In order to have a better understanding on the study conducted, literature review is very

crucial and important as it helps to give more knowledge in the selected study field.Besides
that, significant facts which can be used as guidelines or extra information will be able to
make the study conducted become useful.

2.1 A REVIEW OF DUST EXPLOSION

Dust explosions are a frequent hazard in a coal mining, grain elevators and other industrial
environment. They are also sometimes used by special effects artist, filmmakers, and
pyrotechnician because of their spectacular appearances under certain carefully controlled
conditions. However,dust explosion can cause major damage to stuctures, building,
environment and also human from violent overpressure or shockwave effects if the accident
or incident occur. Dust can be categorize into two types which is combustible dust that can
explode and non-combustible dust. Combustible dust defined by OSHA as a solid materials
composed of distinct particles or pieces, regardless of size, shape or chemical composition.
Combustible dust are often either organic or metal dust that are finely ground into very small
particles, fibers, fines, flakes or small mixture of these. Combustible dust also defined by
(Ogle, 2017) as a finely divided particulate solid that, if suspended in air or some other
oxidizing medium is capable of presenting a flash fire or explosion. Some combustible dust
can be guess easily such as wood, sawdust and wheat flour while some are hardly to
recognize especially for metallic dust such as magnesium and aluminium dust. Many
combustible dust that was dipersed in the air as a cloud dust and ignited will allow the flame
to propagate through the cloud. (Di Benedetto et al., 2010).
2.1.1 DEFINITION OF DUST EXPLOSION

The concept of explosion’s terminology needs to be familiar first there are many varying
definition, according to (Eckhoff, 2003) said that explosion definitions fall into two main
categories. The first one focuses on the sound of “bang” due to the sudden release of a strong
pressure wave or blast wave where the origin of this wave from the mechanical or chemical
energy blast. The second category is confined to explosions caused by the sudden release of
chemical energy that includes explosion of gases, dust and solid explosives. The two
categories then combined into one definition as explosion is an “exothermal chemical process
that when occuring at constant volume, gives rise to a sudden and significant number of
pressure. Explosion usually falls into two main category which is detonation and deflagration.
Detonation is the explosion in which flame travels at or more than the speed of sound while
deflagration means vice versa

The second terminology is a dust. Dust is made of by solid matters that differentiates into
small fine particles generated naturally or can be man-made. The main sources of dust from
human activities includes construction sites, ploughing, quarrying or mining and from
combustion of solid minerals fuels. Put simply dust is a tiny or airbone particulate matter. In
thinking about what is the minimum size of solid matters that can be assumed as dust, (Ogle,
2017) stated that dust is defined as the particle size less than 500 microns based on sieve
analysis.In addtion, a study reported by (Hassan et al., 2014) particles with a diameter less
than 1000μm are defined as powder, the particles having a diameter less than 76μm are
referred as dust.

Hence, from the above terminology, dust explosion can be defined accordingly. Dust
explosion can be said as a rapid combustion of combustible dust that suspended in the air.
According to the(Sinnott & Towler, 2020), dust explosion usually occur in two stages, the
first one is the primary explosion that disturbs deposited dust into the atmosphere and then
followed into the second explosion that is more severe caused by the dispersion of the dust
from the previous explosion. The blast from the primary dust explosion generating the
secondary explosion ahead of the flame by entraining dust deposit and and layers. (THE
PHENOMENAN OF ENTRAINMENT NEEDS MORE EVALUATION)

2.1.2 MECHANISM OF DUST EXPLOSION

Explosion of the dust only occur when all the five elements called “Explosion Pentagon” is
fully occupied,(Amyotte et al., 2019). From the five elements, the first three elements needed
to cause a dust fire are fuel (combustible dust), heat or spark (ignition source) and air
(oxygen). This three elements also called “Fire triangle” which illustrate the elements that a
fire required to ignite. The other two elements needed for the explosion are dust dispersion
and confinement where pressure to be generated. The figure below shows the illustrative
concept of fire triangle and dust exlosion pentagon.

