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X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) Analysis of Soil Heavy Metal Pollution

from an Industrial Area in Kumasi, Ghana

Article  in  Soil and Sediment Contamination · November 2012

DOI: 10.1080/15320383.2012.712073

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Soil and Sediment Contamination, 21:1006–1021, 2012
Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 1532-0383 print / 1549-7887 online
DOI: 10.1080/15320383.2012.712073

X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) Analysis of Soil Heavy

Metal Pollution from an Industrial Area
in Kumasi, Ghana

K. KODOM,1 K. PREKO,1 AND D. BOAMAH2

1
Department of Physics, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and
Technology, Kumasi, Ghana
2
Geochemistry and Laboratories, Geological Survey Department, Accra, Ghana

Knowledge of soil heavy metal concentration is very important for assessing the purity
and quality of the soil in an environment. The concentrations of nine heavy metals
(NHM), Zn, Pb, Cr, Cu, Co, Ni, Cd, Hg, and As, from the near-surface soils (∼ 0–15 cm)
from an industrial cluster in Kumasi, Ghana, were qualitatively and quantitatively
measured and analyzed using X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy analysis. The
sources of these NHM were mainly anthropogenic as a result of the indiscriminate
industrial waste disposal. In all, a total of about 100 soil samples were taken from six
sampling sites, four of which were industrial and the remaining two residential. Forty
soil samples out of the total number were carefully selected for elemental analyses
and the mean heavy metal concentrations were calculated using statistical methods.
The results from locations of high industrial impact showed that the mean concentra-
tions of the NHM present in the soil were in the order of Zn (189.2−908.6 mgkg−1),
Pb (133.7−571.3 mgkg−1), Cr (91.3−545.8 mgkg−1), Cu (62.9−334.6 mgkg−1), Co
(38.6−81.9 mgkg−1), Ni (12.4−30.9 mgkg−1), Cd (6.9−13.2 mgkg−1), Hg (5.5−10.4 mg
kg−1), and As (2.3−18.6 mgkg−1). Apart from Ni and As, all the heavy metals recorded
concentrations that ranged from 10−900% higher than their respective threshold limit
values (TLVs). Heavy metal concentrations from the residential sites were compara-
tively far lower with only Cr, Cd, and Hg registering concentrations between 65−250%
above their TLVs. The cluster with its residential communities is at a serious risk of soil
heavy metal toxicity and awareness to this needs to be created as such.

Keywords Heavy metals, X-ray fluorescence (XRF), soil pollution, soil sample, thresh-
old limit values (TLVs)

1. Introduction
Most environmental scientists are now of the view that industry is largely to blame for some
of the major soil heavy metal pollution in the environment, since pollution due to heavy
or toxic metals has generated much concern in most metropolitan and urban complexes. It
is believed that the concentrations of these metals released into the ecosystem may lead to

Address correspondence to Dr. Kwasi Preko, Department of Physics, Kwame Nkrumah

University of Science and Technology, University Post Office, PMB, Kumasi, Ghana. E-mail:
kpreko.sci.@knust.edu.gh

1006
 XRF Analysis of Heavy Metal Pollution 1007

geoaccumulation, bioaccumulation, biomagnification (Lokeshwari and Chandrappa, 2006)

