1

Fundamental of Economic Balance

 When one design variable is changed, it is often found out that some costs
increase while the others decrease. Balancing these costs will result to a least cost
condition or minimum costs condition. The said procedure is known as
“optimization”.
 Economic balance is based on a condition that will give the least cost per unit
time or maximum profit per unit or production.
 Design of equipment or selection of operating conditions whereby the increasing
costs due to one or more factors are being balanced by the decreasing costs of
other factors The said balanced condition will give the greatest economic return
and most favorable condition.

Types of Optimization :

1. Design optimization
2. Operation or production (Cost optimization)
3. Recovery and Yields
4. Process control

Cost optimization:
General equation: Total Cost = Fixed Cost + Variable or Direct Cost

TPC = Mfg. Cost + General Expenses

CT = CF + CV
Simple Case of Optimization:
Variable cost varies linearly with X (a common variable) and the fixed cost varies
linearly as the reciprocal of X, determine the optimum condition of X :
Mathematically,

Let C1 = Variable cost = aX + b

C2 = Fixed cost = c/X+d

Where a,b,c,d are constants and X is a common variable

Therefore, CT = CV + CF
= C1 + C2
CT = aX + b + c / X + d

At optimum condition,
d (CT) / dX = 0 = a – c / X2

therefore, X opt = ( c / a ) 1/2

General procedure for determining “Optimum Condition”
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1. Determine the “factor” to be optimized. This maybe one of the following:

a. Cost per unit of product
b. Cost per unit time
c. Total Profit or profit per unit of product
d. Production units per unit time
e. Percent conversion

2. Determine the “common variable” that has an effect on the chosen “factor” that
will be optimized: Some “common variables” are:
a. Production rate
b. Insulation thickness
c. No. of effect or No. of stages in a unit operation
d. Total cycle time in a cyclic or batch operation
e. No. of transfer unit in an equipment

3. Develop a mathematical relationship between the “factor” and the “Common

variable”. Show by numerical equations how the said “common variable” is
affecting the “factor” that will be optimized. Usually, the established relationship
is in terms of cost equation.

4. The said cost equation or relationships are then combined and then solve either
“graphically” or “numerically” to determine the desired “optimum” condition.

5. If the factor being optimized does not attain a maximum or minimum value, i.e.
not an optimum condition, the solution to the developed equation will give
impossible results such as “infinity”, zero or square root of a negative number.

Application:

The annual fixed costs for insulating a certain steam pipe installation can be expressed as:
CF = 30 It + 40, in Pesos per year
Where It is the insulation thickness in inches.

The annual cost of energy lost from the said installation maybe expressed in terms of
insulation thickness as:
CV = 100 / It , in Pesos per year

Determine analytically and graphically the insulation thickness that will give you the
least or optimum annual cost.

Solution:
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Analytical method:

CT = CF + CV (Factor to be optimized is CT)

CT = (30 I t + 40) + (100 / I t ) ( I t is the variable)

d (CT) / d(It ) = 0 = 30 - 100 / I t 2

therefore, It opti = (100 / 30) 1 / 2 = 1.82 inches

CTopt =` 30 (1.82”) + 40 + 100 / 1.82” = P150 per year

Graphical method:

CT = (30 I t + 40) + (100 / I t )

Assume different values of I t and compute for corresponding values of CT
Graph CT vs.. It
I t,, in inches CT
0.5 255 300
1 170
2 150 CT 200
3 163
4 185 100
5 210
6 237
1 2 3 4 5 6

It

I t opt = 1.8 to 2 inches

CT opt = P 150.00

Optimization problem in production system:

A product is being sold at P 1,300.00 per unit. Cost of production is given as follows:

Variable costs = 358 + 0.75 Rp 1.2, in pesos/ unit

Fixed costs = 68,000 in pesos per day
Where Rp is the daily production rate

Determine the following:

A. Daily profit for a production rate that will give minimum cost per unit.
B. Daily production rate that will give maximum daily profit
Solution:
A.
1. Factor to be optimized is CT
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2. Common variable is Rp
3. Relationships:
 Profit = income from sales - expenses

 CT = CF + CV

where:
CV ≈ f (Rp) = 358 + 0.75 Rp 1.2, in pesos / unit
CF ≈ f (Rp) = (P 68,000 / day) ( 1 / Rp) , in pesos / unit

Therefore,
CT = 358 + 0.75 Rp 1.2 + (P 68,000 / day) ( 1 / Rp)