Figure 2.1 : Dust Explosion Pentagon

Figure 2.2 : Fire Triangle

Most dust explosions involve deflagrations explosion (Amyotte et al., 2019) and occur when
dust dispersed in the air reacts with oxygen which then generating a violent exothermic
combustion reaction in the form of flame propagation (Wawrzyniak et al., 2012). Dust
explosion can be categorized as a serious hazard as it can cause fatality, injury, property
damage and economic losses. There were several reported cases for dust explosion in the
industry, one dust explosion could happen in each industrialized country every day (Abbasi &
Abbasi, 2007). In China, more than 200 cases of dust explosion have occured from 1949 until
2007(Ahmad et al., 2017).

One of the example of the dust explosion incident that occured have been reported in the
website of Department of Safety and Health (DOSH) happen in Lumut, Perak in 2008. Wheat
flour explosion at Malayan Flour Mill Company triggered by the hot work activity in a
confined space filled with a dust from corn starch (Ahmad et al., 2017). The explosion caused
four fatalities and two injuries, that also caused damaged to the silo tower facility,the main
building and the interconnected underground , tunnel, which housed the continous conveyors
and ancillaries from a jetty to the basement floor of the silo tower(Rahman & Takriff, 2013).

The second incident happen 6th February 1979 at the Rolandmuhle, Germany. The caused of
the explosion was from a fire started at one of the cable wire in the flour chamber that
triggered the most powerful dust explosion in Germany history. The fire then spread across a
conveyor bridge which then create a series of mini-explosion in the conveyor system. The
explosions in the conveyor system caused the upper storage room to fill up with more flour
than usual. In the upper storage room another small explosion happened that caught the flour
silo on fire.The burning silos caused enormous amounts of pressure that ripped off roofs and
collapsed walls. Allowing the building to burst into flames.The Mill has since then been
restored and is still in operation to this day.
Dust explosion is not only occur or restricted to coal mines or food industries, they may occur
at a chemical process plant, in the wood and paper industry or in metal handling. Most dust
handling process must carrying dust explosion hazard and thus require special safety and
monitoring aids.
2.1.3 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE DUST EXPLOSION.

As mention above, only combustible dust can bring dust explosion scenarios, Combustible
dust need to have certain criteria to explode, five criteria from explosion pentagon need to be
fulfilled. In addition, there are several factors or parameters that influence the dust explosion
that will be discussed below.

2.1.3.1 PARTICLE SIZE DIAMETER

Dust particles have different size and shape. Ideally, a single particle usually represents in a
perfectly sphere diameter.The reality is that particulate materials comes in a variety of sizes
and shapes(Ogle, 2017). Ogle also stated that the goal for particle size and shape
characterization is to derive a fundamental useful description of the population of particles. In
terms of distribution, there are a number of ways for the measurement of particles size and
shape. The most common methods use are sieving, sedimentation, light scattering and
microscopy analysis.

Another study by(Eckhoff, 2003) said that combustion rate increases because of the total
contact surfaces area between materials and air has increased. Eckhoff illustrates how a piece
of wood once ignited will burned slowly, releasing its heat over a long period of time. When
cuts into a small pieces the combustion rate increases and also the ignition of the woods is
easier. If the pieces of woods cuts into a more smaller pieces, the particles will suspended in a
sufficiently large volume of air that will enhanced the combustion rates more faster while the
energy required for ignition more smaller.

Futhermore, another study by(Di Benedetto et al., 2010) said that when a larger dust particles
exist, other phenomenan can mitigate the rate of explosion process. The phenomenan is the
devolatilazation and particle heating. Devolatilazation process is the process where the
volatiles are given off or release by the particles or the particles are vapourized when heating
or combustion occur. Di Benedetto stated that the more larger the particles, rate of
devolatilazation is slower.