and phytoaccumulation.
Soil is a complex matrix that can adsorb pollutants (Hamaker and Thompson, 1972).
Heavy metals from industrial areas generally come from iron, steel, power and chemical
manufacturing plants that irresponsibly use the soil as a dumping ground for their refuse
(Fusion, 1999). Plants from industries that even burn their waste on-site are known to be
responsible for the release of heavy metals into the atmosphere, which settle in the soil,
thus leaving behind lasting effects for years (Fusion, 1999), since they are environmentally
stable, non-biodegradable, and tend to cause accumulation in soils. When the surface soils
are accumulated, they consequently serve as a transmitter of pollutants to surface water,
groundwater, atmosphere, and food. These accumulated pollutants in the surface can as
well be transported to different environmental components such as deep soils, plants, and
dust particles (Chen et al., 1997).
Heavy metals are almost everywhere in the environment, as a result of both anthro-
pogenic and natural activities, and humans are exposed to them through various pathways
(Khan et al., 2007; Wilson and Pyatt, 2007). Even though heavy metals such as Fe, Ca,
Cu, Mg, Mn, Zn, Co, Ni, Mo, and other trace elements are essential for proper functioning
of biological systems, their deficiency or excess could lead to a number of disorders as
well. Excessive accumulation of heavy metals in soils may not only result in soil pollution
or contamination, but can also lead to elevated heavy metal (HM) uptake by plants, and
thus affect food quality and safety (Muchuweti et al., 2006). HM accumulation in soils and
plants is of increasing concern due to the potential human health risks (Singh et al., 2010),
which eventually lead to food chain contamination. This food chain contamination is one
of the important pathways for the entry of these toxic pollutants into the human body (Khan
et al., 2007). Health risk due to heavy metal contamination of soil has been widely reported
(Eriyamremu et al., 2005; Muchuweti et al., 2006; Satarug et al., 2000). In addition to an-
thropogenic soil pollution, these toxic pollutants may be derived from other sources such as
the weathering of naturally high background rocks and metal deposits (Senesi et al.., 1999),
disposal from the industry and landfill sites (Kahle, 1993; Toribio and Romanya, 2006), and
shooting operations (Bennett et al., 2007). Soil pollution has been studied by many authors
using different techniques including magnetic susceptibility measurements (Gautam et al.,
2005), atomic absorption spectrophotometry (Ikenaka et al., 2010, Olayiwola et al., 2011),
inductively coupled plasma spectrometry (Suciu et al., 2008), neutron activation analysis
(Waheed et al., 2010), and ground penetrating radar (Cassidy, 2007), amongst many others.
This study investigates qualitatively and quantitatively the concentrations of heavy
metals present in the near-surface (∼ 0–15 cm) soils of the Suame “Magazine” Industrial
cluster of Kumasi using X-ray fluorescence spectrometry to determine whether or not
the respective concentrations exceed their threshold limit value (TLV), and to assess the
extent of pollution and the impact on the environment. The research may be used as a tool
for proper industrial waste management and discharge of effluent, as well as controlling
anthropogenic activities capable of contributing to pollution within the environment of the
study area. The (threshold limit values) TLVs of the heavy metals used in this paper were
adopted from the European Union (EU) standards. These standards represent adopted values
from the published literature (Kloke, 1980; Alloway, 1990; Katabata-Pendias and Pendias,
1992; McGrath, 2000; McGrath and Loveland, 1992; Chaudri et al., 1999; McGrath et al.,
1999) as a threshold of heavy metals for European soils. This research, however, employed
these proposed standards as the TLVs to serve as guidelines for comparison, since the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) of Ghana has not yet established threshold values
of heavy metals for Ghanaian soils.
1008 K. Kodom et al.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1 Study Area

The study area (Suame - “Magazine”) is an industrial metal-work cluster in Suame, a north-
ern suburb of Kumasi in the Ashanti Region of Ghana (Figure 1). It is approximately 1.8 km
long and 0.3 km wide (Adeya, 2001; 2006) and over 20,000 people work and live here.
The study area, found almost in the heart of Kumasi metropolis, Ashanti region of
Ghana, is located within moist semi-deciduous forest vegetation with a double maxima
rainfall regime. The major rainfall season occurs from March to August and the minor from
October to November. The mean annual rainfall is 1,300 mm and the mean temperature is
26◦ C (Meteorological Services Department Kumasi, 2000).
The area is strongly affected by anthropogenic activities with very high vehicular and
human traffic density. Poor clustered structures are mounted by the artisans and the shop-
owning proprietors to serve as workshops. Though the site is dominated by high industrial
activities, some domestic houses are located within these clustered workshops, and some
house owners use or rent apartments as workshops or storerooms for metallurgical activities
while they reside with their families in the remaining apartments.
The Suame cluster is highly dominated by small or medium-sized enterprises (SMEs).
On the average, an enterprise may have about five workers, but the relatively more so-
phisticated manufacturing workshops may have 7–10 workers. The main activities can be
categorized under manufacturing, vehicle repair, metal work, sale of engineering materials,
sale of automobile spare parts, and sale of food (Adeya, 2001). Communication centers are
increasingly playing an important role in enhancing the activities of the clusters (Adeya,
2006).

Figure 1. Portion of the Kumasi city center showing the study area. Inset: Map of Ghana showing
the Ashanti region (bold outline) and the Kumasi city center.
 XRF Analysis of Heavy Metal Pollution 1009

Figure 2. Experimental sampling: (A) Field procedures showing specific transect of 2 m Interval;
(B) core-sampling showing selected depth of soil (0–15 cm).

