account of
the fate of the Baldwin, Collins, and Rafinesque herbaria". Taxon. 20 (4): 443–459.
doi:10.2307/1218245 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1218245). JSTOR 1218245 (https://www.jst
or.org/stable/1218245).

External links
Constantine Samuel Rafinesque Papers, 1815–1834 and undated (http://siarchives.si.edu/collecti
ons/siris_arc_217407) from the Smithsonian Institution Archives
Works by Constantine Samuel Rafinesque (https://www.gutenberg.org/author/Rafinesque,+C.+S.
+(Constantine+Samuel)) at Project Gutenberg
Works by Constantine Samuel Rafinesque (https://librivox.org/author/12824) at LibriVox (public
domain audiobooks)
Works by or about Constantine Samuel Rafinesque (https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%
28subject%3A%22Rafinesque%2C%20Constantine%20Samuel%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22
Rafinesque%2C%20Constantine%20S%2E%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Rafinesque%2C%2
0C%2E%20S%2E%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Constantine%20Samuel%20Rafinesque%2
2%20OR%20subject%3A%22Constantine%20S%2E%20Rafinesque%22%20OR%20subject%3
A%22C%2E%20S%2E%20Rafinesque%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Rafinesque%2C%20Con
stantine%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Constantine%20Rafinesque%22%20OR%20creator%3
A%22Constantine%20Samuel%20Rafinesque%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Constantine%20
S%2E%20Rafinesque%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22C%2E%20S%2E%20Rafinesque%22%2
0OR%20creator%3A%22C%2E%20Samuel%20Rafinesque%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Rafi
nesque%2C%20Constantine%20Samuel%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Rafinesque%2C%20C
onstantine%20S%2E%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Rafinesque%2C%20C%2E%20S%2E%2
2%20OR%20creator%3A%22Rafinesque%2C%20C%2E%20Samuel%22%20OR%20creator%3
A%22Constantine%20Rafinesque%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Rafinesque%2C%20Constant
ine%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Constantine%20Samuel%20Rafinesque%22%20OR%20title%3
A%22Constantine%20S%2E%20Rafinesque%22%20OR%20title%3A%22C%2E%20S%2E%20
Rafinesque%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Constantine%20Rafinesque%22%20OR%20descriptio
n%3A%22Constantine%20Samuel%20Rafinesque%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Constanti
ne%20S%2E%20Rafinesque%22%20OR%20description%3A%22C%2E%20S%2E%20Rafinesq
ue%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Rafinesque%2C%20Constantine%20Samuel%22%20O
R%20description%3A%22Rafinesque%2C%20Constantine%20S%2E%22%20OR%20descriptio
n%3A%22Constantine%20Rafinesque%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Rafinesque%2C%20
Constantine%22%29%20OR%20%28%221783-1840%22%20AND%20Rafinesque%29%29%20
AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29) at Internet Archive
Constantine Samuel Rafinesque (http://faculty.evansville.edu/ck6/bstud/rafin.html), by Clark
Kimberling

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Fishes sketched by Rafinesque (https://web.archive.org/web/20040625121921/http://faculty.evan

sville.edu/ck6/bstud/rafsketch.html)
Fishes first described by Rafinesque (https://web.archive.org/web/20040624201622/http://faculty.
evansville.edu/ck6/bstud/raffish.html)

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