4. Optimization:

d (CT) / d (Rp) = 0 = 0 + 1.2 (0.75) Rp 0.2 – 68000 / Rp2

0 = - 68,000/Rp2 + 0.9 Rp 0.2
0 = - 68,000 + 0.9 Rp 2.2
Rp = (68,000 / 0.9) 1/ 2.2
Rp opt= 165 units per day

Also,
Optimum CT = 358 + 0.75 (165 units) 1.2 + (P 68000 / day) ( 1 / 165 units)
= P 1,113.70 per unit

Daily profit = Income – expenses

= P1,300/ unit (165 units) - (165 units) [ 68,000 / 165 + 358 + 0.75 (165) 1.2 ]

= P 30,737.45 per day

B.
1. Factor to be optimized is Z
2. Common variable is Rp
3. Relationships:

Daily Income ≈ f (Rp) = 1,300 Rp ,

Daily Expenses ≈ f (Rp) = CF + CV
= [ 358 + 0.75 Rp 1.2 + ( 68,000 ) ( 1 / Rp)] (Rp)
therefore,
Daily profit = Income – expenses
= 1,300 Rp - [ 358 + 0.75 Rp 1.2 + ( 68,000 ) ( 1 / Rp)] (Rp)
= 1,300 Rp - 358Rp- 0.75 Rp 2.2 - 68,000
d (Profit) / d(Rp) = 0
= 942 – (2.2) (0.75) Rp 1.2 – 0 = 0
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Rp opt = 199 units

Also,
Optimum daily profit = 1,300 Rp - 358Rp - 0.75 Rp 2.2 + 68,000
= 1300 (199) - 358 (199) - 0.75 (199)2.2 - 68,000
= P 33, 845.33 per day

Cost per unit = CF + CV

1.2
= 358 +0.75 Rp + 68,000/ Rp
= 358 +0.75 (199) 1.2 + 68,000 / (199)
= P 1,130 per unit

Optimization problem in Evaporation System :

A multiple-effect evaporator is to be used for evaporating 400,000 lbs. of water per day
from a salt solution. The total initial cost for the first effect is P18,000.00 and each
additional effect costs P15,000.00. The life period is estimated to be 10 years, and the
salvage or scrap value at the end of the life period maybe assumed to be zero. The
straight line depreciation method is used. Fixed charges minus depreciation are 15%
yearly based on the first cost of the equipment. Cost of steam is P1.50 per 1000 lbs..
Annual maintenance charges are 5% of the initial equipment cost. All other costs are
independent of the number of effects. The unit will operate 300 days per year. If the
pounds of water evaporated per pound of steam used equals 0.85 x number of effects,
determine the optimum number of effects for minimum annual cost.

Given:

E1 EN
A

1 N
Steam

Feed

P1
A PN
Operation: 300 days per year
Evaporation rate : 400,000 lbs. of water per day
Cost of Steam : P 1.50 per 1,000 lbs.
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Lbs. of water evaporated / lbs. of steam used is 0.85 Neff

Let Neff = number of effects

Evaporator cost:
P 18,000.00 for 1st effect
P15,00.00 for the succeeding effects
Service life = 10 years salvage value = 0

Annual maintenance Charges = 5 % of the initial cost of evaporator

Fixed charges excluding depreciation = 15% yearly of the cost of evaporator

All other costs are independent of the number of effects

Required: Optimum number of effects for minimum annual cost of operation

Solution:
Basis: 1 year operation
Factor to be optimized : CT
Variable : Neff
Relationship: CT = CF + CV

CF = Depreciation + Annual fixed charges + Annual maintenance charges

Cost of evaporator = Original cost of equipment = P = 18,000 + 15,000 (Neff -1)

Depreciation = P –L / 10 years = [ 18,000 + 15,000 (Neff - 1) ] / 10
Annual Fixed charges = 15% P = 0.15 [ 18,000 + 15,000 (Neff - 1) ]
Annual maintenance charges = 5% P = 0.05 [ 18,000 + 15,000 (Neff - 1)]

Therefore,
CF = 0.30 [ 18,000 + 15,000 (Neff - 1 ) ]

CV = annual cost of steam consumption

Steam used = (400,000 # H2O evap/ day)(300 days/yr)(# steam used / 0.85Neff# H20 )
= 1.4118 X 10 8 // Neff lbs. of steam used / year
therefore,
CV = ( P 1.50 / 1000 lbs of steam)(1.4118 X 10 8 / Neff lbs. of steam used / year)
CV = 211,770 / Neff
CT = CF + CV
CT = 0.30 [ 18,000 + 15,000 (Neff - 1 ) ] + 211,770 / Neff
2
d ( CT) / d (Neff ) = 0 = - 211,770 / N eff + 0.3 ( 15,000)