2.2 Sample Collection and Characterization

A total of 100 soil samples from the upper horizon (∼ 0–15 cm) were carefully collected
(Figure 2) during the rainy season between March and May 2009 using stainless-steel
core-samplers at regular intervals of 2 m at specific transects (Fig. 2).
In all, six locations or zones (Zone 4, Zone 7, Zone 12, and Anomangye Junction as well
as Kwantwima and Abusuakrowa settlement communities) were extensively investigated
at the entire study area (Figure 3). Kwantwima and Abusuakrowa were residential (or
settlement) communities chosen in close proximity to the industrial area. The other four
zones were investigation zones randomly selected to indicate areas of high impact due to
the industrial activities routinely embarked on. Samples were, however, taken at accessible
locations. Strategically, sampling was mostly done in areas where both ground sliding
and alluvial deposits were absent. At each sample site, profiles were laid depending upon
accessibility of bare soil and the number of samples to be taken. At each sampling site, the
samples were collected in a grid at 2 m intervals along 40-m-long transects. In all, a total
of 40 soil samples were selected from the total number collected from the six locations for
laboratory characterization and elemental analysis.

2.3 Sample Preparation and Analysis

The samples were air-dried in open air for seven days, to ensure proper drainage and to
decrease the moisture content below 20%. This is due to the fact that moisture content
above 20% could interfere with the XRF analysis and also alter the soil matrix for which
the XRF spectrometer has been calibrated (Kodom et al., 2010; EPA/ROC, 1998) with
respect to solid (powdered) samples. To achieve this goal, the samples were prepared for
drying by breaking them down into aggregates and spreading them evenly on polyethylene
sheets or plywood trays in open air, and ensuring with great circumspection that there was
no sample cross-contamination or contamination from any external source (s).
1010 K. Kodom et al.

Figure 3. Map of the study area showing soil sampling locations (Not drawn to scale).

In order to reduce soil matrix effects, the soil samples were thoroughly homogenized
and sieved to fine particle sizes of about 75 μm with Retsch aluminium test-sieves with
vibratory electronic sieve shaker. Generally, XRF probes better only at a depth of 100 μm
or less for most sample matrices (Guthrie, 2007). Therefore, the fine powdery particles
that passed through the 75 μm sieve were re-packaged and carefully stored for further
investigation.
As described by Kodom et al. (2010), pulverization of the soil samples in general
includes grinding, mixing, or milling into a finer loose powder state. Since XRF spectrom-
eters only analyze a sample’s surface layer, which must be representative of the whole
sample, each sample was carefully and homogeneously prepared into pellets with smooth
surfaces of equal density. This was achieved by milling or pulverizing the loose powdered
samples (75 μm) to further reduce the particle size to about 60 μm and below.
Before the milling or mixing procedure, 0.9 g of a powdery binder (Hoechst wax)
containing cellulose, starch, polyvinyl alcohol, or other organics (Buhrke et al., 1998) was
weighed into 4 g of each sample using an electronic balance. The resulting mixture (sample
and binding material), having a total mass of 4.9 g, was put into deformable aluminium
cups (screw-top grinding jars) for the process of thorough milling and homogenization
using the RETSCH Mixer Mills (MM 301), which also aided the further pulverization of
the sample. By using a SPECAC hydraulic press with a maximum pressure limit of 15
tons (or 15000 kg), each pulverized sample was manually pressed into pellets with uniform
diameter (32 mm) and thickness (3 mm), as discussed by Kodom et al. (2010).

2.3.1 XRF Instrumentation and Elemental Analyses. The concentrations of the heavy
metals were determined using a polarized energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence (PED-XRF)
 XRF Analysis of Heavy Metal Pollution 1011

