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The Prediction of Calcium Carbonate

and Calcium Sulfate Scale Formation
in Iranian Oilfields at Different Mixing
Ratios of Injection Water with Formation
Water
a b
M. Amiri & J. Moghadasi
a
South Zagros Oil and Gas Production Compay/ICOFC/NIOC , Shiraz ,
Iran
b
Department of Petroleum Engineering , Petroleum University of
Technology , Ahwaz , Iran
Published online: 10 Feb 2012.

To cite this article: M. Amiri & J. Moghadasi (2012) The Prediction of Calcium Carbonate and
Calcium Sulfate Scale Formation in Iranian Oilfields at Different Mixing Ratios of Injection Water with
Formation Water, Petroleum Science and Technology, 30:3, 223-236, DOI: 10.1080/10916461003752595

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10916461003752595

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 Petroleum Science and Technology, 30:223–236, 2012
Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 1091-6466 print/1532-2459 online
DOI: 10.1080/10916461003752595

The Prediction of Calcium Carbonate and Calcium

Sulfate Scale Formation in Iranian Oilfields at
Different Mixing Ratios of Injection Water
with Formation Water

M. AMIRI1 AND J. MOGHADASI2

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1
South Zagros Oil and Gas Production Compay/ICOFC/NIOC, Shiraz, Iran
2
Department of Petroleum Engineering, Petroleum University of Technology,
Ahwaz, Iran

Abstract This article presents the prediction of calcium carbonate and calcium
sulfate scale formation by water injection in oilfields at different mixing injection
water-to-formation water ratios. The experimentally measured chemical analyses of
formation water and injection water were input to the OLI ScaleChem model to
determine the tendency of scale formation. The scaling tendency of CaCO3 and CaSO4
at reservoir temperatures and pressures is presented. This model has been applied to
investigate the potential of calcium carbonate and calcium sulfate scale precipitation
in Iranian oilfields in onshore and offshore fields as a method of secondary recovery
or reservoir pressure maintenance.

Keywords CaCO3 , CaSO4 , Iranian oilfields, mixing ratio, scales

1. Introduction
The formation of mineral scale, in particular calcareous deposits, is a persistent and
expensive problem in industries ranging from oil and gas to desalination. Scaling of
metallic or insulating walls in contact with water supersaturated with respect to calcium
carbonate may create technical problems, including impedance of heat transfer, increased
energy consumption, and unscheduled equipment shutdown (Klepetsanis et al., 1995;
Kiellin et al., 2001; Qingfeng, 2001).
The precipitation of calcium carbonate has been widely studied (Nancollas and
Reddy, 1973; Sohnel and Mullin, 1982; Abtahi et al., 1996). Traditionally, studies of
scale formation have concentrated on assessing precipitation formed in the bulk solution
by using laboratory beaker or bulk jar tests (Nancollas and Reddy, 1973; Abtahi et al.,
1996). The research has primarily focused on assessment of the kinetics of homogenous
and heterogeneous precipitation in the bulk solution (Langelier, 1936). The formation
of the solid phase is throughout the mother phase without any foreign solid phase in
homogenous processes, and the formation of new solid-phase particles is catalyzed by
the presence of a foreign solid phase in heterogeneous processes (Sohnel and Garside,
1992).

Address correspondence to Mehdi Amiri, South Zagros Oil and Gas Production Com-
pay/ICOFC/NIOC, Shiraz, Iran. E-mail: mehdiamiri.put83@yahoo.com