Hence, it can be said that particle size plays an important role as the influencer of the dust
explosion. In order to reduce the risk at the industry that involved dust handling, the
avoidance of fine dust sizes allows the reduction dust explosion risk.
2.1.3.2 MINIMUM EXPLOSIBLE CONCENTRATION (MEC)

Minimum explosive concentration defined by National Fire Protection Association (NFPA

652) as the minimum concentration of a combustible dust suspended in air that measured in
mass per unit volume that will support the explosion (Bershad, 2017) and the possibility of
dust explosion depends strongly on MEC value and is importance to evaluate the risk of dust
explosion(Yuan et al., 2012).

MEC value vary with type of materials of particles. However, in order to avoid the explosion
occur, it can be said that,the concentration of dust in the air must be below its MEC value.
Typical MEC value required to initiate an explosion are in the range of 50-100 g/m3(Coulson,
2019). Coulson also stated that a dust can only explode within a certain range of
concentrations, Where the maximum concentration for the dust in the air to explode are in the
range of 2-3 kg/m3. Maximum concentration limited by the avaibility of sufficient oxygen
required to sustained the combustion. Thus it is impossible for the dust that exceeds the
maximum concentration value to dispersed and burn efficiently.
2.1.3.3 Dust Deflagaration Index , Kst.

Another factors that influenced the dust explosion is the Dust Deflagration index, Kst. It is
often referred as the cubic or cube root and simply known as the dust constant value. The ‘st’
term is derived from German word which means dust. A study by(Wan Sulaiman & Kasmani,
2011), st of dust can be classified by the three classes, which is St1 (Kst = 0-200), St2 (Kst =
201-300) and St3 (Kst = >300). The higher the value of Kst (bar-m/s) the higher the chances
of the dust to explode. The value of Kst is derived from multiplying the maximum rates of
pressure rise, (dP/dT)max by the cube root of the volume chamber. Equation below shows the
how Kst be expressed :

Kst = (dP/dT)max . V1/3 (1)

Where:

P = pressure, bar

t = time, s

V = volume of chamber or vessel used during test, m3

Kst = Deflagration Index, bar-m/s

Kst value usually taken from the experimented lab where it can be scaling up to the industrial
scale with respect to the volume of chamber used, the test for Kst value also known as the
dust explosion severity characteristic test. The example of the apparatus that used widely over
the wold are the Hartmann 1.2 litre chamber, Siwek 20 L spherical chamber, Pittburgh
Research Laboratory (PRL) 20 litre nearly spherical chamber(Abbasi & Abbasi, 2007) and
many more.

However, (Wan Sulaiman & Kasmani, 2011) stated that even the results of the Kst value can
be used to mitigate and reduce the risk of the dust explosion in the industrial dust, the cube
root law of the chamber only valid if it is geometrically similar vessels. In other words, in
scaling up the vessels used in industry, it must be respect to the type of apparatus used in the
laboratory. Table below shows the value of Kst, Pmax and dust explosion class, St from the
National Fire Protection Association(NFPA 68 Standard on Explosion Protection by
Deflagration Venting, 2007).

Type of dust Kst (bar-m/s) Maximum Dust explosion class,

Explosion St
overpressure,
Pmax, (bar)
Coal 135 8.2 1
Aluminium 650 12.5 3
Wood dust 208 9.4 2
Corn Starch 202 10.3 2
Table 2.1 Kst,Pmax and class of dust explosion, St derived from NFPA

Aluminium shows the higher value of Kst as it depends on the physical and chemical
characteristics of the dust as it is more finely divided particle compare to the other dust and
also vary with the moisture content and the turbulunce of the dust(Wan Sulaiman & Kasmani,
2011).

Hence from the equation expressed above, the Kst value is connected directly to the other
factors that influenced dust explosion which is the rate of rise of the maximum pressure,
(dP/dT)max which will be discussed later and also value of Kst vary with the physical and
chemical characteristics of the dust itself. As a remarks, the higher the Kst value the more
violent the explosion.