spectrometer. Specifically, the Spectro X-LAB 2000 PED-XRF spectrometer equipped with
a Rh anode X-ray tube, and a 0.5 mm Be side window was employed. This Spectro X-Lab
2000 XRF equipment has a carousel (circular rotating position sample changer) placed
inside a sample chamber that has the capacity to hold a maximum of 20 sample holder
disks of 32 mm diameter for sequential sample analyses. The XRF is a very sensitive
technique, hence great caution was taken to avoid contamination of the pellets ahead of the
analysis. Poor handling of the samples could seriously affect the results of the analysis due
to high sensitivity of the spectrometer, which was sensitive enough to detect fingerprints on
the pellet’s surface layer (Kodom et al., 2010; Brouwer, 2006). Taking into consideration
these cautious measures, the 20 sample holder disks (sample cups) were all filled with the
pellets by holding the sample pellets by the edges (not the surface layer). In the sample
chamber, the 20 samples were characterized by allocating them with sample numbers for
easy identification.
A computer-based multi-channel analyzer, which contained menu-based SPECTRO
X-LAB Pro. Software Package (Turboquant), was set for controlling the spectrometer
functions, spectral analysis, collecting and storage of data, as well as data evaluation. The
samples were therefore analyzed using a pre-set method, made up of a series of tasks,
which acquires several spectra for each sample, one spectrum per target (Guthrie, 2007).
The instrumentation used was a SPECTRO X-LAB 2000 equipped with a 400 W Rh end
window tube and a Si(Li) detector with a resolution of 148 eV (1000 cps Mn Kα). The
available targets were A12 03 and B4C used as a BARKLA polarizer, an HOPG (High
Oriented Pyrolitic Graphite) - crystal used as a BRAGG polarizer, and Al, MO, and Co
used as secondary targets. The irradiation chamber could be operated under vacuum or by
using a gas purge either with nitrogen or helium. The automatic sample changer could be
equipped with 20 samples maximum (Schramm et al., 1999).
Inside the spectrometer, the method selected the first task and all sample spectra were
acquired one after the other. By rotating the target carousel and adjusting other parameters,
the system moved on to the next task and acquired the next set of spectra lines. The net top
positions of the spectra generally represented the various elements present, and the areas
of the line spectra represented the intensity. Qualitatively, the top positions of the spectra
characterized the various elements in the sample, while quantitatively the net intensity
of the peaks of the spectra were converted into concentrations (Brouwer, 2006). The
EDXRF systems depend on semiconductor-type detectors, which receive the entire emitted
spectrum from the sample and decode it into a histogram of number of counts versus
photon energy. The peak height for any element is directly related to the concentration of
that element within the sampling volume (HORIBA, 2009). To identify the net intensity of
the peaks of the spectra and convert them into concentrations, calibration standards with
accurately known element concentrations are used to generate calibration curves (XRF
peak intensity versus concentration). These curves are then used to calculate concentrations
from observed spectra. The method works extremely well, and is recommended for best
accuracy (HORIBA, 2009), since a good relationship exists between the peak height and the
recorded concentrations. Peaks in the energy spectrum, once acquired, are subject to a large
degree of massaging by the software in the connected computer. Sophisticated algorithms
sense and quantitatively correct for high backgrounds due to Compton scattering from
low atomic number matrices (Metz et al., 1994; Guthrie, 2007). Due to the secondary
targets used by the spectrometer, several energy spectra for each sample were acquired,
one from each target. Since each target yields better sensitivity in one part of the spectrum,
the information from the energy spectra is combined to quantitate each element being
analyzed.
1012
Table 1
Mean heavy metal concentrations ± SD [mg kg–1] for all sampled locations (n = 40)

Sampled Location (Zone)

Zone 4 Zone 7 Zone 12 Anomanye Junction Kwantwima Abusuakrowa

Heavy Metal [20] [4] [4] [4] [4] [4]
As 18.6 ± 8.2 2.3 ± 1.5 7.7 ± 0.8 5.3 ± 1.0 1.4 ± 0.9 1.9 ± 1.4
Pb 481.0 ± 154.4 133.7 ± 95.7 571.3 ± 404.8 380.5 ± 278.8 43.7 ± 5.5 23.3 ± 3.0
Hg 8.4 ± 2.9 9.8 ± 2.0 5.5 ± 2.0 10.4 ± 1.7 3.3 ± 0.6 3.5 ± 0.6
Cd 10.1 ± 3.7 11.2 ± 1.3 6.9 ± 1.0 13.2 ± 0.9 5.0 ± 0.2 5.2 ± 0.3
Cr 187.1 ± 37.2 91.3 ± 24.6 345.1 ± 167.5 545.8 ± 199.9 80.7 ± 33.9 191.1 ± 151.7
Co 54.9 ± 17.1 55.4 ± 5.2 38.6 ± 3.0 81.9 ± 19.4 25.9 ± 2.3 26.9 ± 3.3
Ni 30.9 ± 6.6 20.6 ± 3.2 29.4 ± 3.3 12.4 ± 1.8 9.7 ± 2.2 10.0 ± 1.5
Zn 908.6 ± 382.4 189.2 ± 130.7 451.7 ± 105.4 225.6 ± 34.9 142.8 ± 6.5 174.9 ± 101.5
Cu 334.6 ± 145.3 62.9 ± 37.1 254.2 ± 97.8 75.5 ± 16.2 19.9 ± 2.4 19.0 ± 7.0
Values in square brackets are number of soil samples analyzed at a particular sampled zone;
n = total number of soil samples analyzed. SD = standard deviation.
 XRF Analysis of Heavy Metal Pollution 1013