223
 224 M. Amiri and J. Moghadasi

It has been demonstrated (Harris and Marshall, 1981) that there are often wide
anomalies between actual deposition on component surfaces and scaling rates estimated
by predictive models based on scaling indices and thermodynamics to predict precipitation
tendency (Hasson et al., 1996). However, the relationship between precipitation and scale
deposition on solid surfaces has received little attention.
Some focus has been turned to this aspect of scaling and has resulted in numerous
studies reporting methods to detect and assess scale formation on metal surfaces. Hasson
et al. (1996) and Zhang et al. (2001) studied calcium carbonate scale formation in a pipe
flow system in the oil and gas and desalination industries to attempt to overcome some of
the shortfall of beaker tests. Sullivan et al. (1996) studied scale formation by monitoring
the heat transfer change. These methods have been developed primarily to assess the
efficiency of scale inhibitors and provide only a relative estimate of the thickness of
scale. They are usually not sensitive enough to study the primary layer of scale. In recent
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work by Moghadasi et al. (2003) studies of scale formation on metal surfaces have
progressed. By directing more attention to the scale formation and adhesion at metal
electrodes, in parallel with precipitation processes, the entire scaling process can be
characterized. Thus, this facilitates the development of inhibitors where the functionality
can be targeted to the particular scaling problem.
In the work reported herein, an electrochemically based technique is used to develop
an understanding of the kinetics of scale deposition on metal electrodes. The technique
developed by Neville et al. (1999) can quantify the scale coverage in the early stages
of scaling. In this article, comparisons are then made with the bulk precipitation process
occurring simultaneously.

2. Iranian Oilfields and Operations

The National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC) is producing oil from many offshore fields
in the Persian Gulf and onshore fields in Khuzestan Province. This article covers the
CaCO3 and CaSO4 scales problems in many major oilfields such as Siri C, D, and E and
Nosrat offshore and Ahwaz, Aghajari, Haftkel, and Cheshmeh-Khosh.

3. Type of Scales in Iranian Oilfields

Table 1 shows a typical analysis of scales found in the Iranian offshore and onshore
oilfields. These materials are trapped in the inorganic lattice and frequently complicate
removal of the deposit.

3.1. Calcium Carbonate Scale

Calcium carbonate or calcite scale is frequently encountered in oilfield operations. But
calcite has the greatest stability in oilfield environments and is the most common form
of calcium carbonate encountered in oilfield production operation.
Calcium carbonate crystals are large, but when the scale is found together with
impurities in the form of finely divided crystals, the scale appears uniform. Deposition
of CaCO3 scale results from precipitation of calcium carbonate as per the following
equation:

CaCC C CO3 ! CaCO3 (1)

 Prediction of Calcium Scale Formation 225

Table 1
Typical scale samples in Iranian oilfields

Area Formation Major scale Minor scale

Persian Gulf (Siri C) Mishrif SrSO4 BaSO4

Persian Gulf (Siri D) Mishrif SrSO4 BaSO4
Persian Gulf (Siri E) Mishrif FeCO3 BaSO4
Persian Gulf (Nosrat) Mishrif SrSO4 CaSO4
Onshore field (Ahwaz) Bangestan CaCO3 CaSO4 .2H2 O
Onshore field (Aghajari) Bangestan CaCO3 CaSO4 .2H2 O
Onshore field (Haftkel) Asmari FeCO3 CaCO3
Onshore field (Cheshmeh-Khosh) Asmari FeCO3 FeS
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Calcium carbonate scale can also be formed by a combination of calcium and bicarbonate
ions, and this reaction is the major cause of calcium carbonate scale deposition in oilfield
operations. This is because only a small percentage of the bicarbonate ions is dissociated
at the pH values found in most injection waters to form HC and CO23 (Moghadasi,
Jamialahmadi, Muller-Steinhagen, and Sharif, 2004).
In many oilfields, the deposition of calcium carbonate scale on surface and subsurface
production equipment creates problems in operation. The formation water in which the
carbonate scale-forming components are initially dissolved becomes supersaturated with
calcium carbonate because of the drop in pressure during production. The continuous
flow of a supersaturated solution through the production equipment results in the growth
of a dense layer of calcium carbonate crystals (Bezemer and Bauer, 1969).
Carbonate scales frequently appear in the wellbore, especially near the well head,
where, due to pressure drop, dissolved CO2 escapes from the produced water and causes
and increase in the pH of water as well as an increase in the saturation index of carbonate
minerals (Zhang and Farquhar, 2001).
Carbonate scale formation occurs when connate water or aquifer water passes through
the bubble point and carbon dioxide is evolved. As carbon dioxide is evolved, the
solubility with respect to carbonate declines rapidly and forms a precipitate with divalent
ions, such as iron and, more commonly, calcium, as outlined in the following equation
(Mackay and Jordan, 2005):

Ca.HCO3 /2  CaCO3 C CO2 C H2 O (2)

According to Clemmit et al. (1985), calcium carbonate scale is formed by a different

mechanism. Because few waters contain the actual carbonate ion, the scaling potential
arises from decomposition of calcium bicarbonate. This decomposition is due to the
release of carbon dioxide due to pressure reductions (at chokes or separators), thus
moving the equilibrium (with a pH increase) of the above reaction to the right and
producing calcium carbonate. If the quantity of calcium carbonate produced exceeds its
solubility in the water, then precipitation can occur.

