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Chapter 8: Coding of Qualitative Data

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CONTENTS

Chapter 1: Introduction to Qualitative Research

Chapter 2: Qualitative Data Collection Method
Chapter 3: Ethnography
Chapter 4: Case Study
Chapter 5: Action Research
Chapter 6: Other Qualitative Methods
Chapter 7: Qualitative Data Analysis
Chapter 8: Coding of Qualitative Data

CHAPTER LEARNING OUTCOMES

When you have completed this chapter you will be able to:
 Discuss the techniques of coding qualitative data
 Apply data coding techniques when analysing qualitative data

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

 Preamble  Example #3: Coding

 What is coding?  Example #4: Coding
 What to look for when you are  Computer software
coding
 Example #1: Coding Key Terms
 Example #2: Coding Summary
References
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Chapter 8: Coding of Qualitative Data

PREAMBLE

Since coding is an important and sometime most difficult phase of qualitative data
analysis, this chapter has been devoted to the coding phase. Several examples are
provided to illustrate how coding is done. However, the coding method shown is not the
only way to go about coding qualitative data as there are several other methods.

WHAT IS CODING?

Let us repeat what was discussed in Chapter 7 about coding. Coding is the process
of examining the raw qualitative data which will in the form of words, phrases, sentences
or paragraphs) and assigning CODES or labels. Strauss and Corbin (1990) identified the
following types of coding: Axial coding and Open Coding (see Figure 8.1).

Data

[from a Transcript]

OPEN CODING
Code or Label words and phrases found in
the transcript or text

AXIAL CODING
Create Themes or Categories by grouping
codes or labels given to words and phrases
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Chapter 8: Coding of Qualitative Data

 Open Coding – You “sweep” through the data and mark (by circling or
highlighting) sections of the text selected codes or labels. For example,
you circle words or phrases describing the behaviour of the head of
department.
 Axial Coding – Eventually, you have a large number of codes and you
will find it necessary to sort them into some sort of order or into groups
and this is called axial coding. Two common types of axial coding are:
Non-hierarchical or Hierarchical

 Non-Hierarchical: For example, in a study a the researcher asked a group of adults

how they take a break from their normal work. The responses are grouped are
grouped as follows in a non-hierarchical manner (also called flat coding).

CODES / LABELS
THEME / CATEGORY
 take a holiday,
 go out for a walk,
 read a book, Adults taking a
 watch TV, break from
 take a nap, work
 wander round the garden,
 work out at the gym,
 go for a drink with friends,
 go for a drive,
 play a computer game,
 follow a hobby,
 do voluntary work

 Hierarchical: Here you find that several codes group together as types or kinds of
something. You need to put some of the codes or labels into a group of their own or
make them sub-codes, i.e. a hierarchical arrangement of codes, like a tree, a
branching arrangement of sub-codes. Ideally, codes in a tree relate to their parents by
being 'examples of...', or 'contexts for...' or 'causes of...' or 'settings for...' and so on.
For example, a researcher was doing a study on friendship‟ and asked a group of
adults their views on the topic and the following is the classification.
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Chapter 8: Coding of Qualitative Data

THEME / CATEGORY CODES / LABELS

Friendship types
 Close friend
 Sporting
 Club Sub-codes
 Non-club
 Work

Changes in Friendship

 Making new friends

 New same sex

friends Sub-codes
 New different sex
friends

 Losing touch
 Becoming sexual relationship
 the data into meaningful analytical units (i.e.,
segmenting the data). When you locate meaningful
segments, you code them.
 Coding is defined as marking the segments of data
with symbols, descriptive words, or category
names.

To recap, whenever you find a meaningful segment of text in a transcript, you assign a
code or label to signify that particular segment. You continue this process until you have
segmented all of your data and have completed the initial coding. Next, you find
relationships between the codes or labels and group them into themes or categories.
During coding, you must keep a master list (i.e., a list of all the codes that are developed
and used in the research study). Then, the codes are reapplied to new segments of data
each time an appropriate segment is encountered.

WHAT TO LOOK FOR WHEN YOU ARE CODING

Most typically, when coding, you usually have some codes already in mind and
are also looking for other ideas that seem to arise out of the data. According to Charmaz
(2003), you should ask the following questions about the data you are coding:
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Chapter 8: Coding of Qualitative Data

 What is going on?

