Chapter 1: Human Body: An Orientation

Chapter 3: Cell: The Living Unit

Chapter 4: Tissue: The Living Fabric

THE HUMAN BODY

AN OVERVIEW OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Anatomy
Study of the body structure and their relationships

Topics of Anatomy:

Gross /Macroscopic Anatomy

Study of macroscopic structures: large body structures visible to naked eye

Surface Anatomy
Study of body’s surface structures

Regional Anatomy
Study of structures within a region

Systemic Anatomy
Study of structures within a system

Microscopic Anatomy
Study of microscopic structures: with the aid of a microscope

Cellular Anatomy or Cytology

Study of the body cells

Histology
Study of tissues

Developmental Anatomy
Study of structural changes from conception through old age

Physiology
Study of body function

Topics of Physiology:

Systems Physiology
Study of body system’s function (cardiac physiology, neurophysiology, etc)

1
 Chapter 1: Human Body: An Orientation
Chapter 3: Cell: The Living Unit
Chapter 4: Tissue: The Living Fabric

Comparative Physiology
Study of physiology of humans in relation to that of other animals

Medical Physiology
Study of physiological dysfunctions and body disease

LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION

Chemical level
Interaction between atoms into molecules


Cellular level
Basic living units; have common characteristics, differ in structure and function


Tissue level
A group of cells of similar structure and function: epithelial, connective, muscle,
nervous


Organ level
Two or more tissue types together perform one or more common function: eye,
skin, stomach, heart, etc.


Organ System level
A group of organs of a common function: integumentary, skeletal, muscular,
nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and
reproductive


Organismal level
All organ systems make up the living body or organism, the human being

Cell

 The cell is the smallest structural and functional living unit

 Over 200 different types of human cells
 Types differ in size, shape, subcellular components, and functions
 All cells have some common structures and functions

2
 Chapter 1: Human Body: An Orientation
Chapter 3: Cell: The Living Unit
Chapter 4: Tissue: The Living Fabric

 Human cells have three basic parts:

1. Plasma membrane - flexible outer boundary
2. Cytoplasm - intracellular fluid containing organelles
3. Nucleus - control center

Membrane Transport
 Plasma membranes are selectively permeable
 Some molecules easily pass through the membrane; others do not
 Substances move through the plasma membrane in two ways:
1. Passive processes
2. Active processes
 Passive processes
 No cellular energy (ATP) required
 Substance moves down its concentration gradient
 Active processes
 Energy (ATP) required
 Occurs only in living cell membranes

Passive processes
 Simple diffusion - substances diffuse directly through the plasma membrane
 Facilitated diffusion - certain molecules (e.g., glucose, amino acids, and ions)
use carrier proteins or channel proteins to pass through the membrane
 Osmosis - movement of solvent (water) across a selectively permeable
membrane

Active transport
 Use ATP to move solutes across a living plasma membrane
 Requires carrier proteins (solute pumps)
 Moves solutes against a concentration gradient

Tissue

 Groups of cells similar in structure and function

 Types of tissues
 Epithelial tissue
 Connective tissue
 Muscle tissue
 Nerve tissue

3
 Chapter 1: Human Body: An Orientation
Chapter 3: Cell: The Living Unit
Chapter 4: Tissue: The Living Fabric

Organ Systems of the Body

System Major Organs General Function

Integumentary Skin Protection of underlying
structures from damage and from
loss of body fluid

Muscular Muscles Movement of the body

Skeletal Bones Support and protection of softer

body part

Nervous Brain, spinal cord, Control homeostasis by

nerves stimulating muscles to contract
and glands to secrete

Cardiovascular Heart, arteries, veins Transportation of materials to and

from body cells

Endocrine Pituitary gland, Control homeostasis by releasing

thyroid gland, adrenal hormones that alter body
gland, pancreas, processes
gonads

Lymphatic Spleen, thymus, Removal of dead cells and foreign

tonsils, lymphatic bodies from body fluid
vessels
Respiratory Larynx, trachea, lungs Exchange of gases between
bloodstream and external
environment

Digestive Esophagus, stomach, Break apart food into small

small intestine, liver, particles for their absorption into
pancreas, large the bloodstream
intestine
Urinary Kidneys, ureters, Maintain homeostasis by
urinary bladder, controlling water and salt balance
urethra in the bloodstream and by
removing metabolic waste
materials

Reproductive Testes, urethra, penis; Provide for production of new

ovaries, uterus, vagina individuals

4
 Chapter 1: Human Body: An Orientation
Chapter 3: Cell: The Living Unit
Chapter 4: Tissue: The Living Fabric

Organ Systems Interrelationships

 All cells depend on organ systems to meet their survival needs
 Organ systems work cooperatively to perform necessary life functions

MAINTAINING LIFE

1. Life functions: To sustain life, organism must able to maintain its

boundaries, move, respond to stimuli, digest nutrients and excrete wastes,
carry on metabolism, reproduce itself, and growth.