3.1.1. Calcium Carbonate Scale Removal Method. The use of hydrochloric acid is
the most effective method for dissolving calcium carbonate under most conditions.
 226 M. Amiri and J. Moghadasi

Concentrations of 5–15% HCl are normally used (Connell, 1983):

CaCO3 C 2HCl ! H2 O C CO2 C CaCl2 (3)

A corrosion inhibitor must be added to the acid to stop it from attacking the pipework
and a surfactant is usually added to make the surfaces water wet.

3.2. Calcium Sulfate Scale

Calcium sulfate scale poses a unique problem for the salts under consideration because
it occurs with one of three different phases. Calcium sulfate exists in several crystalline
forms. These include gypsum (CaSO4 .1/2H2 O) and anhydrite (CaSO4 ).
Gypsum, the most common scale, occurs at relatively low temperature. At higher
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temperature (above 100ıC), the stable phase predicted is anhydrite (CaSO4 ). However,
hemihydrate has been known to form at 100ı C–121ıC, especially in nonturbulent systems
and in brines with high ionic strength (Moghadasi, Jamialahmadi, Muller-Steinhagen,
Sharif, et al., 2003).
Calcium sulfate, which is important in desalination geochemistry and petroleum
engineering, is complicated by the fact that it can crystallize from aqueous solution
in three forms: gypsum (CaSO4 .2H2 O), hemihydrate (CaSO4 .1/2H2 O), and anhydrate
(CaSO4 ). These compounds may be stable depending on temperature and ionic strength
and have decreasing solubilities with increasing temperatures above 40ı C. Vetter et al.
(1982) have studied the morphology of scale.
Among various types of mineral scales, calcium sulfate can cause severe flow
assurance and formation damage issues, and many parameters influence this problem,
including temperature, pressure, fluid concentration, ratio of brine to hydrogen, fluid
dynamics, and type of porous media (Tahmasebi et al., 2007).
According to Oddo et al. (1991), calcium sulfate scale formation is somewhat
dependent on temperature but is typically precipitated due to a decrease in pressure
or an increase in the relative concentrations of calcium or sulfate. CaSO4 solubility is
fairly independent of pH and, hence, can readily precipitate in an acid environment.
When water injection (seawater, river water, aquifer water, or produced water) is
used for pressure maintenance and sweep, the mixing of incompatible brines can lead to
the formation of sulfate scales when the injection water contains sulfate ions (Mackay
and Jordan, 2005).
Ca2C C SO24 ! CaSO4 (4)

3.2.1. Calcium Sulfate Scale Removal Methods. The following may be used to dissolve
calcium sulfate (Connell, 1983):
1. Converters: Inorganic converters are usually carbonates or hydroxides that react with
calcium sulfate and convert it to acid-soluble calcium carbonate or calcium hydroxide.
The conversion treatment is then followed by a hydrochloric acid treatment to dissolve
the resulting scale:

CaSO4 C .NH4 /2 CO3 ! .NH4 /2 SO4 C CaCO3 (5)

Then
CaCO3 C 2HCl ! H2 O C CO2 C CaCl2 (6)
 Prediction of Calcium Scale Formation 227

2. Solvents: Solvents are now available that will completely dissolve gypsum scale. Other
compounds used (to a lesser extent) are ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA) and
salt water.