 What are people doing?
 What is the person saying?
 What do these actions and statements take for granted?
 How do structure and context serve to support, maintain, impede or change these
actions and statements?

Lewins, Taylor. & Gibbs, (2005) provide a more detailed list of the kinds of
things that can be coded (see Table 8.1). The examples of each kind tend to be descriptive
because it makes it is easier to explain the phenomena. However, when you are coding it
is advisable to move from descriptive codes to more analytic ones as quickly as possible.

What can be coded Examples

1 Behaviours, specific acts Seeking reassurance, Bragging
2 Events – short once in a lifetime events or things Wedding day, day moved out
people have done that are often told as a story. of home for university, starting
first job
3 Activities – these are of a longer duration, involve Going clubbing, attending a
other people within a particular setting night course, conservation
work
4 Strategies, practice or tactics Being nasty to get dumped,
Staying late at work to get
promotion
5 States – general conditions experienced by people Hopelessness “I‟ll never meet
or found in organisations anyone better at my age”
settling for someone who is
not really suitable
6 Meanings – A wide range of phenomena at the
core of much qualitative analysis. Meanings and
interpretations are important pars of what directs
participants actions.
a. What concepts do participants use to The term „chilling out‟ is used
understand their world? What norms, by young people to mean
values, and rules guide their actions relaxing and not doing very
much
b. What meaning or significance it has for Jealousy “ I just felt why did
participants, how do they construe events, she get him”
what are the feelings
c. What symbols do people use to A PhD is referred to as „a test
understand their situation? What names do of endurance‟ (because
they use for objects, events, persons, roles, finishing a PhD is a challenge)
setting and equipment?
7 Participation – adaptation to a new setting or About new neighbours “In my
involvement new house I have to keep my
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Chapter 8: Coding of Qualitative Data

music down at night as the

neighbours have young
children”.
8 Relationships or interaction Seeing family “ Now my sister
lives in the next road she visits
more and we‟ve become much
closer.
9 Conditions or constraints Lose of job (before financial
difficulties), moving away
(before lost contact with old
friends)
10 Consequences Confidence gets dates, positive
attitude attracts opportunities
11 Settings – the entire context of the events under University, work place,
study housing estate
12 Reflexive – researcher‟s role in the process, how Probing question “How did
intervention generated the data you feel when he said that?”

Table 8.1: Types of phenomena that can be coded

LEARNING ACTIVITY

a) What is coding?
b) What is the difference between open and axial coding?
c) What do you look for when coding data?
d) Lewins, Taylor. & Gibbs (2005) provide a list of phenomena
that is often coded. What are they? Are there others?

EXAMPLE #1: CODING QUALITATIVE DATA

Refer to this EXAMPLE in which a researcher interviewed several staff in an office

and asked this question: “What specific problems that needed immediate action in your
organisation”?

The following are some of the responses to the question. Try to code the data and
compare your themes / categories with the themes / categories provided below:
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Chapter 8: Coding of Qualitative Data

The responses to the question: “What specific problems that needed immediate
action in your organisation”?

 There is not enough space for everyone

 Our office furniture is dated and needs replacing
 We nee a better cleaning service for the office
 We need more objective recruitment and hiring standards
 We need objective performance appraisal and reward system
 We need consistent application of policy
 There are leadership problems
 Unproductive staff should not be retained
 Each department stereotypes of other departments
 Decisions are often based on inaccurate information
 We need more opportunities for advancement here
 Our product is not consistent because there are too many styles
 There is too much gossiping and criticising
 Responsibilities at various levels are unclear
 We need a suggestion box
 There is a lot of “us and them” sentiment here.
 There is a lack of attention to individual needs.
 There is favouritism and preferential treatment of staff.
 More training is needed at all levels.
 There need to better assessment of employee ability and performance can be
more objectively based.
 Training is needed for new employees.
 Many employees are carrying the weight of other untrained employees.
 This off ice is “turf” oriented.
 There is a pecking order at every level and within every level.
 Communication needs improving.
 Certain departments are put on a pedestal.
 There are too many review levels for our products.
 Too many signatures are required.
 There is a lot of overlap and redundancy.
 The components of our office work against one another rather than a team.
 We need more computer terminals