Neff = [ 211,770 / (0.3)(15,000) ] 1 / 2 = 7 effects

Optimization in Heat Transfer Process (Insulation) :

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Determine the optimum economic thickness of insulation that should be used under the
following conditions: Saturated steam is being passed continuously through a steel pipe
with an outside diameter of 10.75 inches. The temperature of the steam is 400 o F, and the
steam is valued at P1.80 per 1000 lb. The pipe is to be insulated with a material that has a
thermal conductivity of 0.03 Btu / h - ft 2 –(o F / ft). The cost of the installed insulation per
foot of pipe length is P4.50 I t , where I t is the insulation thickness in inches. Annual
fixed charges including maintenance amount to 20% of the initial installed cost. The total
length of the pipe is 1000 feet and the average temperature of the surroundings maybe
taken as 70 o F. Heat transfer resistances due to steam film, scale, and pipe wall are
negligible. The air film coefficient at the outside of the insulation maybe assumed
constant at 2 Btu / h - ft 2 – o F for all insulation thickness.

Given:
1000 feet

Sat’d. Steam

400 o F
Cost of Steam = P1.80 / 1000 lbs
Do = 10.75 inches
2 o
h air = 2 Btu / h - ft – F
K ins = 0.03 Btu / h - ft 2 –(o F / ft)

Do = 10.75” D ins Since pipe wall is thin,

D o ≈ D i = 10.75”

Basis : 1 year operation

Factor to be optimized : CT
Variable : I t = Insulation thickness = (Dins – Do) / 2

Relationship: CT = CF + CV
CF = 0.20 [ (P4.50) x (Dins –Do)/2 ] / foot ( 1000 feet)
= 450 ( D ins – Do )
CF = 450 ( Dins - 10.75 “)

CV = ( P1.80 / 1000 # steam) ( 1/ λ s, # / Btu) ( Q, Btu / hr) ( 8760 hrs/ yr)

From steam table, λ s at 400 o F = 825.9 Btu / #

CV =( P1.80 /1000 # steam) ( 1.211 X 10 -3 # / Btu) ( Q, Btu / hr) ( 8760 hrs/ yr)
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CV = 1.91 X 10 – 2 Q

but Q =∑ ▲ T / ∑ R =(400 -70) / ( R film + R wall + R ins + R air)

but R film and R wall = 0

Q = (400 -70) / ( R ins + R air)

Rair = 1 / ( π Dins L hair)
R ins = ln (Dins/Do) / (2π L Kins)

Q = 330 / [ 1 / π Dins L hair) + ln (Dins / Do) / 2π L Kins ]

Q = 330 / [ 12 / π Dins (1000) (2) + ln (Dins / 10.75) / 2π (1000) (0.03) ]
Q = 330 / [ 12 / 6283.185 Dins + ln (Dins / 10.75) / 188.5 ]

Therefore,

CV = ( 1.91 X 10 -2 ) { 330 / [ 12 / 6283.185 Dins + ln (Dins / 10.75) / 188.5 ] }

= 6.303 / [ ( 1.91 X 10 - 3 / Dins) + 5.3 X10 - 3 ln (Dins / 10.75) ]

CT = CF + CV

CT=450 ( Dins -10.75) + 6.303 / [ ( 1.91 X 10 - 3 / Dins) + 5.3 X10 - 3 ln (Dins / 10.75) ]
CT =450Dins -4837.5 + 6.303 / [ ( 1.91 X 10 - 3 / Dins) + 5.3 X10 - 3 ln (Dins / 10.75) ]

d (CT) / d( Dins) = 0
0 = 450 - 6.303 ( 5.3 X10 - 3 /Dins – 1.91 X10 - 3 / Dins 2 )
[ 1.91 X10 - 3 / Dins + 5.3 X 10 - 3 ln (Dins / 10.75)] 2
By trial and error,
Optimum D ins = 15.68 say 16 inches

Optimum I t =(Dins – Do) / 2 =(16 - 10.75) / 2 =2 and 5/8 “ or (2.625”)

Derive an expression for the optimum thickness of insulation to put on a flat surface if the
annual fixed charges per square foot of insulation are directly proportional to the
thickness.
a. Neglecting the air film
b. Including the air film
The air film coefficient of heat transfer may be assumed as constant for all insulation
thicknesses.