4. Scaling Tendency Method

Scaling tendency is defined as the ratio of the activity product of an equilibrium equation
to the solubility product for the same equation. We define the activity product as Q;
therefore:

Scaling Tendency (ST) D Q=Ksp (7)

As an example, consider the equilibrium for gypsum solubility. The chemical formula
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for gypsum is CaSO4
2H2 O and the equilibrium expression is

CaSO4 2H2 O D CaCC C SO4 C 2H2 O (8)

The activity product, Q, is defined as:

Q D .aCaCC /.aSO4 /.aH2 2 O / (9)

where ai is the activity of the species.

ai D i mi (10)

where i is the activity coefficient for species i and mi is the molal concentration.
The solubility product, Ksp , is a thermodynamic quantity and is a function of
temperature and pressure (although in most cases, the pressure functionality for solids
can be ignored). ScaleChem has stored the Ksp for all of the solids used in the chemistry
model. When the ratio Q=Ksp is greater than 1.0, the solid has a tendency to form. When
the ratio is less than 1.0, there is little tendency of solid formation.
The scale index is related to the scaling tendency. The relationship is

Scale Index (SI) D log ST (11)

When SI < 0, the solid is said to be undersaturated. When SI > 0, the solid is said to
be oversaturated.

5. Evaluation of Incompatibility
One of the primary causes of scale formation and injection well plugging is mixing of
water from two or more sources that are incompatible. The water native to the formation
to be injected is in chemical equilibrium with the rock, hydrocarbons, and any other
materials present in the formation (e.g., CO2 , N2 , H2 S, etc.). The water chosen for
injection is in equilibrium with its own environment, which is normally quite different
from that of the formation into which it is injected. Any injection automatically leads
to readjustment of the components present in the mixture of the two waters as soon as
the injection water enters the formation. Therefore, if two waters are mixed, interactions
 228 M. Amiri and J. Moghadasi

between ions dissolved in the individual waters may form insoluble products. When
such precipitates occur, the waters are said to be incompatible. Severe problems usually
occur after injection waters break through into the producing wells where the water
streams may blend in arbitrary proportions. As the percentage of injection water in the
produced water increases, scale formation on the production side may become quite
severe.
Results obtained by running the OLI ScaleChem model for sea, river, and disposal
water injection processes in some Iranian oilfields are discussed in the following section.

6. Use of the OLI ScaleChem Model for Scaling Prediction

ScaleChem predicts mineral scaling potentials of 70C solids for virtually any oil and
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gas well and processing facility in the world. The program computes the gas–liquid–
oil–solid chemistry of produced fluids and provides the operator and engineer with
vital chemical data regarding wells, surface facilities, and water injection and disposal
operations. ScaleChem works with brines, gases, and hydrocarbons, collected as samples
and input into the program. Calculation types include a generalized scale scenario for well
profiles; mixing waters to find safe (nonscaling) ratios; reservoir saturation to simulate
downhole conditions; and facilities with simple mix and separate abilities to simulate
collection and disposal. Output includes the (thermodynamic) scale tendencies for all
solids in the model as well as scale amount produced, if any.

7. Description and Procedure of Model

The first step of the program is to use the water analysis for injection water and formation
water to determine the scaling potential. If scale is expected to form, the next step is to
use kinetic and well data to compute the scale deposition.
The overall procedure and steps followed in the program to handle scaling prediction
calculations are summarized as follows:
 Composition, pH, and alkalinity of the injection water input to the model.
 Composition, pH, and alkalinity of the formation water input to the model.
 Mixing calculations for compatibility of formation water with injection water (P D
4,800 psia, T D 210ı F).

8. Results and Discussion

8.1. CaCO3 and CaSO4 Scale Tendency Prediction for Siri Oilfield
(Offshore) at Different Mixing Injection Water–to–Formation
Water Ratios
Siri field is an oilfield at the southern end of the Persian Gulf, near Siri Island and Median
Abu-Dhabi sector and close to Fateh field. Siri field has a weak water drive and produces
from the Mishrif Formation. This field consists of Siri A, Siri B, Siri C, Siri D, Siri E,
and Nosrat. Seawater injection was started in 1980 in this field. Table 2 provides the
analysis of the Persian Gulf water and Mishrif Formation water in Siri field. Results of
the compatibility modeling of the Persian Gulf water and Siri field formation (Siri C, D,
E and Nosrat) water are shown in Figures 1 and 2.
 Prediction of Calcium Scale Formation 229