Table 8.2 Reponses of subjects in an office

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Chapter 8: Coding of Qualitative Data

THE DATA IS CODED INTO THE FOLLOWING CATEGORIES:

CATEGORIES DATA

Management Issues
 There are leadership problems
 We need a suggestion box
 There is a lack of attention to individual needs.
 There is favouritism and preferential treatment of staff.
 Decisions are often based on inaccurate information
 We need consistent application of policy

Physical Environment
 We nee a better cleaning service for the office
 Our office furniture is dated and needs replacing
 We need more computer terminals
 There is not enough space for everyone
 We need more objective recruitment and hiring
standards
 We need objective performance appraisal and reward
systems
 Non-productive staff members should not be retained
 There need to be better assessment of employee ability
and performance so that promotions can be more
objectively based
Employee Development
 More training is needed at all levels
 Training is needed for new employees
 Many employees are carrying the weight of other
untrained employees
 We need more opportunities for advancement here

Intergroup and Interpersonal Relations

 The office is “turf” oriented

 There is a lot of “us and them” sentiment here
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Chapter 8: Coding of Qualitative Data

 There is pecking order at every level and within every

level
 Communication needs improving
 There is too much gossiping and criticising
 Certain departments are put on a pedestal
 Each department has stereotypes of the other
departments

Work Structure
 There are too many reviews for our product
 Too many signatures are required
 Responsibilities at various levels are unclear
 The components of our office work against one another
rather than as a team
 There is a lot of overlap and redundancy
 Our product is not consistent because there are too
many styles

LEARNING ACTIVITY

Try coding this short passage about Terry in Example #2.

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Chapter 8: Coding of Qualitative Data

EXAMPLE #2: CODING QUALITATIVE DATA

The example below show the coding of a short passage of text about a Terry moving
out of his parents home and becoming independent.

Terry

“When you move into your own home, you're alone. There is no bustle of people
around the house. I miss having someone to chat to when I get home. I put the TV
or some music so there’s some background noise, the silence makes me feel so alone.
Sometimes I will be sat watching trash TV and thinking I should be out doing
something rather than watching this rubbish. I read a lot but sometimes I am too
tired and just want to veg out. But it's been good to move out of mum and dad’s as
it's not healthy to rely on them as they won't last forever. I become independent
and made my own decisions. It's good they still there when I need them. It's good to
have some distance as when I was at home I was arguing a lot with my dad and that
was what made me decide it was time to go.”
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Chapter 8: Coding of Qualitative Data

In Example #2, to help the analyst mark up the page, the text has been printed using
double spacing, so that it is possible to write code ideas and code labels between the
lines.

DESCRIPTIVE CODING AND NOTES.

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Chapter 8: Coding of Qualitative Data

The analyst has read the text carefully and circled what seem to be key terms or key
events or actions. A short note of what these are has been written besides the circling.
These are the start of descriptive, or what grounded theorists refer to as open coding. An
initial coding list from this might be:

 Own home
 Lonely
 Independence
 Moving out of parents
 Conflict
 Dependence
 Desire for company

These terms summarise the events and actions noted by the coding in Example #2, and
some are more analytical, i.e. not merely describing something that happened or was said.
They could form the start of a coding list that could be used to mark-up the rest of this
transcript and other similar cases.
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Chapter 8: Coding of Qualitative Data

DESCRIPTIVE AND ANALYTIC CODING WITH NOTES.

Using the sample data, a wide margin is used, so that code labels and other
comments can be written there. Print out your transcriptions in whatever way supports
your preferred approach to coding the text.
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Chapter 8: Coding of Qualitative Data

The codes used are still essentially descriptive but begin to move away from
simply summarising what the respondent has said. Using brackets to the right of the
transcribed text, they also code much larger chunks or passages of text. This form of
coding is most useful when you go on to make retrievals, i.e. gather together all the text
about one topic – that is to say, all the text that is coded the same way. With larger
chunks, the retrieved text is less likely to be decontextualised. The analyst has also used a
highlighter to identify words that refer to feelings and these words suggest that the
passage about living alone is actually about the emotions and feelings associated with
living alone.