2.1.3.4 Maximum Explosion Overpressure, Pmax.

 To quantify the severity of the explosion using the explosion severity test, one of the value
that can be generates other than Kst value is known as maximum explosion overpressure,
Pmax.The Pmax is the average maximum pressure reached (higher than the pressure in the
vessel of chamber at the early time of ignition) during course of a deflagration for optimum
concentration of dust tested and the value of Kst and Pmax tested over a wide range of dust
concentration(Ghose Dastidar, 2019). Ghose ran an experimented test of explosion severity
using a 1m3 chamber using a sample of Niachin. The maximum explosion overpressure and
the pressure rise rate can be can be determined with increasing concentration of dust. The
results from the test shown by table below:

Run 125 g/m3 250g/m3 500 g/m3 750 g/m3 1000 g/m3 1250 g/m3
Pmax dP/dT Pmax dP/dT Pmax dP/dT Pmax dP/dT Pmax dP/dT Pmax dP/dT
(barg) (bar/s) (barg) (bar/s) (barg) (bar/s) (barg) (bar/s) (barg) (bar/s) (barg) (bar/s)
1 4.8 45 6.8 131 7.7 209 7.6 237 6.9 229 6.6 225
2 7.9 198 7.5 251 7.0 194
Table 2.2 The results from Ghose experiment of Niachin’s sample

From the results, the highest value of Pmax is 7.9 which is called the maximum explosion
overpressure and the maximum rate of pressure rise (dP/dT) max is 225 bar/s. The Kst value can
be calculated using the equation (1).

Another series of experimental test of a different coal with a same size of particle in a 20 liter
spherical chamber performed by(Continillo et al., 1991) stated that explosion overpressure
increases as the dust concentration increases. The data taken from the experiment plotted in
the graph of explosion overpressure versus dust concentration shows the highest point of
explosion overpressure called Pmax and while the concentration is called optimum dust
concentration.

2.1.3.5 MOISTURE CONTENT OR HUMIDITY

The humidity of the dust is the quantity of the water content in the dust particles. The
humidity of the dust also can be taken into account as one of the factor that influence the dust
explosion. Logically, the explosion severity would be lower if the humidity or moisture
content in the dust is higher. By saying that,the humid particles much more difficult to
inflame as the water content needs to be evaporated first before the burning of the dust
particles takes place and requires more energy to trigger the explosion.

Another related work was on (Aurnob, 2014), the study about the electrostatic charged that
can be act as the ignition sources for the dust explosion. As the dust being conveyed in the
conveyer system, static electrification produced and hence the ignition of the dust explosion
may be occur. The effect of humidity on the electrostatic charged of the dust may be
investigated to reduce the occurence of the dust explosion. The study indicated that as the
relative humidity increases, the electrostatic charged can be decreases. The electrostatic
charged that being generated by the contact of the dust particles and the sufaces of the pipe
can be mitigated by increasing the humidity, the humidity increases conductivity between the
surfaces of the conveyer and the dust. The electrostatic charged of the dust can be regarded as
small and not significant if the relative humidity above 65%. The figure below shows the
relation between the relative humidity and electrostatic charged where the charges was
measured at point 1 to 4 along the pipe.

Figure 2.3 The influence of the relative humidity on the static electrification
However, according to the (Traoré et al., 2009) who investigating the effect of humidity on
four different types of dust, metallic dust (aluminum) and the organic dust (icing sugar,
polyethylene, and magnesium stearate) strongly believed that the effect of humidity depends
on the chemical nature of the dust itself. In one of his/her test, the effect of humidity (4 types
of dust) on the explosion severity has been investigated. The samples has been dried
systematically before put into the chamber or vessel, the parameters such as maximum
overpressure, Pmax, and maximum rate of pressure rise (dP/dT)max were determined in a 20 L
hollow spherical (kuhner AG) chamber. The results shows for magnesium stearate, icing
sugar and polyethylene, the humidity effect on the explosion shows the usual results as the
(dP/dT)max and Pmax decreases as the water activity is increases. This is due to the
agglomeration process and the thermal sink effect of the dust. Dust agglomeration or dust
aggregation is a process where dust particles collide and stick together in the environment and
form larger particle diameter. And hence, the larger particles inhibits the explosion severity as
discussed before. However aluminium dust shows some deviation to the explosion severity as
the water activity increases. The water reacts with aluminium as the layer of alumina on the
surfaces is broken, the rapid exothermic reaction occur between the alumium and water. The
exothermic reaction then been promoting the severity of the explosion as the Pmax and
(dP/dT)max increases. The chemical equation can be shown below between water and alumium
reaction(Jones et al., 2003):