For the Spectro X-Lab 2000, the software handles all spectral deconvolution and
elemental quantitation. The analyses do not even require the user to inspect the acquired
energy spectra frequently. The results are, however, automatically calculated and reported
as a mass fraction, which is simply recorded in parts-per-million (ppm). Detection in this
instrument is accomplished with a Si(Li) detector with an active surface of 10–30 mm2 and
an effective thickness of 3–4 mm. The maximum energy resolution of the detection system,
which includes the preamplifier, is 150 eV at 5.9 keV and a count rate of 1000 cps. The
output is fed to a main amplifier and then to an analog-to-digital converter (ADC). The
ADC is interfaced with a PC, which runs the Spectro X-Lab Pro software. The specified
detection limits in an organic matrix for the X-Lab 2000 vary from 0.3 ppm by weight for
Cd to 2000 ppm for Na. These detection limits fluctuate depending on the matrix type and
are calculated by the system software based on the measured background noise (Jenkins
et al., 1995; Guthrie, 2007; Spectro, 2011). The total analysis time varies from 15 minutes
to several hours, depending on the number of tasks or targets in the method (Brouwer, 2006;
Guthrie, 2007).

3. Results and Discussion

3.1 Heavy Metal Concentration and Distribution

From the elemental analysis, concentrations of nine heavy metals (NHM), i.e As, Pb, Hg,
Cd, Cr, Co, Ni, Zn, and Cu, were identified and quantified using the PED-XRF spectrometry.
The results are discussed below.
The results of the mean heavy metal content in the soils of the NHM sampled locations
are summarized in Tables 1 and 2.
Table 2 summarizes the entire results of the measured concentrations [mg kg−1] ob-
tained along a 38 m transect for the top-soils from Zone 4 at the industrial area. It was from
this zone that the highest number of samples (n = 20) was obtained. The entire results of
the mean heavy metal concentration for all the measured soil samples with respect to their
sampled locations (zones) are shown in Table 1.

Table 2
Summary results of descriptive statistical analysis of selected heavy metal concentrations,
compared with their TLV for Zone 4, along a 38 m transect [n = 20]

Min Max Mean Value TLV

Heavy metal [mg kg −1] [mg kg −1] SD(σ ) Std. Err [mg kg −1] [mg kg −1]
As 1.5 33.6 8.16 1.83 18.6 20
Pb 126.9 760.8 154.35 34.51 481.0 100
Hg 4.3 15.4 2.89 0.65 8.4 1
Cd 3.8 20.2 3.66 0.82 10.1 3
Cr 102.5 264.4 37.20 1.48 187.1 100
Co 28.5 90.6 17.07 0.82 54.9 50
Ni 18.8 43.3 6.60 1.48 30.9 50
Zn 177.5 1605 382.42 85.51 908.6 300
Cu 66.5 589.8 145.30 8.32 334.6 100
Min. = Minimum concentration value; Max. = maximum concentration value;
TLV = Threshold Limit Value; Std. Err = Standard Error.
1014 K. Kodom et al.

The graphical results reported (Figures 4–5) show the variations of the measured heavy
metal concentration along the 38 m transect for top-soils (0–15 cm depth) of Zone 4. In
Figure 5, heavy metals with concentrations lower than 50 mg kg–1 are plotted separately
for clarity.

3.1.2. HM Accumulation. The summarized results obtained from the trace analysis pre-
sented in Table 1 depict that the heavy metal (HM) levels in the surface soils (∼ 0–15 cm),

Figure 4. Variation of NHM concentration along the 38 m transect. Measured NHM concentrations
along a 38 m transect of Zone 4 for; 4a: Arsenic (As); 4b: Lead (Pb); 4c: Mercury (Hg); 4d: Cadmium
(Cd); 4e: Chromium (Cr); 4f: Cobalt (Co); 4g: Nickel (Ni); 4h: Zinc (Zn); and 4i: Copper (Cu).:
Reference (0,0): 06.43 16.8 .
 XRF Analysis of Heavy Metal Pollution 1015

Figure 4. (Continued).