LEARNING ACTIVITY

Try coding this short passage about Amanda.

EXAMPLE #3: CODING QUALITATIVE DATA

Read the passage of text below about Amanda finding out she was pregnant. Look
at the list of codes below and decide which code sums up what is being talked about
in each line of the text (you may use a code more than once).

List of codes

1. Breaking up
2. Getting pregnant
3. Insecurity
4. Lifestyle
5. Moving in together
6. Not wanting to move
7. Proposal
8. Settling down
9. Uncertainty
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Chapter 8: Coding of Qualitative Data

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
When I found out I was pregnant, I wasn‟t sure if I wanted to
get married and he …
wasn‟t the settling down kind. He was old enough to bring
up a child but I knew he …
wasn‟t ready to. He was in the Navy he liked the life and
preferred going off with …
his friends and that bothered me. At first I hoped something
would happen so I …
didn‟t have the baby and I wanted him to marry me ‟cause he
wanted to not …
because I was pregnant. Anyway when the baby was born we
broke up and I have …
seen him a couple of times but he has phoned lots and says
he will marry me. He …
wanted me to marry him and go and live with him, but I
didn‟t want to leave home.
He leaves the Navy in 6 months so I‟m getting the flat ready
for him to move in. But …
I still worry he‟ll go off with his friends and won‟t be able to
give up the life.

COMPARE your answer with the possible answer below. You may have chosen to
use different codes from the ones we used, this does not mean you are wrong as you may
have a very good reason for selecting that code. Often the same text can be coded in two
or more different ways.
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Chapter 8: Coding of Qualitative Data

ANSWER:

CODES
When I found out I was pregnant, I wasn‟t sure if I wanted to get Getting pregnant
married and he …
wasn‟t the settling down kind. He was old enough to bring up a child Settling down
but I knew he …
wasn‟t ready to. He was in the Navy he liked the life and preferred Lifestyle
going off with …
his friends and that bothered me. At first I hoped something would Uncertainty
happen so I …
didn‟t have the baby and I wanted him to marry me ‟cause he wanted to Insecurity
not …
because I was pregnant. Anyway when the baby was born we broke up Breaking up
and I have …
seen him a couple of times but he has phoned lots and says he will Proposal
marry me. He …
wanted me to marry him and go and live with him, but I didn‟t want to Not wanting to move
leave home.
He leaves the Navy in 6 months so I‟m getting the flat ready for him to Moving in together
move in. But …
I still worry he‟ll go off with his friends and won‟t be able to give up Insecurity
the life.

You may have chosen to use different codes from the ones we used, this does not mean
you are wrong as you may have a very good reason for selecting that code. Often the
same text can be coded in two or more different ways.

LEARNING ACTIVITY

Try coding this short passage about Karen.

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Chapter 8: Coding of Qualitative Data

EXAMPLE #4: CODING QUALITATIVE DATA

Read the passage of text below about Karen leaving home. Provide a code that
summaries what is happening for each line of text in the boxes.

CODES
It was challenging, after living in Italy for 6 months and then I moved home
before …
I started university. I was used to doing things my own way when it suited me
…
and not having to tell people where I was going. I was living with friends and
they …
didn‟t care what I did or where I went. It was really hard to go back to sort of
…
thinking of others … ‟cause Mum and Dad wanted to know where I was
going and …
who with, which was a nightmare. My parents were strict but I had a lot of …
freedom growing up, as long as I didn‟t overstep the boundaries. After I came
…
back from Italy they realised I was more independent and things changed and
…
they didn‟t try and stop me doing things anymore but they would still let
know if …
they didn‟t approve.

