Musa-ab A.

Panara-ag
BSCA-IV

GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY PRELIM EXAM

I. WHAT?

1) PSYCHOLOGY:

-Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior, according to the American Psychological Association.
Psychology is a multifaceted discipline and includes many sub-fields of study such areas as human development, sports,
health, clinical, social behavior and cognitive processes.

2) MAIN GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY:

A. Describe- The first goal is to observe behavior and describe, often in minute detail, what was observed as objectively
as possible

B. Explain- While descriptions come from observable data, psychologists must go beyond what is obvious and explain
their observations. In other words, why did the subject do what he or she did?

C. Predict- Once we know what happens, and why it happens, we can begin to speculate what will happen in the future.
There’s an old saying, which very often holds true: “the best predictor of future behavior is past behavior.”

D. Control- Once we know what happens, why it happens and what is likely to happen in the future, we can excerpt
control over it. In other words, if we know you choose abusive partners because your father was abusive, we can
assume you will choose another abusive partner, and can therefore intervene to change this negative behavior.

E. Improve- Not only do psychologists attempt to control behavior, they want to do so in a positive manner, they want
to improve a person’s life, not make it worse. This is not always the case, but it should always be the intention.

3) CONTEMPORARY PERSPECTIVES IN PSYCHOOGY:

A. BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE - it views psychological events as related to the activity of the brain and the nervous system.
This approach views behavior as a result of electrical and chemical combinations taking place inside the body. It also
considers the importance of memory, including the hippocampus that fully develops at age 3. Prior to this age, recall of
childhood events can be difficult since the hippocampus is not yet fully developed.

B. BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE

BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE - this revolutionized psychology for half a century. It focused on observable and measurable
behavior that can be explained through stimulus response formula and is determined through conditioning and
reinforcement. This was perfected by John B. Watson, a famous animal psychologist at Johns Hopkins University. He
redefined psychology as the scientific study of behavior. Today, the behavioral perspective is still concerned with how
behaviors are learned and reinforced. Behavioral principles are often applied in mental health settings, where therapists
and counselors use these techniques to explain and treat a variety of illnesses.

C. COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE

COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE - this included mental processes in the equation to fully understand human behavior. These
mental processes include: perceiving, remembering , reasoning, deciding, and problem solving. This approach departed
from introspection since it assumed that mental processes can be studied by focusing on specific behaviors but
interpreting them using underlying mental processes.
D. PSYCHOANALYTIC PERSPECTIVE

PSYCHOANALYTIC PERSPECTIVE - Psychoanalysis was developed by Sigmund Freud. His theory is concerned with the
causal role of wishes and beliefs in human life. This school of thought emphasized the influence of the unconscious
mind on behavior. Freud believed that the human mind was composed of three elements: the id, the ego, and the
superego. The id is the aspect of personality that is entirely unconscious and includes the instinctive and primitive
behaviors. It is driven by pleasure principle which strives for immediate gratification of all desires, wants, and needs. The
ego operates based on the reality principle, which strives to satisfy the id’s desires in realistic and socially appropriate
ways. The superego holds all internalized moral standards and ideals. It is our sense of right and wrong. His views on
aggression, anxiety, and childhood experience remain influential.

E. PHENOMENOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

PHENOMENOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE - subjective experience is central to this approach. The personal experience of man
is his/her phenomenology – his own world. Some of their theories are called humanistic because they emphasize the
qualities that distinguish human from animals. Humans are motivated by growth and self-actualization. It emphasizes
developing human potential to the fullest. This approach came as a reaction to the mechanistic, unconscious impulses or
by external stimuli that shape behavior. Popular figures in this perspective are Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers.

4) ELEVEN SPECIALIZATIONS IN PSYCHOLOGY:

A. CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY- studies and applies therapeutic methods to the treatment of individuals experiencing
problems in life.

B. SCHOOL AND EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY- studies teaching methods to improve learning n the classroom.

C. INDUSTRIAL/ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY- studies work and working environments and applies findings to
improve job satisfaction and productivity.

D. COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGY- deals with academic, work, or social personal problems. It deals with less serious
psychological problems unlike clinical psychology.

E. ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY- studies maladaptive behavior patterns and psychopathology.

F. COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY- studies similarities and differences in behavior of various animal species.

G. DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY- studies the stability & change of characteristic, such as intelligence or social skills,
over the life span.

H. PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY- studies individual differences across a number of different personal attributes.

I. PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY- studies biological bases of behavior, focusing on the nervous system.

J. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY- studies behaviors of individuals in groups and how people affect one another’s behavior.

K. ENGINEERING PSYCHOLOGY- deals with man and machine relationship and how to improve such relationship. His
field of psychology is also known as human factors psychology.

5) FIVE NEW DIRECTIONS IN 21 CENTURY OF PSYCHOLOGY:

ST

A. FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY- an intersection between psychology and the legal proceedings. It is applied to the criminal
justice system to evaluate the psychology of the defendants.
B. SPORTS PSYCHOLOGY- analyzes the people’s behavior in sports. Studies the factors that affect an individual’s
performance in sports or any physical activity. The skills built through sports are closely associated with psychology.
Sports psychology studies this relationship.

C. COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY- relies on theory and evidence of neuroscience and computational modeling. It addresses
the questions of how cognitive functions are produced by the brain using new techniques like brain scanning or neuro
imaging to view image of the brain during psychological phenomena.

D. EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY- is a new field that calls for multidisciplinary background like psychology, psychiatry,
anthropology, and biology in order to determine genetic, sociological, or biological origins of adaptive or psychological
mechanisms. It investigates the adaptive value through evolution because of the series of experiences of our ancestors
for many generations.

E. POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY- is an emerging perspective devoted to the study of subjective feelings of happiness,
wellbeing, and good life (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000).s

6) NEURON:

-A neuron is a nerve cell that is the basic building block of the nervous system. Neurons are similar to other cells in the
human body in a number of ways, but there is one key difference between neurons and other cells. Neurons are
specialized to transmit information throughout the body.

7) SENSORY (AFFERENT) NEURON:

-Afferent neurons also called sensory neurons are the nerves responsible for sensing a stimulus. Then, they send
information about that stimulus to your central nervous system. Sensory input, such as smells and feelings of pain, is
carried from the point of reception up the spinal cord and into the brain.

8) MOTOR (EFFERENT) NEURON:

-Efferent neurons also called motor neurons are the nerves responsible for carrying signals away from the central
nervous system in order to initiate an action. When sensory input is brought to the brain, it sends signals for a motor
response to your muscles and glands via the efferent neurons.

9) CENTAL NERVOUS SYSTEM:

-The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord.The brain plays a central role in the control of most
bodily functions, including awareness, movements, sensations, thoughts, speech, and memory.

10) PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM:

-The peripheral nervous system consists of the nerves that branch out from the brain and spinal cord. These nerves form
the communication network between the CNS and the body parts. The peripheral nervous system is further subdivided
into the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.

11) SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM:

- The somatic nervous system is the part of the peripheral nervous system associated with the voluntary control of body
movements via skeletal muscles. The somatic nervous system consists of afferent nerves or sensory nerves, and efferent
nerves or motor nerves. Afferent nerves are responsible for relaying sensation from the body to the central nervous
system; efferent nerves are responsible for sending out commands from the CNS to the body, stimulating muscle
contraction; they include all the non-sensory neurons connected with skeletal muscles and skin.

12) AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM:

-The autonomic nervous system, formerly the vegetative nervous system, is a division of the peripheral nervous system
that supplies smooth muscle and glands, and thus influences the function of internal organs. The autonomic nervous
system is a control system that acts largely unconsciously and regulates bodily functions, such as the heart rate,
digestion, respiratory rate, pupillary response, urination, and sexual arousal.

13) HUMAN DEVELOPMENT:

-Human development refers to the biological and psychological development of the human being throughout the
lifespan. It consists of the development from infancy, childhood, and adolescence to adulthood. The scientific study of
psychological human development is sometimes known as Developmental psychology.

14) ASPECTS OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT:

A. Physical development- involves growth and changes in the body and brain, the senses, motor skills, and health and
wellness.

B. Cognitive development- involves learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity.

C. Psychosocial development- involves emotions, personality, and social relationships.

15) GROWTH:

-Growth is the physical process of development, particularly the process of becoming physically larger. It is quantifiable,
meaning that it can be measured, and it is mostly influenced by genetics.

16) DEVELOPMENT:

-Development refers to the process by which the child develops his or her psychomotor skills.

17) NATURE AND NURTURE:

Nature- refers to all of the genes and hereditary factors that influence who we are—from our physical appearance to
our personality characteristics.