Table 2
Analysis of Persian Gulf water and Mishrif Formation waters in Siri field

Ions,
mg/L Siri C Siri D Siri E Nosrat Seawater

Cl 73,942 70,740 83,324 86,900 23,000

SO24 635 310 142 340 3,350
HCO3 579 528 397 244 166
Mg2C 759 766 552 2,010 2,996
Ca2C 3,032 4,525 8,917 7,920 267
NaC 42,215 35,391 42,800 43,700 11,750
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KC 1,986 — 88 — —
Ba2C — — — 18 0.09
Fe2C 17 5.6 246 — 0.42
Sr2C 547 760 — 610 3.4
LiC — — — — —
TDS 131,472 129,225 137,370 141,000 40,270
PH 6.82 5.86 6.25 5.6 7.7
CO2 — 100 — — —
H2 S — 14 — — —
SG 1.050 1.052 1.055 1.053 1.045

Figure 1. Prediction of CaCO3 scale in Siri oilfield (injection water: Persian Gulf water; P D
4,800 psia, T D 210ıF). (color figure available online)
 230 M. Amiri and J. Moghadasi
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Figure 2. Prediction of CaSO4 scale in Siri oilfield (injection water: Persian Gulf water; P D
4,800 psia, T D 210ıF). (color figure available online)

8.2. CaCO3 and CaSO4 Scale Tendency Prediction for Ahwaz Well
113 at Different Mixing Injection Water–to–Formation Water Ratios
Ahwaz well 113 is an injection well that handles the disposal wastewater of Ahwaz
desalting units 1 and 2. Table 3 provides an analysis of the produced water from Ahwaz
well 113 desalting units 1 and 2. This well is completed in Asmari Formation of Ahwaz
field. Modeling of disposal water injection into Ahwaz well 113 was performed and the
results are presented in Figures 3 and 4.

Table 3
Analysis of produced water from Ahwaz well 113 and
Ahwaz desalting units 1 and 2

Ahwaz Ahwaz
Ions, desalting desalting Ahwaz
mg/L unit 1 unit 2 well 113

Cl 100,723 126,025 128,650

SO24 481 350 193
HCO3 1,183 793 854
Mg2C 1,256 2,138 486
Ca2C 10,357 16,080 2,000
NaC 51,962 59,577 35,144
Fe2C 32 60 —
TDS 165,994 204,963 167,327
PH 5.8 4.8 6.5
SG 1.044 1.041 1.057
 Prediction of Calcium Scale Formation 231
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Figure 3. Prediction of CaCO3 scale in Ahwaz well 113 (injection water: Ahwaz desalting unit 1
or 2; P D 4,800 psia, T D 210ıF). (color figure available online)

8.3. CaCO3 and CaSO4 Scale Tendency Prediction for Aghajari Wells
55, 56, and 58; Ahwaz Wells 184 and 191; and Haftkel Well 26
at Different Injection Water–to–Formation Water Mixing Ratios
Based on investigation by petroleum production offices, Karun River water is a possible
water source for injection in Aghajari, Ahwaz, and Haftkel oilfields for the purpose of
secondary oil recovery. Table 4 provides an analysis of Aghajari wells 55, 56, and 58;

Figure 4. Prediction of CaSO4 scale in Ahwaz well 113 (injection water: Ahwaz desalting unit 1
or 2; P D 4,800 psia, T D 210ıF). (color figure available online)
 232 M. Amiri and J. Moghadasi

Table 4
Analysis of the water from Agharjari wells 55, 56, and 58; Ahwaz wells 184 and 191;
Haftkel well 26; and the Karun River

Ions, Aghajari Haftkel Ahwaz Ahwaz Aghajari Aghajari Karun

mg/L 55 26 191 184 58 56 River

Cl 100,000 179,000 91,026 145,641 112,200 107,100 160

SO24 800 600 1,600 1,050 900 300 90
HCO3 200 60 244 1,220 600 200 160
Mg2C 1,100 1,700 972 972 1,300 1,100 20
Ca2C 5,100 7,300 6,800 6,000 7,000 7,200 70
NaC 57,300 104,400 50,173 86,582 62,900 59,100 100
Fe2C — 200 76 38 — — —
TDS 164,500 293,260 150,891 241,503 184,900 175,000 600
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PH 7.3 5.5 6.5 6.2 6.9 7.5 7.5

SG 1.043 1.048 1.056 1.039 1.060 1.067 1.036

Ahwaz wells 184 and 191; Haftkel well 26; and the Karun River. Figures 5 and 6 illustrate
the result of compatibility modeling for Karun River water injection into Aghajari, Ahwaz,
and Haftkel fields.