according to Figure 5 (“a” and “b”), showed varying concentrations along the specified
transect. With the exception of As and Ni, which recorded concentrations within their
threshold levels, Zone 4, in particular, showed a remarkable heavy metal accumulation
(according to Table 2 and Figure 6a). Moreover, the concentrations of Zn, Pb, Cu, Cr, Co,
Cd, and Hg showed far higher values above their various threshold limits. These escalated
levels can therefore be attributed to the heavy metallurgical and industrial impacts at the
study area.
Considering Figure 6b, with the exception of the residential communities (Kwantwima
and Abusuakrowa), all the zones recorded escalated levels of Pb with Zone 12 and Zone
7 recording the maximum and the minimum, respectively. However, according to Figure
6c, all the measured zones (including the residential communities) recorded concentrations
of Zn below the TLV, with the exception of Zone 4 and Zone 12, which recorded highly
dominant values of Zn. Concentrations of Cu, Cr, Co, Cd, and Hg were highly dominant as
well.
The high content of Pb and Zn at Zone 4 and 12 (Figures 6b and 6c) illustrate the
impact of the industrial activity on the surface soils of those areas. This is because, when
comparing the concentration of the heavy metals at the industrial zones to the two residential
communities (Fig. 6f), the distribution showed wide variations with all the measured heavy
metal concentrations at industrial areas recording highly dominant values as compared
to the residential areas. The total mean heavy metal concentration at the industrial zones
showed a relative dominant pattern in the order of As< Hg< Cd< Ni< Co< Cu< Cr<
1016 K. Kodom et al.

Figure 5. Variation of NHM concentration along the transect.

 XRF Analysis of Heavy Metal Pollution 1017

Figure 6. a. Heavy metal accumulation in soils of all sampled zones at the study area. b Measured
mean Pb concentration at each sampled location compared with the TLV. c. Measured mean Zn
concentration at each sampled location compared with the TLV.
1018 K. Kodom et al.

Figure 6. d. Mean heavy metal concentration and distribution of sampled soils in communities with
high industrial impact. e. Mean HM concentration and distribution of sampled soils in communities
with less industrial impact. f. Total heavy metal accumulation in the sampled soils at locations of
high industrial activity compared to that of a residential community.
 XRF Analysis of Heavy Metal Pollution 1019

Pb< Zn (as shown in Fig. 6f). However, the residential zones showed a similar pattern of
As< Hg< Cd< Ni< Cu< Co< Pb< Cr< Zn, with a slight change in the positions of Pb
and Cr, as well as Cu and Co.
Considering all the NHM analyzed from the entire study area (Figs. 6a–d), Zones 4
and 12 generally recorded the highest heavy metal concentrations in the sampled soils.
Therefore, for all the analyzed heavy metals investigated in this study, the most polluted
zone is in the order of Zone 4 >Zone 12 >Anomanye Junction >Zone 7 >Abusuakrowa
>Kwantwima (Figure 6a).

4. Conclusions
The soils in the near surface (∼ 0–15 cm) of the Suame industrial cluster in Kumasi showed
accumulated concentrations of the nine heavy metals Zn, Pb, Cr, Cu, Co, Ni, Cd, As,
and Hg from 10–900% above their threshold values. The residential zone surrounding this
cluster showed relatively lower concentrations, but still these were about 65–650% higher
than their threshold values. These anomalous concentrations are a result of anthropogenic
activities, including smelting procedures, chemical and metallurgical processes, and the
indiscriminate industrial waste disposal on the unprotected soil. The associated high heavy
metal pollution from the residential sites (which are within a 5 km radius from the industrial
sites) might be partly due to atmospheric fallout from the industrial sites. In addition, there
is a high possibility of pollutant transport and surfacial mobility due to occasional flooding
and run-offs resulting from precipitation. Solute transport to the residential sites is facilitated
by the streams (Figure 3).
Soil heavy metal pollution in the Suame cluster and environs is astronomically high. It
is recommended that river channels and gutters should be regularly desilted and furthermore
indicators like pH, salinity, moisture content, temperature, and redox potential that influence
heavy metal speciation, mobility, and retention in soils (Ogundare, 1998; Kadem et al., 2004;
Oguntimehin and Ipinmoroti, 2008) should be regularly monitored to protect human and
animal life.

Acknowledgement
The research was partly supported by the Geochemistry and Laboratories at Geological
Survey Department, Accra, Ghana. The authors wish to acknowledge the invaluable help
rendered by Mr. Edwin Bawa (Physics Department Laboratory, KNUST), Mr. Emmanuel
Afum (Geochemistry and Laboratory, Geological Survey Department., Accra), and Mr.
Gilbert (Geotechnical Laboratory, Civil Engineering Department., KNUST) for assisting
in the laboratory work.

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