Given
X Xins
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Flow of heat

TH Ta

Inside Film Outside air film 9ambient)

hi ho

Required: Develop an expression for optimum economic thickness

Solution:
Basis : one (1) year operation
Factor to be optimized : CT, Annual Cost
Variable : Insulation thickness, in inches

Let Xins = insulation thickness in inches

A = Area of flat surface, ft2
Q = heat transfer rate, Btu / hr.
K = thermal conductivity, Btu / h - ft 2 –(o F / ft)
▲T = Overall temperature difference
ho = air film coefficient = constant
a = annual fixed charges, Pesos / ft3 -yr
b = cost of heat , Pesos / Btu
Hy = no. of operating hours / year

At steady state, q hi = qX = q Xins = q ho = Q

For flat surface, A hi = AX = A Xins = A ho = A

Heat transfer equation, Q = ∑ ▲T / ∑ Resistances

∑▲T = TX ins - Ta (refer to the drawing)
∑ Resistances :
R insulation = (X ins / 12) / ( K A)
R Air film = 1 / hoA

Therefore, Q = ∑ ▲T / ∑ Resistance
= ∑ ▲T / [ (Xins / 12) / ( K A ) + 1 / hoA ]
= 12 K A (▲T) / ( Xins + 12 K / ho ) , in Btu /hr

CT ≈ f (Xins) = CF + CV
CF:
` ( CF / A) α ( Xins/ 12)

CF = ( a, Pesos/ ft3-yr) (A Xins / 12) ft3 , Pesos / year

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CV :
CV = ( b, Pesos/ Btu ) [ 12 K A (▲T) / ( Xins + 12 K / ho )] Btu/hr

CT = a (A Xins) /12 + Hy ( b 12 K A ▲T) / ( Xins + 12 K / ho ) , pesos/yr

d ( CT) / d(Xins) = 0
2
0 = a A /12 + (- 12 K A▲T b Hy) / ( Xins + 12 K /ho )
2
a A /12 = 12 K A▲T b Hy / ( Xins + 12 K /ho )

Therefore,
Optimum X ins = 12 [ b K ▲T Hy / a ] 1 / 2 - 12 K / ho

Optimization in Absorption process:

An absorption tower containing wooden grids is to be used for absorbing SO 2 in a sodium

sulfite solution. A mixture of air and SO2 will enter the tower at a rate of 70,000 ft3 / min.,
temperature of 250 o F, and pressure of 1.1 atm. The concentration of SO 2 in the entering
gas is specified, and a given fraction of the entering SO 2 must be removed in the
absorption tower. The molecular weight of the entering gas mixture may be assumed to
be 29.1. Under the specified design conditions, the number of transfer units necessary
varies with the superficial gas velocity as follows:
Number of transfer units = 0.32 Gs 0.18
Where Gs is the entering gas velocity, in lbs/ hr-ft2 , based on the cross-sectional area of
the empty tower. The height of a transfer unit is constant at 15 feet. The cost for the
installed tower is $1/ ft3 of inside volume, and annual fixed charges amount to 20% of the
initial cost. Variable operating charges for the absorbent, blower power and pumping
power are represented by the following equation:
Total variable operating costs as $/ hr = 1.8Gs2 x 10 - 8 + 81/ Gs + 4.8 / Gs 0.8

The unit is to operate 8000 hours per year. Determine the height and diameter of the
absorption tower at condition of minimum annual cost.

Given:

Sodium Sulfite SO2 -free Air

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N TU = 0.32 Gs 0.18
Where:
Gs = entering gas velocity
= lbs. / ft2 -hr
= based on x-sectional area
of empty tower

Air – SO2 Mixture

70,000 ft3 / min. Cost of tower = $1 / ft3 inside volume
250 o F Operation = 8000 hours per year
1 atm.
MW = 29.1

Required : Height and diameter of tower at minimum annual cost

Solution:

Basis : 1 year operation (8000 hrs per year )

Let Z = height of one (1) transfer unit =15 feet per transfer unit = constant

CF = 20% [ Initial cost of tower]

CV = 1.8Gs2 x 10 - 8 + 81/ Gs + 4.8 / Gs 0.8 , $ / hr.