COMPARE your answer with the possible answer below. You may have chosen to
use different codes from the ones we used, this does not mean you are wrong as you may
have a very good reason for selecting that code. Often the same text can be coded in two
or more different ways.
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Chapter 8: Coding of Qualitative Data

ANSWER:

CODES
It was challenging, after living in Italy for 6 months and then I moved home Moving away
before …
I started university. I was used to doing things my own way when it suited me Independence
…
and not having to tell people where I was going. I was living with friends and Freedom
they …
didn‟t care what I did or where I went. It was really hard to go back to sort of Moving back
… home
thinking of others … ‟cause Mum and Dad wanted to know where I was Control
going and …
who with, which was a nightmare. My parents were strict but I had a lot of … Control
freedom growing up, as long as I didn‟t overstep the boundaries. After I came Boundaries
…
back from Italy they realised I was more independent and things changed and Growing up
…
they didn‟t try and stop me doing things anymore but they would still let Letting go
know if …
they didn‟t approve. Disapproval

The important point is that line-by-line coding helps you to focus on the content of the
text in the line and helps you to focus on what it is about. When doing line-by-line coding
there is a tendency to produce descriptive codes. However, some of those you have
suggested may be more analytic or more theoretical. That's good. The next step is to try
and develop such analytic codes and/or recode some of the descriptive codes you have
used.

COMPUTER-BASED QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Today, various types of software are available to assist in qualitative data

analysis. Thus many researchers have replaced physical files and cabinets with computer
based directories and files along with the use of word processors to write and annotate
texts. Many analysts now also use dedicated computer assisted qualitative data analysis
(CAQDAS) packages that not only make the coding and retrieval of text easy to do, but
can add other functions like searching that computers do quickly but which takes humans
ages to do or in some cases, which humans have never done.

At first the focus of CAQDAS was on text since that was easy to handle on PCs,
but now that much audio and video is in digital form too, software has been developed to
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Chapter 8: Coding of Qualitative Data

support the analysis of audio and video data. Among the popular software used in
analysing qualitative data is NVivo, Nudist and an open source software called Weft
QDA [We will not be discussing the use of these software in this course]. You can
download Weft QDA and try it out. http://www.pressure.to/qda/

KEY WORDS

 Coding  Categories
 Open coding  Descriptive codes
 Axial coding  Analytic codes
 Hierarchical  Conditions
 Non-Hierarchical 
 Meanings
 Reflexive

SUMMARY

 Coding is the process of examining the raw qualitative data which will in the form
of words, phrases, sentences or paragraphs) and assigning CODES or labels.

 Open Coding – You “sweep” through the data and mark (by circling or
highlighting) sections of the text selected codes or labels.

 Eventually, you have a large number of codes and you will find it necessary to
sort them into some sort of order or into groups and this is called axial coding.

 The way codes are developed and the timing of this process will depend on
whether your research project and your approach is inductive or deductive.

 Most typically, when coding, researchers have some codes already in mind and
are also looking for other ideas that seem to arise out of the data.
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Chapter 8: Coding of Qualitative Data

 In coding, the researcher is looking for what is going on, what are people doing,
what is the person saying, what do these actions and statements take for granted,
how do structure and context serve to support, maintain, impede or change these
actions and statements.

 In coding, the researcher is looking for behaviours, events, activities, states,

strategies, meanings, participation, relationships, conditions, consequences,
settings and reflexive.

 Computer software is used by researchers to facilitate qualitative data analysis.

REFERENCES:

Bernard. R. (1996) Qualitative Data, Quantitative Analysis. Cultural Anthropology

Methods Journal, Vol. 8 no. 1, 9-11.

Bogdan, R. & Biklen, S.K. (1998). Qualitative research for education. Boston: Allyn &
Bacon.

Bryman, A. & Burgess, R. (1993). Analysing Qualitative Data. London: Routledge.

Coffey, A., B. Holbrook and P. Atkinson (1996) 'Qualitative Data Analysis:

Technologies and Representations', Sociological Research Online, vol. 1, no. 1.

Gibbs, G R (2002) Qualitative Data Analysis: Explorations with NVivo. Buckingham:

Open University Press.

Lacey, A. & Luff, D. (2001). Trent focus for research and development in primary health
care: An introduction to qualitative analysis. London: Trent Focus.

Lewins, A., Taylor, C. & Gibbs, G. (2005). What is qualitative data analysis? School of
Human & Health Sciences, University of Huddersfield. United Kingdome.

Miles, M. & Huberman, A. (1984). Qualitative Data Analysis. London: Sage.

Strauss, A. (1987). Qualitative analysis for social scientists. New York: Cambridge
University Press.

Strauss, A. and Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory

procedures and techniques. London: Sage.