8.4. CaCO3 and CaSO4 Scale Tendency Prediction for

Cheshmeh-Khosh Oilfield (Asmari Formation) at Different
Mixing Injection Water–to–Formation Water Ratios
Table 5 provides an analysis of Cheshmeh-Khosh water and Dehloran water. Figures 7
and 8 illustrate the result of compatibility modeling for Dehloran or mixing Cheshmeh-
Khosh and Dehloran (3.5 to 1.5) waters in the Cheshmeh-Khosh oilfield.

Figure 5. Prediction of CaCO3 scale in Aghajari wells 55, 56, and 58; Ahwaz wells 184 and 191;
and Haftkel well 26 (injection water: Karun river; P D 4,800 psia, T D 210ıF). (color figure
available online)
 Prediction of Calcium Scale Formation 233
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Figure 6. Prediction of CaSO4 scale in Aghajari wells 55, 56, and 58; Ahwaz wells 184 and 191;
and Haftkel well 26 (injection water: Karun river; P D 4,800 psia, T D 210ıF). (color figure
available online)

Table 5
Analysis of Cheshmeh-Khosh and
Dehloran waters

Ions,
mg/L Cheshmeh-Khosh Dehloran

Cl 147,325 152,650
SO24 204 194
HCO3 586 610
Mg2C 1,555 2,381
Ca2C 13,520 16,680
NaC 76,558 70,277
KC 76,558 5,256
Ba2C — —
Fe2C 875 17
Sr2C — —
LiC — —
TDS 240,623 255,980
PH 7.1 6.25
CO2 — —
H2 S — —
SG 1.172 1.1495
 234 M. Amiri and J. Moghadasi
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Figure 7. Prediction of CaCO3 scale in Cheshmeh-Khosh oilfield (injection water: mixture of

Cheshmeh-Khosh and Dehloran [3.5:1.5] or Dehloran; P D 4,800 psia, T D 210ıF). (color figure
available online)

Figure 8. Prediction of CaSO4 scale in Cheshmeh-Khosh oilfield (injection water: mixture of

Cheshmeh-Khosh and Dehloran [3.5:1.5] or Dehloran; P D 4,800 psia, T D 210ıF). (color figure
available online)
 Prediction of Calcium Scale Formation 235

9. Conclusions
The results obtained in this study may be summarized as follows:
 This model calculates the precipitation of scale-forming compounds under all pertinent
field conditions.
 Incompatibility between injected water and formation water will cause deposition of
scale in the reservoir.
 The precision of the results is only affected by the occurrence of water sampling
and analysis. The more accurate the sampling and analysis are, the more reliable the
predictions will be.
 In Iranian oilfields the scaling tendency of CaCO3 is greater than the scaling tendency
of CaSO4 .
 The magnesium ion has a great effect on the scaling tendency of CaCO3 .
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 When injected water has a corrosion effect or scale-forming tendency, the operator can
add some inert ions in reservoir condition but lead to getting scaling tendency of one
in surface condition.
 This scale is expected to form when pressure maintenance by seawater injection into
the aquifer is begun. More severe scaling by this material is to be expected when
seawater breaks through into production wells.
 The amount of precipitate formed under field conditions depends on the mixing ratio.
 Formation of CaSO4 in reservoir conditions of Iranian oilfields is very low.

Acknowledgment
The authors wish to thank OLI for making the OLI ScaleChem software available for
this research.

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Nomenclature
P pressure, psi
SG Specific gravity
SI Scaling index, dimensionless
ST Scaling tendency, dimensionless
T Temperature, ı F