In order to have a better understanding on the study conducted, literature review is very crucial and

important as it helps to give more knowledge in the selected study field.Besides that, significant facts
which can be used as guidelines or extra information will be able to make the study conducted
become useful.

2.1 A REVIEW OF DUST EXPLOSION

Dust explosions are a frequent hazard in a coal mining, grain elevators and other industrial
environment. They are also sometimes used by special effects artist, filmmakers, and pyrotechnician
because of their spectacular appearances under certain carefully controlled conditions. However,dust
explosion can cause major damage to stuctures, building, environment and also human from violent
overpressure or shockwave effects if the accident or incident occur. Dust can be categorize into two
types which is combustible dust that can explode and non-combustible dust. Combustible dust defined
by OSHA as a solid materials composed of distinct particles or pieces, regardless of size, shape or
chemical composition. Combustible dust are often either organic or metal dust that are finely ground
into very small particles, fibers, fines, flakes or small mixture of these. Combustible dust also defined
by (Ogle, 2017) as a finely divided particulate solid that, if suspended in air or some other oxidizing
medium is capable of presenting a flash fire or explosion. Some combustible dust can be guess easily
such as wood, sawdust and wheat flour while some are hardly to recognize especially for metallic dust
such as magnesium and aluminium dust. Many combustible dust that was dipersed in the air as a cloud
dust and ignited will allow the flame to propagate through the cloud. (Di Benedetto et al., 2010).
2.1.1 DEFINITION OF DUST EXPLOSION

The concept of explosion’s terminology needs to be familiar first there are many varying definition,
according to (Eckhoff, 2003) said that explosion definitions fall into two main categories. The first one
focuses on the sound of “bang” due to the sudden release of a strong pressure wave or blast wave
where the origin of this wave from the mechanical or chemical energy blast. The second category is
confined to explosions caused by the sudden release of chemical energy that includes explosion of
gases, dust and solid explosives. The two categories then combined into one definition as explosion is
an “exothermal chemical process that when occuring at constant volume, gives rise to a sudden and
significant number of pressure. Explosion usually falls into two main category which is detonation and
deflagration. Detonation is the explosion in which flame travels at or more than the speed of sound
while deflagration means vice versa

The second terminology is a dust. Dust is made of by solid matters that differentiates into small fine
particles generated naturally or can be man-made. The main sources of dust from human activities
includes construction sites, ploughing, quarrying or mining and from combustion of solid minerals
fuels. Put simply dust is a tiny or airbone particulate matter. In thinking about what is the minimum
size of solid matters that can be assumed as dust, (Ogle, 2017) stated that dust is defined as the particle
size less than 500 microns based on sieve analysis.In addtion, a study reported by (Hassan et al., 2014)
particles with a diameter less than 1000μm are defined as powder, the particles having a diameter less
than 76μm are referred as dust.

Hence, from the above terminology, dust explosion can be defined accordingly. Dust explosion can be
said as a rapid combustion of combustible dust that suspended in the air. According to the(Sinnott &
Towler, 2020), dust explosion usually occur in two stages, the first one is the primary explosion that
disturbs deposited dust into the atmosphere and then followed into the second explosion that is more
severe caused by the dispersion of the dust from the previous explosion. The blast from the primary
dust explosion generating the secondary explosion ahead of the flame by entraining dust deposit and

and layers. The phenomenan of entrainment which causes the propagation of

dust explosion has been
2.1.2 MECHANISM OF DUST EXPLOSION

Explosion of the dust only occur when all the five elements called “Explosion Pentagon” is fully
occupied,(Amyotte et al., 2019). From the five elements, the first three elements needed to cause a
dust fire are fuel (combustible dust), heat or spark (ignition source) and air (oxygen). This three
elements also called “Fire triangle” which illustrate the elements that a fire required to ignite. The
other two elements needed for the explosion are dust dispersion and confinement where pressure to be
generated. The figure below shows the illustrative concept of fire triangle and dust exlosion pentagon.

Figure 2.1 : Dust Explosion Pentagon

Figure 2.2 : Fire Triangle

Most dust explosions involve deflagrations explosion (Amyotte et al., 2019) and occur when dust
dispersed in the air reacts with oxygen which then generating a violent exothermic combustion
reaction in the form of flame propagation (Wawrzyniak et al., 2012). Dust explosion can be
categorized as a serious hazard as it can cause fatality, injury, property damage and economic losses.
There were several reported cases for dust explosion in the industry, one dust explosion could happen
in each industrialized country every day (Abbasi & Abbasi, 2007). In China, more than 200 cases of
dust explosion have occured from 1949 until 2007(Ahmad et al., 2017).