Factor to be optimized : CT, Annual Cost

Variable : Gs, entering gas velocity

Relationship:

CF = 20% [ Initial cost of tower]

= 0.20 [ $1 / ft3 inside volume (A) (Z) (0.32 Gs 0.18 ) ]

A = (70,000 ft3/min) ( ρ gas, lbs./ ft3) / ( Gs, lbs. / ft2 –hr) (1hr / 60 min)

ρ gas, = PM/ RT
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= (1.1 atm) (29.1) / (0.73 atm -ft3 / lb.mol – o R) ( 250+ 460) o R

= 0.06175 lb. / ft3
therefore,

CF = 0.2 $ 1 / ft3 70,000 ft3/min) (0.06175lbs./ ft3) (15 ft) (0.32 Gs 0.18 ) ]
( Gs ) (1hr / 60 min)

CF = 248,976 / Gs 0.82 , $ / year

CV = ( 1.8Gs2 x 10 - 8 + 81/ Gs + 4.8 / Gs 0.8 ) $ / hr. ( 8000 hrs / year)

CV = 1.44 X 10 -4 Gs 2 + 6.48 X 10 5 Gs + 3.84 X 10 4 / Gs 0.8 , $/ year

CT = CF + CV
0.82
CT = 248,976 / Gs + 1.44 X 10 -4 Gs 2 + 6.48 X 10 5 Gs + 3.84 X 10 4 / Gs 0.8
d (CT ) / d (Gs) = 0

0 = – 0.02 (248976) /Gs1.82 + 2 ( 1.44 x10 -4Gs – 6.48 x105 / Gs2 – 0.8 (3.84 x10 4) /Gs 1.8

by trial and error,

Optimum Gs = 1758 lbs. / ft2 –hr

But A = (70,000 ft3/min ) (0.06175 lbs./ ft3) / ( Gs) (1hr / 60 min)

A = π D2 /4 = 259350 / 1750 = 147.53 ft2

Optimum D = 13.7 feet

Optimum Height = Z (NTU) = 15 feet /unit [ 0.32 (1758) 0.18 ]

= 18.4 feet

Optimization in a Solvent extraction process:

A Solvent-extraction operation is carried out continuously in a plate column with gravity

flow. The unit is operated 24 h/day. A feed rate of 1500 ft 3 per day must be handled 300
days per year. The allowable velocity per square foot of cross sectional area of the tower
is 40 ft3 of combined solvent and feed charge per hour. The annual fixed costs for the
installation can be predicted from the following equation:
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CF = 8800 Fsf 2 - 51,000 Fsf + 110,000 ,in Pesos/year

Where Fsf = cubic feet of solvent per cubic foot of feed. Operating and other variable
costs depend on the amount of solvent that must be recovered, and these costs are P0.04
for each cubic foot of solvent passing through the tower. What tower diameter should be
used for optimum conditions of minimum total cost per year?

Given:
Solvent extraction (Gravity flow)
Feed rate = 1500 ft3 per day
Operation = 24 hours per day at 300 days per year
Allowable velocity / ft3 tower area = 40 ft3 of solvent and feed / hour

CF = 8800 Fsf 2 - 51,000 Fsf + 110,000 ,in Pesos/year

where Fsf = ft3 solvent / ft3 feed

CV = P0.04 / ft3 solvent

Required: Dopt of tower for minimum annual costs

Solution:

Basis : 1 year operation

Factor to be optimized : CT
Variable : Fsf = ft3 solvent / ft3 feed
Relationship : CT = CV + CF

CF = 8800 Fsf 2 - 51,000 Fsf + 110,000 ,in Pesos/year

CV = f ( Fsf )
= ( P0.04/ ft3 solvent ) (Fsf, ft3 solvent / ft3 feed) (1500 ft3 feed ) ( 300 days/ yr)
CV = 18,000 Fsf

Therefore,

CT = 8800 Fsf 2 - 51,000 Fsf + 110,000 + 18000 Fsf

= 8800 Fsf 2 - 33,000 Fsf + 110,000

d (CT) / d( Fsf) = 0 = 2 (8800) Fsf - 33000

Fsf opt = 1.875 ft3 solvent / ft3 feed

If feed = 1,500 ft3 / day,

solvent = 1.875 (1500) = 2812.5 ft3 / day
Total charged volume per day = 1500 + 2812.5 = 4,312.5 ft3 /day
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Area of the tower = (4,312.5 ft3 / day) (1 day/24 hrs)

40 ft3 / ft2 tower area- hr
= 4.5 ft2
= π D2 /4

Dopt = [ 4 (tower area) / π ] ½ = [ 4 (4.5) / π ] ½ = 2.39 feet

Optimization in a Cyclic Operation

Type of operation:
1. Batch Type: No product is obtained during the operating period until
completion of a batch at the end of operation. There is a periodic such as discharging,
clean out, reactivation, or reassembling which affects the production i.e. it decreases with
time.