2Al (s) + 3H2O (l) → Al2O3 (s) + 3H2 (g) (2)

As a remarks, eventhough the dust explosion severity and probability can be reduce with
inreasing water activity on the dust particle. The factor such as agglomerated process, thermal
sink effect and electrostatic effect depends on the moisture content. The properties of the dust
also need to be familiar first as the aluminium dust behave differently on the elevated water
activity.
2.1.3.6 MINIMUM IGNITION TEMPERATURE (MIT)

Minimum ignition temperature is the minimum temperature of the hot surfaces that can ignite
the explosible dust. As mention by (Eckhoff, 2019b), the hot surfaces capable of igniting the
dust clouds exist in a various situation in the industry, such location is the inside the burners,
in the furnaces, dryers or any equipment that handling any kind of large heat or temperature.
Hence to avoid the accidental explosion, it is essential to know the value of minimum ignition
temperature of the dust where lab-scale test were used to identify the MIT value for various
kind of dust. However, as mentioned by some reseacher(Danzi et al., 2015; Eckhoff, 2019b)
that studying the MIT for various kind of dust, the ignition attitude of the dust is depends on
the several factors such as, the physical and chemical nature of the dust, turbulence of the
dust, concentration of the dust and the size and geometry of the hot surfaces (furnaces and
burners) where the extended explaination of this factors been discussed by the reseachers
above. Current regulations used in several countries to the industry that handling the
explosible dust stated that the maximum temperature of the hot surfaces should not exceed 2/3
of the MIT value of the dust.

According to (Danzi et al., 2015), there are two types of minimum ignition temperature
depends on the location of the dust located in the hot surfaces, the first one is MIT value for
dust clouds above the hot surfaces and the second one is the MIT value of dust layer on the
hot surfaces and the value were differ to each other for the same dust. There are various
method and apparatus to identify the MIT value for any given dust, some example that been
mentioned in many journals(Addai et al., 2016; Danzi et al., 2015; Eckhoff, 2019b; Polka et
al., 2012) were the Godbert-Greenwald (G-G) furnaces, 1.2 liter US Bureau of Mines furnaces
and BAM furnaces. All the appratus mechanism to identify MIT value were discussed
extensively by those reseacher.

Table below shows the different value of MIT of dust clouds and dust layers for the same dust
used. (Polka et al., 2012).

Dust Minimum Ignition Minimum Ignition Minimum Ignition

Temperature of dust Temperature of dust Temperature of dust
layer (5 mm) (oC) layer (12.5 mm) (oC) clouds (oC)
Flour 420 400 -
Cornflakes 420 400 470
Buckwheat 320 290 450
Corn starch >400 - 460
Malt 290 280 -
Rice Flakes >400 >400 430
Oatmeal >400 >400 480
Table 2.3 MIT value for various kind of dust

As a remarks, the problem with MIT value of the dust is their value is not constant and
depends entirely with another factors as discussed above. However, in order to keep the
explosion may not happen, the contact between explosible dust and the hot surfaces in the
plant or factory must be taken into account carefully, as MIT value should be lower in a
margin at least 2/3 (OC) with respect to the temperature on the hot surface of any equipment.
The lower the value for MIT the higher the chances and severity of the explosion.