One of the example of the dust explosion incident that occured have been reported in the website of
Department of Safety and Health (DOSH) happen in Lumut, Perak in 2008. Wheat flour explosion at
Malayan Flour Mill Company triggered by the hot work activity in a confined space filled with a dust
from corn starch (Ahmad et al., 2017). The explosion caused four fatalities and two injuries, that also
caused damaged to the silo tower facility,the main building and the interconnected underground ,
tunnel, which housed the continous conveyors and ancillaries from a jetty to the basement floor of the
silo tower(Rahman & Takriff, 2013).

The second incident happen 6th February 1979 at the Rolandmuhle, Germany. The caused of the
explosion was from a fire started at one of the cable wire in the flour chamber that triggered the most
powerful dust explosion in Germany history. The fire then spread across a conveyor bridge which then
create a series of mini-explosion in the conveyor system. The explosions in the conveyor
system caused the upper storage room to fill up with more flour than usual. In the upper storage room
another small explosion happened that caught the flour silo on fire.The burning silos caused enormous
amounts of pressure that ripped off roofs and collapsed walls. Allowing the building to burst into
flames.The Mill has since then been restored and is still in operation to this day.

Dust explosion is not only occur or restricted to coal mines or food industries, they may occur at a
chemical process plant, in the wood and paper industry or in metal handling. Most dust handling
process must are carrying dust explosion hazard and thus require special safety and monitoring aids.
2.1.3 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE DUST EXPLOSION.

As mention above, only combustible dust can bring dust explosion scenarios, Combustible dust need
to have certain criteria to explode, five criteria from explosion pentagon need to be fulfilled. In
addition, there are several factors or parameters that influence the dust explosion that will be discussed
below.

2.1.3.1 PARTICLE SIZE DIAMETER

Dust particles have different size and shape. Ideally, a single particle usually represents in a perfectly
sphere diameter.The reality is that particulate materials comes in a variety of sizes and shapes(Ogle,
2017). Ogle also stated that the goal for particle size and shape characterization is to derive a
fundamental useful description of the population of particles. In terms of distribution, there are a
number of ways for the measurement of particles size and shape. The most common methods use are
sieving, sedimentation, light scattering and microscopy analysis.

Another study by(Eckhoff, 2003) said that combustion rate increases because of the total contact
surfaces area between materials and air has increased. Eckhoff illustrates how a piece of wood once
ignited will burned slowly, releasing its heat over a long period of time. When cuts into a small pieces
the combustion rate increases and also the ignition of the woods is easier. If the pieces of woods cuts
into a more smaller pieces, the particles will suspended in a sufficiently large volume of air that will
enhanced the combustion rates more faster while the energy required for ignition more smaller.

Futhermore, another study by(Di Benedetto et al., 2010) said that when a larger dust particles exist,
other phenomenan can mitigate the rate of explosion process. The phenomenan is the devolatilazation
and particle heating. Devolatilazation process is the process where the volatiles are given off or release
by the particles or the particles are vapourized when heating or combustion occur. Di Benedetto stated
that the more larger the particles, rate of devolatilazation is slower.

Hence, it can be said that particle size plays an important role as the influencer of the dust explosion.
In order to reduce the risk at the industry that involved dust handling, the avoidance of fine dust sizes
allows the reduction dust explosion risk.
2.1.3.2 MINIMUM EXPLOSIBLE CONCENTRATION (MEC)

Minimum explosive concentration defined by National Fire Protection Association (NFPA 652) as the
minimum concentration of a combustible dust suspended in air that measured in mass per unit volume
that will support the explosion (Bershad, 2017) and the possibility of dust explosion depends strongly
on MEC value and is importance to evaluate the risk of dust explosion(Yuan et al., 2012).

MEC value vary with type of materials of particles. However, in order to avoid the explosion occur, it
can be said that,the concentration of dust in the air must be below its MEC value. Typical MEC value
required to initiate an explosion are in the range of 50-100 g/m3(Coulson, 2019). Coulson also stated
that a dust can only explode within a certain range of concentrations, Where the maximum
concentration for the dust in the air to explode are in the range of 2-3 kg/m3. Maximum concentration
limited by the avaibility of sufficient oxygen required to sustained the combustion. Thus it is
impossible for the dust that exceeds the maximum concentration value to dispersed and burn
efficiently.
2.1.3.3 Dust Deflagaration Index , Kst.

Another factors that influenced the dust explosion is the Explosion Severity Constant, Kst. It is often
referred as the cubic or cube root and simply known as the dust constant value. The ‘st’ term is derived
from multiplying the maximum rates of pressure rise, (dP/dT)
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