2. Semi-continuous: product is obtained continuously at either a constant or variable

rate (usually decreasing) during the operating period. Due to gradual decrease in
production rate, the operation is stopped and the initial conditions restored to give
original high production.

Important items to consider in optimization

 In a cyclic operation, two (2) rates are involved. One is the instantaneous rate at
any instant during the cycle (this may be constant or may vary from zero to
infinity), and the second is the average production rate, which is the total
production for the cycle divided by the total cycle time.

 Optimization is always made on the basis of one cycle, which may then be
converted to annual costs by multiplying the cost per cycle by the number of
cycles per year for the appropriate items

CT = (cycles per year) (operating cost per cycle) + Annual fixed costs

Where:
cycles per year =annual production / production per cycle

 Cyclic operation includes:

1. Preparation period
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2. Operating period
3. cleanout or discharging period
4. Interim or dead period ( not all operation)
5. Reactivation

One batch = one cycle

Total cycle time (θ T) = θo + θdcr + θr

Sample Problem:

1. A certain batch operation requires a total cycle time of 8 hours, permitting the
operation to be completed in one (1) shift. The annual fixed costs on the equipment vary
with the size of a batch as follows:
CF = 10 Q B 1.2 , in pesos per year
Where Q B = batch size in lbs / batch
Pertinent costs affected by the batch size including charging and discharging are P 456.00
per batch. Operation is based on an allowable 1,200 hours/ year and one (1) shift of 8
hours / day. Inventory and storage charge may be neglected.
Operating cost is P18.00 / hour while another annual costs that vary as Q A 2 / 106 where
QA is the annual production units.
Determine:
a. Optimum batch size to produce 1000,000 lbs per year and the unit costs for the
said condition
b. Optimum or maximum production units and the unit costs for the said condition

Given:
Operation of 1,200 hours per year
One (1) shift of 8 hours per days

Total cycle time ( θ T ) = 8 hours = 8 hours / batch

1.2
CF = 10 Q B , in pesos per year
Where Q B = batch size in lbs / batch

Cost of charging and discharging are P 456.00 per batch

Operating cost is P18.00 / hour
Other annual costs that vary as QA 2 / 106 where QA is the annual production units.

Required:

A. Optimum no. of batches per year and its unit costs if QA is 100,000 lbs
B. Maximum annual production units and its unit costs
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Solution:

A. Optimum number of batches

Factor to be optimized : CT, Annual Cost

Variable : QB , batch size in lbs. or lbs/ batch

CT = CF + CV
1.2
CF = 10 Q B , pesos per year

No. of batches / year = (100,000 lbs /yr ) ( 1/QB batch / lb )

CV:
Charging and discharging = (P456.00/ batch) ( 100,000 / QB batch/yr )

Operating Costs = (P18.00/ hr) (8 hrs/ batch) (100,000 / QB batch/yr)

Other variable costs = (100,000) 2 / 1 X 106 = P 10,000 / year

CV = 4.56 X 10 7 / QB + 1.44 X 10 7 / QB + 10,000 , pesos/year

Therefore,
1.2
CT = 10 Q B + 4.56 X 10 7 / QB + 1.44 X 10 7 / QB + 10,000
1.2
= 10 Q B + 6 X 10 7 / QB + 10,000

d (CT) / d ( QB)= 0 = 1.20 (10) (QB) 0.2 + ( - 6 X 107 ) / QB 2

6 X 107 / (QB) .2 = 12 QB 0.2

Optimum QB = 1,109 lbs / batch

Batches per year = (100,000 lbs. / year) ( 1/ 1,109 batches/lb) = 91 batches / year

Unit cost = [ 10 (1109) 1.2 + 6 X 10 7 / 1109 + (100,000) 2 / 1 X 10 6 ]

100,000

= P 1.092 / lb of product

B. Maximum production units

Maximum number of batches per year = (1200 hrs/ year ) / ( 8 hrs/ batch)
= 150 batches / year

Therefore, maximum QA = (150 batches/year) ( 1109 lbs / batch)

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= 166, 350 lbs / year

Unit cost = 10 (1109) 1.2 + 456(166350/1109)+144 (166350/ 1109)+ (166,350)2 / 1X10 6

166,350 lbs / year

= P 0. 978/ lb of product

2. If the batch time (operation time) varies as 1.2 Q B 0.22 , in hours at an operating cost of
P18.00 / hour, charging and discharging is 1.5 hours, compute for the unit cost values as
in preceding problem A and B.