2.1.3.7 MINIMUM IGNITION ENERGY (MIE)

Another factors that important to dust explosion risk analysis is minimum ignition energy,
The MIE is lowest energy needed of a high-voltage capacitor discharged or electric sparks to
ignite the explosible dust clouds at atmospheric condition and room temperature. MIE usually
determined experimentally, a lot of researcher mentioned the apparatus use to determined
MIE value in the lab-scale such as “MIKE 3” and “Hartmann” apparatus (Eckhoff, 2019a;
Ghose Dastidar, 2019). The procedure and the mechanism of the apparatus in determining the
MIT value were explained extensively by (Eckhoff, 2019a).

There are a lot of parameters influencing the MIE value. Nature of materials is one of the
parameters where some materials are easier to burn compare to others, humidity and
temperature also parameters in determining the MIE. However, one important key parameters
for MIE value is size of the dust. A variation of MIE as a function of particles size, the
smaller the particles the lower the MIE value, thus the higher the sensitivity of the dust to
ignition source. According to (Bagaria et al., 2019) who studied on the particle size reduction
affect on MIE for ascorbic acid stated that, the more particle breakage or reduction that been
dispersed been affecting MIE value where MIE value decreases as particles of ascorbic acid
keeps dispersed and reduce to a smaller size.

Another related works on MIE value was on (Hosseinzadeh et al., 2019), determination of
MIT value for six different types of dust with a variation of particle size. The table below
shows the MIE value for different types of dust in the experiment conducted as a function of
dust concentration

Dust Particle Moisture Bulk Density MIE

Diameter (μm) Content (%) (g/ml) (mJ)
Sebuku Coal 14.9 3.00 0.520 55
Cacao 92.0 7.80 0.530 1.6
Niacin 17.9 0.20 0.464 350
Lycopodium 35.9 5.80 0.305 4
Zirconium 43.0 0.25 3.010 42
Oak Wood 62.9 7.70 0.275 1<
Table 2.4 MIE value for different kind of dust

From the table shows above, the difference in MIE of dust attributed to several parameters,
First is an increases of dust particle size decreases the surface are exposed to ignition and thus
increasing value of MIE. Secondly, dust with higher volatility or moisture content are more
exposed to ignition where a dust with more volatile contents tend to produce more
combustible gas which leads to easier combustion.

As a remarks, the dependency of the parameters been discussed above is important to

interrupt and understand the MIT value variation. Different sources of dust give different
value of MIT for the same dust and engineer or any related person who works with dust
explosion risk analysis must be familiar with this variation.
2.1.3.8 RELATION BETWEEN THE FACTORS INFLUENCING DUST EXPLOSION

From all the factors been discussed, it can be said that all the factors that influenced dust
explosion are related to each other. In order to keep the factory or plant that handling any
kind of solid dust materials having a low level of risk and hazard with respect to dust
explosion, it is essential to be familiar with all the factors that impacted the severity of dust
explosion. Table below shows the relationship between some factors and parameters that
influenced the dust explosion severity and occurence(Coulson, 2019)

Parameters Increases with Decreases with

Explosibility of the dust 1. Lower minimum 1. Higher moisture content
ignition temperature of dust
2. Lower minimum 2. Presence of high inert
ignition energy materials
3. Higher value of
(dP/dT)max
4. Higher volatility of dust
5. Higher value of Kst
6. Higher value of Pmax

Effect of particle size on the 1. Decreasing size of 1. Increasing size of

likelihood of explotion initiation particle diameter particle diameter
Minimum explosive 1. Increasing moisture 1. Decreasing particle size
concentration content 2. Increasing volatile of
2. Increasing dust
concentration of 3. Increasing oxygen
inertant concentration
Minimum ignition temperature 1. Increasing moisture 1. Increasing thickness of
content dust layer
2. Increasing 2. Decreasing particle size
concentration of 3. Increasing volatile of
inertant dust
4. Increasing oxygen
concentration
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