2. Survival needs include food, oxygen, water, appropriate temperature, and

normal atmospheric pressure. Extremes (excesses or deficits) of these
factors can be harmful.

HOMEOSTASIS

 Maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment despite continuous

outside changes
 A dynamic state of equilibrium

Homeostatic Control Mechanisms

 Involve continuous monitoring and regulation of many factors (variables)

 Nervous and endocrine systems accomplish the communication via nerve
impulses and hormones

Components of a Control Mechanism

1. Receptor (sensor)
 Monitors the environment
 Responds to stimuli (changes in controlled variables)

2. Control center
 Determines the set point at which the variable is maintained
 Receives input from receptor
 Determines appropriate response

5
 Chapter 1: Human Body: An Orientation
Chapter 3: Cell: The Living Unit
Chapter 4: Tissue: The Living Fabric

3. Effector
 Receives output from control center
 Provides the means to respond
 Response acts to reduce or enhance the stimulus (feedback)

Negative Feedback Mechanism

 A mechanism that restore the body to a normal state

 Shut off or reduce the intensity of the original stimulus
 e.g.: body temperature, heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate, blood
levels of glucose, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and minerals
 Most homeostatic control systems in the body are negative feedback systems

Positive Feedback Mechanism

 Mechanism that promote a condition farther from normal levels of function

 Increase the original stimulus (disturbance)
 e.g.: blood clotting and labor contractions

Homeostatic Imbalance

 As we age, our body organs become less efficient, and our body internal
conditions become less and less stable.
 These events place us at an increasing risk for illness or disease.
 May allow destructive positive feedback mechanisms to take over (e.g., heart
failure)

THE LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY

Anatomical Position

 Body standing erect and facing forward, the feet are slightly apart, and the
arms are hanging at the sides with the palms facing forward

6
 Chapter 1: Human Body: An Orientation
Chapter 3: Cell: The Living Unit
Chapter 4: Tissue: The Living Fabric

Directional Terms

Superior (cranial) - above, toward the head

Inferior (caudal) - below, toward the leg

Anterior (ventral) - front of the body

Posterior (dorsal) - back of the body

Medial - toward the midline

Lateral - away from the midline

Proximal - toward the attachment end of a limb

Distal - away from the attachment end of a limb

Superficial - toward the body surface

Deep - away from the body surface

Body Region

Body Region

Axial Appendicular

Head Upper extremities

Neck Lower extremities
Thorax
Abdomen
Pelvis

7
 Chapter 1: Human Body: An Orientation
Chapter 3: Cell: The Living Unit
Chapter 4: Tissue: The Living Fabric

Regional Terms

 Regional terms designate specific areas

 Anterior body landmarks: orbital, thoracic, abdominal, pubic, femoral, tarsal,
etc.
 Posterior body landmarks: scapular, vertebral, gluteal, popliteal, calcaneal,
etc.
 Inferior body surface: The plantar region - the sole of the foot.

Body Planes and Sections

 Plane: Flat surface along which body or structure is cut for anatomical study
 The body or its organs may be cut along planes, or imaginary line, to produce
different types of sections.
 Frequently used body planes are sagittal, frontal and transverse planes

1. Sagittal plane
 Divides the body into right and left parts

Median (midsagittal) plane

 Lies on midline

Parasagittal plane
 Not on midline

2. Frontal (coronal) plane

 Divides the body into anterior and posterior parts

3. Transverse (horizontal) plane

 Divides the body into superior and inferior parts

8
 Chapter 1: Human Body: An Orientation
Chapter 3: Cell: The Living Unit
Chapter 4: Tissue: The Living Fabric

BODY CAVITIES

Body Cavities
(Housed internal organs)

Dorsal cavity Ventral cavity

Cranial Spinal Thoracic Abdominopelvic

cavity cavity cavity cavity

Mediastinum Pleural Abdominal Pelvic

cavity cavity cavity

Pericardial
cavity

9
 Chapter 1: Human Body: An Orientation
Chapter 3: Cell: The Living Unit
Chapter 4: Tissue: The Living Fabric

Main Body Cavities and Their Organ Contents

Cavity Contents
Dorsal (posterior) Cranial cavity and spinal cavity

Cranial Brain

Spinal Spinal cord

Ventral (anterior) Thoracic cavity, abdominopelvic cavity

Thoracic Mediastinum (heart, great vessels, esophagus,

trachea), lungs, pericardial and pleural cavities

Abdominopelvic Abdominal cavity and pelvic cavity

Abdominal Stomach, intestines, liver, spleen, pancreas, kidney,

gallbladder, peritoneal cavity

Pelvic Urinary bladder, rectum, internal portions of

reproductive system, peritoneal cavity

10