Solution
A.
θT = Operation time + charging and discharging time
θT = 1.2 QB 0.22 + 1.5 , hour per batch
1.2
CF = 10 Q B , pesos per year

CV =4.56 X 10 7 / QB + 18/hr (1.2 QB 0.22 + 1.5 )(100000 / QB ) +(100000)2 / 1X106

CT = CF + CV
1.2
= 10 QB + 4.83 X 107 / QB +2.16 X 106 / QB 0.78 +10,000

d (CT) / d (QB) = 0
0 = 12 QB0.2 - 4.83 x 10 7 / QB2 - [ 0.78 (2.16 X 10 6 )(QB -0.22) / QB 1.56 ]
0 = 12 QB0.2 - 4.83 x 10 7 / QB2 - 1684800 / QB 1.78
0 = 12 QB 1.98 - 4.83 X 10 7 / QB 0.22 -1684800

By trial and error,

Optimum QB = 1,076 lbs. / batch
θT = 1.2 QB 0.22 + 1.5 = 7.074 hours / batch

No. of batches / year = (100,000 lbs /yr ) ( 1/QB batch / lb )

= (100,000 lbs/ yr) (1/1076 lbs/ batch)
= 93 batches per year
CT = P107,681.797/yr / 100,000 lbs/year = P 1.08 / lb

B. Maximum production units

Maximum number of batches per year = (1200 hrs/ year ) / ( 8 hrs/ batch)
= 150 batches / year

Therefore, maximum QA = (150 batches/year) ( 1076 lbs / batch)

 18

= 161, 400 lbs / year

CT =10 (1076)1.2 + 4 .56 X 10 7 / 1076 + (18)[1.2 (1076) 0.22+ 1.5 ](161400 / 1076)
+ (161,400)2 / 1X106

= 130,997.899 / year

Unit Cost = 130,997.899 / 161,400 lbs./year

= P 0.812 / lb.

Optimum proportion for cylindrical container or vessel:

Derive an equation to determine the optimum height to diameter ratio of a

cylindrical vessel.
Given:
D

Required: Optimum H/D

Solution:
Factor to be optimized : Surface area
Variable : D and H
Relationships:
Surface Area of the cylinder = πDH + 2 ( π D2 / 4 )

Volume of a cylinder (V) = π D2 H / 4

H = 4 (V) / π D 2

Therefore, Surface area (A) = π D [4 V / π D 2 ] + 2 ( π D2 / 4 )

A = 4V /D + π D2 / 2

d(A) / d(D) = - 4V / D2 + πD = 0
1/3
Dopt = [ 4V / π ]
 19

H opt = 4 (V) / π D 2 = 4 V / π [ (4V / π ) 1/3 2

]
2/3
= 4 ( V ) / π (4V / π )
= [ 4V / π ] 1 / 3
therefore, [ H / D] opt = 1.0
1/3
and A opt = 4V / [ 4V / π ] + π [ (4V/π) 1/3 ] 2 / 2

If cost in the objective,

[ H / D] opt = 2.0 ( for tin can or oil drum)

API ASME Code (Brummerstedt ‘s derive equation) using cost relationship for
standard steel cylindrical vessel with no corrosion allowance and operating pressure
of at least 250 psi and ellipsoidal heads:

CT = 1.76 V + 1.074 D3 - 0.0495 D V – 0.0302 D 4

Where, V = volume in ft3

D = vessel diameter in ft

d (CT ) / d (D) = 0 = D3 - 26.7 D2 + 0.410 V

therefore, L = 4 V / π D2 - D/3

Optimization for yield and recovery in Process Operations:

The design of equipment for process operations is very complex problems because of
many variables involved and how these variables affect a given design condition.
Certain elementary relationships for the simplest cases will be presented. The
common variables in a chemical process operation could be:

 Space-time yield ( Conversion per unit of time in the equipment

 Conversion per pass in a flow process
 Reciprocal of the residence time for a batch operation
 20

In chemical reactor design, parameters that must be considered in design

optimization are:

 Temperature
 Pressure
 Concentration effects on the rates of reaction ( if if competing reactions
occur)
 Influence of mass velocity on reaction rates in diffusion-controlled catalytic
process
 Heat transfer and effect on costs of the heat transfers duty, either exothermic
or endothermic.