Nurture- refers to all the environmental variables that impact who we are, including our early childhood experiences,
how we were raised, our social relationships, and our surrounding culture.

18) SEVEN PRINCIPLES OF LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT:

A. Development is lifelong

-Lifelong development means that development is not completed in infancy or childhood or at any specific age; it
encompasses the entire lifespan, from conception to death. The study of development traditionally focused almost
exclusively on the changes occurring from conception to adolescence and the gradual decline in old age; it was believed
that the five or six decades after adolescence yielded little to no developmental change at all.

B. Development is multidimensional

-By multidimensionality, Baltes is referring to the fact that a complex interplay of factors influence development across
the lifespan, including biological, cognitive, and socioemotional changes. Baltes argues that a dynamic interaction of
these factors is what influences an individual’s development.

C. Development is multidirectional

-Baltes states that the development of a particular domain does not occur in a strictly linear fashion but that
development of certain traits can be characterized as having the capacity for both an increase and decrease in efficacy
over the course of an individual’s life.
D. Development is plastic

-Plasticity denotes intrapersonal variability and focuses heavily on the potentials and limits of the nature of human
development. The notion of plasticity emphasizes that there are many possible developmental outcomes and that the
nature of human development is much more open and pluralistic than originally implied by traditional views; there is no
single pathway that must be taken in an individual’s development across the lifespan. Plasticity is imperative to current
research because the potential for intervention is derived from the notion of plasticity in development. Undesired
development or behaviors could potentially be prevented or changed.

E. Development is contextual

-In Baltes’ theory, the paradigm of contextualism refers to the idea that three systems of biological and environmental
influences work together to influence development. Development occurs in context and varies from person to person,
depending on factors such as a person’s biology, family, school, church, profession, nationality, and ethnicity. Baltes
identified three types of influences that operate throughout the life course: normative age-graded influences, normative
history-graded influences, and nonnormative influences. Baltes wrote that these three influences operate throughout
the life course, their effects accumulate with time, and, as a dynamic package, they are responsible for how lives
develop.

F. Development as Gain/Loss

-Baltes argues development across the lifespan is influenced by the “joint expression of features of growth (gain) and
decline (loss) on the premise of multi-directionality, this principle argues for the existence of a parallel process of
development that is composed of both gains and losses. Baltes argues that factors which contribute to gain or loss are
not in equal proportions but adjust according to systematic age-related shifts. The result of this gain/loss relationship is
that an individual's development occurs within the framework of this dynamic relationship. This relation between
developmental gains and losses occurs in a direction to selectively optimize particular capacities which requires the
sacrificing of other functions, a process known as selective optimization with compensation.

G. Historical embeddedness

-The perspective of historical embeddedness is composed of two main ideas: the idea that a relationship exists between
an individual's development and the socio-cultural setting around them, and also how this setting evolves over time.
During the time of adolescence, Baltes believed the socio-cultural setting in which an individual develops plays a distinct
role in the development of their personality.

19) EIGHT DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES:

Stage 1: Infancy: Trust vs. Mistrust

-Infants depend on caregivers, usually parents, for basic needs such as food. Infants learn to trust others based upon
how well caregivers meet their needs.

Trust: When caregivers respond promptly to an infant’s cries, the baby can learn to rely on others. As caregivers fill an
infant’s needs, the baby can develop a sense of trust and security.

Mistrust: If caregivers neglect an infants’ needs, or if care is sporadic, an infant may grow insecure. They may learn they
cannot rely on others and thus feel unsafe.

Stage 2: Toddlerhood: Autonomy vs. Shame and Self-Doubt

-During this phase, young children begin exploring the world around them. They learn more about their environment
and their place within it. They also develop basic skills such as toilet training.

Autonomy: In this stage, caregivers often serve as a safe base from which to explore the world. When caregivers
encourage independence, children will feel secure enough to take risks.
Shame: Children whose caregivers discourage them may develop feelings of shame. If caregivers foster excessive
dependence, the child may learn to doubt their own abilities.

Stage 3: Preschool Years: Initiative vs. Guilt

-Preschoolers are increasingly focused on doing things themselves and establishing their own goals.\

Initiative: When caregivers nurture these tendencies, children learn how to make decisions and plan for the future. They
can grow into adults who are able to follow their ambitions.

Guilt: If children are criticized for being assertive, they may feel guilt for pursuing their desires. Controlling caregivers
may teach children to follow another’s lead rather than starting their own plans.

Stage 4: Early School Years: Industry vs. Inferiority

-As children grow in independence, they become increasingly aware of themselves as individuals. They begin to compare
themselves with others.

Industry: Children who are accomplished compared to their peers can develop self-confidence and pride. Praise for their
achievements can boost their self-esteem.

Inferiority: Children who do not achieve certain milestones may doubt their abilities or self-worth. When children are
constantly criticized, they may develop feelings of inferiority.

Stage 5: Adolescence: Identity vs. Role Confusion

-The famed term “identity crisis” comes from this period of development. During this stage, adolescents’ main goal is to
answer the question “Who am I?” They may try different personas to determine which roles fit them best.

Identity: To succeed in this stage, adolescents need to establish a coherent sense of self. They will need to determine
their priorities in life (family, academic success, etc.). Then they will need to set goals for their adult selves based on
those values.

Role confusion: Some adolescents may have a weak sense of self. They may struggle to break away from the person
their parents or peers expect them to be. Without a consistent identity, they may grow confused about what they truly
want for the future.

Stage 6: Young Adulthood: Intimacy vs. Isolation

-According to Erikson, young adulthood is the period during which many people get married or develop significant
relationships. It has been defined as anywhere from 20-24 years to 20-40 years.

Intimacy: Relationships can be a key source of affection and intimacy in adulthood. Many find emotional benefits from
having a committed, lifelong bond.

Isolation: According to Erikson, people who do not develop relationships may become socially isolated. They may
develop long-term feelings of loneliness.

Stage 7: Middle Adulthood: Generativity vs. Stagnation

-The focus of this stage is to contribute to society and the next generation. Adults in this stage are often at the height of
their careers. Many people are raising children.

Generativity: People may offer guidance to the next generation through parenting or mentorship. They may also offer
lead the way by leaving a legacy. Contributing to society’s future can give people a sense of community and purpose.
Stagnation: Some people may feel as if they have no impact on society. If people do not find their work meaningful, they
may feel restless or isolated. Some may feel they have “peaked” and that their lives will only get worse in the future.

Stage 8: Late Adulthood: Ego Integrity vs. Despair

-During this phase, older adults reflect on the life they have lived.
Ego Integrity: Those who feel fulfilled by their lives can face death and aging proudly.

Despair: People who have disappointments or regrets may fall into despair.

20) FOUR THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT:

1. Jean Piaget theory of development

-Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four different stages of mental
development. His theory focuses not only on understanding how children acquire knowledge, but also on understanding
the nature of intelligence.1 Piaget's stages are:

 Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2 years

 Pre operational stage: ages 2 to 7
 Concrete operational stage: ages 7 to 11
 Formal operational stage: ages 12 and up

Piaget believed that children take an active role in the learning process, acting much like little scientists as they perform
experiments, make observations, and learn about the world. As kids interact with the world around them, they
continually add new knowledge, build upon existing knowledge, and adapt previously held ideas to accommodate new
information.

2. Lawrence Kohlberg theory of development

-Lawrence Kohlberg expanded on the earlier work of cognitive theorist Jean Piaget to explain the moral development of
children. Kohlberg believed that moral development, like cognitive development, follows a series of stages. He used the
idea of moral dilemmas—stories that present conflicting ideas about two moral values—to teach 10 to 16 year-old boys
about morality and values. The best known moral dilemma created by Kohlberg is the “Heinz” dilemma, which discusses
the idea of obeying the law versus saving a life. Kohlberg emphasized that it is the way an individual reasons about a
dilemma that determines positive moral development.

Level 1. Preconventional Morality

The earliest stages of moral development, obedience and punishment, are especially common in young children, but
adults are also capable of expressing this type of reasoning. At this stage, Kohlberg says, people see rules as fixed and
absolute.6 Obeying the rules is important because it is a means to avoid punishment.

Level 2. Conventional Morality

Often referred to as the "good boy-good girl" orientation, the stage of the interpersonal relationship of moral
development is focused on living up to social expectations and roles.6 There is an emphasis on conformity, being "nice,"
and consideration of how choices influence relationships.

This stage is focused on maintaining social order. At this stage of moral development, people begin to consider society
as a whole when making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order by following the rules, doing one’s duty,
and respecting authority.
Level 3. Postconventional Morality

The ideas of a social contract and individual rights cause people in the next stage to begin to account for the differing
values, opinions, and beliefs of other people.
Rules of law are important for maintaining a society, but members of the society should agree upon these standards.

Kohlberg’s final level of moral reasoning is based on universal ethical principles and abstract reasoning. At this stage,
people follow these internalized principles of justice, even if they conflict with laws and rules.

3. Sigmund Freud theory of development

-Freud believed that personality developed through a series of childhood stages in which the pleasure-seeking energies
of the id become focused on certain erogenous areas. An erogenous zone is characterized as an area of the body that is
particularly sensitive to stimulation.
During the five psychosexual stages, which are the oral, anal, phallic, latent, and genital stages, the erogenous zone
associated with each stage serves as a source of pleasure.

Oral Stage (Birth to 1 year)

In the first stage of personality development, the libido is centered in a baby's mouth. It gets much satisfaction from
putting all sorts of things in its mouth to satisfy the libido, and thus its id demands. Which at this stage in life are oral, or
mouth orientated, such as sucking, biting, and breastfeeding.

Freud said oral stimulation could lead to an oral fixation in later life. We see oral personalities all around us such as
smokers, nail-biters, finger-chewers, and thumb suckers. Oral personalities engage in such oral behaviors, particularly
when under stress.

Anal Stage (1 to 3 years)

The libido now becomes focused on the anus, and the child derives great pleasure from defecating. The child is now
fully aware that they are a person in their own right and that their wishes can bring them into conflict with the demands
of the outside world (i.e., their ego has developed).

Freud believed that this type of conflict tends to come to a head in potty training, in which adults impose restrictions on
when and where the child can defecate. The nature of this first conflict with authority can determine the child's future
relationship with all forms of authority.

Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years)

Sensitivity now becomes concentrated in the genitals and masturbation (in both sexes) becomes a new source of
pleasure.

The child becomes aware of anatomical sex differences, which sets in motion the conflict between erotic attraction,
resentment, rivalry, jealousy and fear which Freud called the Oedipus complex (in boys) and the Electra complex (in
girls).

This is resolved through the process of identification, which involves the child adopting the characteristics of the same
sex parent.

Latency Stage (6 years to puberty)

No further psychosexual development takes place during this stage (latent means hidden). The libido is dormant.
Freud thought that most sexual impulses are repressed during the latent stage, and sexual energy can be sublimated (re:
defense mechanisms) towards school work, hobbies, and friendships.
Much of the child's energy is channeled into developing new skills and acquiring new knowledge, and play becomes
largely confined to other children of the same gender.

Genital Stage (puberty to adult)

This is the last stage of Freud's psychosexual theory of personality development and begins in puberty. It is a time of
adolescent sexual experimentation, the successful resolution of which is settling down in a loving one-to-one
relationship with another person in our 20's.

Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather than self-pleasure like during the phallic stage.

For Freud, the proper outlet of the sexual instinct in adults was through heterosexual intercourse. Fixation and conflict
may prevent this with the consequence that sexual perversions may develop.

For example, fixation at the oral stage may result in a person gaining sexual pleasure primarily from kissing and oral sex,
rather than sexual intercourse.

4. Erik Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development

-Like Freud, Erik Erikson believed in the importance of early childhood. However, Erikson believed that personality
development happens over the entire course of a person’s life. In the early 1960s, Erikson proposed a theory that
describes eight distinct stages of development. According to Erikson, in each stage people face new challenges, and the
stage’s outcome depends on how people handle these challenges. Erikson named the stages according to these possible
outcomes:

Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust

In the first year after birth, babies depend completely on adults for basic needs such as food, comfort, and warmth. If
the caretakers meet these needs reliably, the babies become attached and develop a sense of security. Otherwise, they
may develop a mistrustful, insecure attitude.

Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Between the ages of one and three, toddlers start to gain independence and learn skills such as toilet training, feeding
themselves, and dressing themselves. Depending on how they face these challenges, toddlers can develop a sense of
autonomy or a sense of doubt and shame about themselves.

Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt

Between the ages of three and six, children must learn to control their impulses and act in a socially responsible way. If
they can do this effectively, children become more self- confident. If not, they may develop a strong sense of guilt.

Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority

Between the ages of six and twelve, children compete with peers in school and prepare to take on adult roles. They end
this stage with either a sense of competence or a sense of inferiority.

Stage 5: Identity vs. Role Confusion

During adolescence, which is the period between puberty and adulthood, children try to determine their identity and
their direction in life. Depending on their success, they either acquire a sense of identity or remain uncertain about their
roles in life.

Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation

In young adulthood, people face the challenge of developing intimate relationships with others. If they do not succeed,
they may become isolated and lonely.
Stage 7: Generativity vs. Self-Absorption

As people reach middle adulthood, they work to become productive members of society, either through parenting or
through their jobs. If they fail, they become overly self-absorbed.

Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair

In old age, people examine their lives. They may either have a sense of contentment or be disappointed about their lives
and fearful of the future.

II. WHO IS?

1) SOCRATES- Socrates was a Greek philosopher whose way of life, character, and thought exerted a profound influence
on ancient and modern philosophy.

2) PLATO- Plato is one of the world’s best known and most widely read and studied philosophers. He was the student of
Socrates and the teacher of Aristotle, and he wrote in the middle of the fourth century B.C.E. in ancient Greece. 

3) ARISTOTLE- Aristotle, Greek Aristoteles was an ancient Greek philosopher and scientist, one of the greatest
intellectual figures of Western history. He was the author of a philosophical and scientific system that became the
framework and vehicle for both Christian Scholasticism and medieval Islamic philosophy.

4) DESCARTES- René Descartes, is a French mathematician, scientist, and philosopher. Descartes has been heralded as
the first modern philosopher. During the course of his life, he was a mathematician first, a natural scientist or “natural
philosopher” second, and a metaphysician third.

5) JOHN LOCKE- John Locke was among the most famous philosophers and political theorists of the 17th century. He is
often regarded as the founder of a school of thought known as British Empiricism, and he made foundational
contributions to modern theories of limited, liberal government.

6) Charles Darwin- Charles Darwin was a English naturalist whose scientific theory of evolution by natural selection
became the foundation of modern evolutionary studies. An affable country gentleman, Darwin at first shocked religious
Victorian society by suggesting that animals and humans shared a common ancestry.

7) FRANCIS GALTON- Francis Galton, was an English Victorian era statistician, polymath, sociologist, psychologist,
anthropologist, eugenicist, tropical explorer, geographer, inventor, meteorologist, proto-geneticist, and
psychometrician. He was knighted in 1909.

8) WILHELM WUNDT- Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt was a German physiologist, philosopher, and professor, known today
as one of the founders of modern psychology. Wundt, who distinguished psychology as a science from philosophy and
biology, was the first person ever to call himself a psychologist. He is widely regarded as the "father of experimental
psychology". In 1879, at University of Leipzig, Wundt founded the first formal laboratory for psychological research.

9) STANLEY HALL- Granville Stanley Hall was a pioneering American psychologist and educator. His interests focused on
childhood development and evolutionary theory. Hall was the first president of the American Psychological Association
and the first president of Clark University.

10) JAMES McKEEN CATTEL- James McKeen Cattell wan an American psychologist and was the first professor of
psychology in the United States, teaching at the University of Pennsylvania, and long-time editor and publisher of
scientific journals and publications, most notably the journal Science. He also served on the board of trustees for Science
Service, now known as Society for Science & the Public (or SSP), from 1921–1944.
11) EDWARD BRADFORD TITCHENER- Edward Bradford Titchener was an English psychologist who studied under
Wilhelm Wundt for several years. Titchener is best known for creating his version of psychology that described the
structure of the mind: structuralism. He created the largest doctoral program in the United States (at the time) after
becoming a professor at Cornell University.

12) WILLIAM JAMES- William James was an American philosopher and psychologist, a leader of the philosophical
movement of pragmatism and a founder of the psychological movement of functionalism.

13) SIGMUND FREUD- Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a clinical method
for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst.

14) JOHN B. WATSON- John Broadus Watson was an American psychologist who popularized the scientific theory of
behaviorism, establishing it as a psychological school. Watson advanced this change in the psychological discipline
through his 1913 address at Columbia University, titled Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It.

15) MAX WERTHEIMER- Max Wertheimer was an Austro-Hungarian-born psychologist who was one of the three
founders of Gestalt psychology, along with Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang Köhler. He is known for his book, Productive
Thinking, and for conceiving the phi phenomenon as part of his work in Gestalt psychology.

16) ABRAHAM MASLOW- Abraham Harold Maslow was an American psychologist who was best known for creating
Maslow's hierarchy of needs, a theory of psychological health predicated on fulfilling innate human needs in priority,
culminating in self-actualization.