Relationships:

 Space velocity - throughput of volume ( if the volume for gases is

measured at standard condition, it may be converted to moles readily) per
unit time divided by the volume of the equipment.
 Residence time - reciprocal of space velocity or the time that a given
unit of volume (or a molecule) remains in the vessel
 Overall Conversion - units of product formed per unit of feed.
 Space-time yield - product of the conversion times the space velocity
(moles product / mole feed-hr)

 Conversion decreases with increase in space velocity, and therefore the

concentration of desired product decreases in the mixture of products
 Higher space velocities necessitates greater separating capacities to obtain a
desire quantity of product per unit tome
 Optimization lies between the investment costs for small process equipment plus
high recovery costs versus the cost of large [process equipment (lower space
velocity) with small recover cost.
 Pumping costs will increase with higher space velocities because of greater
pressure drops and increase recycle flow rates.
 At low space-time yield (high conversions), fixed costs are high because large
vessels are required
 High space- time yield (high space velocities), the fixed costs are also high large
recovery facilities are needed
 At high space velocities, operating costs per unit of product will also increase

Optimization:

Factor: CT
 21

Variables: VR ; XA ; M ( feed composition)

First Order:

CAO CA

Cost data:

Let: α = cost of reactant, pesos / mole reactant

γ = cost of operation, pesos / hour of operation
β = cost of reactor, pesos/ ft3 of reactor

CSTR performance equation:

K
A product

τ = VR/ Vo = (CAO – CA ) / - rA

-r A = KCA = KCAo ( 1 – XA )

VR / Vo = CAO – CAO (1-XA ) / K CAO (1 – XA )

VR = Vo CAO XA / KCAO (1 – XA )
But FAO = Vo CAO
Therefore,

VR = FAO XA / KCAO (1 – XA)

Let :

Fixed Cost : CF = Ф ( Initial Cost of Reactor)

Variable Cost: CV = Cost of reactant + Cost of Operation

 22

Hy = hours / year of operation

Factor: CT

Variable: XA

CF = Ф ( β / ft3 of reactor) [VR ]

= Ф ( β / ft3 of reactor) [ FAO XA / KCAO (1 – XA) ]

CV = ( α / mole of reactant) (FAO ) ( Hy) + ( γ / hr) (Hy)

CT = Ф ( β / ft3 of reactor) [ FAO XA / KCAO (1 – XA) ]

+ (α / mole of reactant) (FAO ) ( Hy) + ( γ / hr) (Hy)

* If flowrate of product is given (FR) , instead of initial flow rate (FAO) ,

FR = FAOXA and FAO = FR / XA

CT = Ф ( β / ft3 of reactor) [ FR / K CAO (1 – XA) ]
+ (α / mole of reactant) (FR / XA ) ( Hy) + (γ / hr) (Hy)

At optimum condition,

dCT / dXA = 0

X A opt = _________

Second Order Reaction :

K
A + B Product
-r = KCACB

Mat’l. Balance
A + B
CAO CBO
-x -x

CA= CAO - x CB = CBO – x

 23

x = CAO – CA
CB = CBO - CAO + CA

Therefore,

- rA = KCACB = K CA (CBO - CAO + CA )

Performance equation

τ = VR / Vo = CAO XA / K CA (CBO - CAO + CA )

let M = CBO / CAO

VR / Vo = CAO XA / K CA0 (1-XA) [ CBO - CAO + CA0 (1-XA) ] ( CAO/CAO)

VR / Vo = CAO XA / K CA0 2 (1- XA ) (M - XA)

Problem:

100 moles of A per hour are available in a concentration of 0.001 kg-mol / m3 by a

previous process. This stream is to be reacted with B to produce R and S. The reaction
proceeds with the aqueous elementary reaction,

K
A + B R + S K = 5 m3/ kgmole-hr

The amount of R is 45 kg-moles / hr. In extracting R from the reacted mixture, A and B
are destroyed. Hence, recycle of unused reactant is out of question.
Calculate the optimum reactor volume and reactor type as well as feed composition.

Data:
B costs P12.50 / kg-mole and is crystalline form
Capital and operating costs:
Plugflow reactor P 0.15 / hr – m3
CSTR reactor P 0.04 /hr – m3

Given:

B
 24

R = 45 kg moles/ hour

CAO = 0.001 K = 5 m3/ kgmole-hr

100 kg mol/ hr

K
A + B R + S

B costs P12.50 / kg-mole

Required:
a. Optimum VR
b. Reactor type
c. Optimum feed composition

Solution: