IADC/SPE 99068

Drilling and Completing Difficult HP/HT Wells With the Aid of Cesium Formate Brines—
A Performance Review
J.D. Downs, SPE, M. Blaszczynski, SPE, J. Turner, SPE, and M. Harris, SPE, Cabot Specialty Fluids

Copyright 2006, IADC/SPE Drilling Conference

- Best well productivity at lowest drawdown
This paper was prepared for presentation at the IADC/SPE Drilling Conference held in Miami, - Best well integrity and longest structural lifetime
Florida, U.S.A., 21–23 February 2006.
- Lowest well construction cost
This paper was selected for presentation by an IADC/SPE Program Committee following
review of information contained in a proposal submitted by the author(s). Contents of the
- Lowest environmental impact and liability exposure
paper, as presented, have not been reviewed by the International Association of Drilling - Best reservoir information capture
Contractors or Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to correction by the author(s).
The material, as presented, does not necessarily reflect any position of the IADC, SPE, their The choice of drilling and completion fluid used in a well
officers, or members. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper
for commercial purposes without the written consent of the International Association of Drilling
construction operation has a critical influence on the extent to
Contractors and Society of Petroleum Engineers is prohibited. Permission to reproduce in print which an operator can meet this objective. In particular the
is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words; illustrations may not be copied. The
abstract must contain conspicuous acknowledgment of where and by whom the paper was fluid’s performance will play a significant part in determining
presented. Write Librarian, SPE, P.O. Box 833836, Richardson, TX 75083-3836, U.S.A.,
fax 1.972.952.9435.
whether or not an operator meets its key performance indicator
targets in the following areas:
Abstract - Time to drill and complete
Conventional drilling and completion fluids containing - Well control and safety incidents
weighting solids or hydrocarbons or halide brines can create - Well integrity
problems with hydraulics, well control, well integrity and well - Well lifetime and maintenance costs
productivity in HPHT operations. The negative influence of - Well productivity index
conventional fluids on drilling and completion operations can - Waste management costs
be sufficiently serious to compromise safety and degrade the - Logging capability and interpretation
economics of challenging HPHT field developments. - Environmental footprint and impact
Formate brines have been developed specifically to - Exposure to liability (short- and long-term)
provide improved drilling and completion fluids that are free The drilling fluid chosen for the upper well sections must
of the troublesome components found in conventional fluids offer a host of functionalities:
and therefore better suited to meet the needs of oil companies - Ability to maintain the integrity of weak rocks
involved in difficult HPHT well constructions. - Ability to minimize fluid loss into permeable rocks
Formate brines have been successfully used as reservoir - Ability to provide stable well control
drill-in, completion, workover and suspension fluids in more - Ability to efficiently transfer hydraulic power
than 130 HPHT well construction operations over the past 10 - Ability to move cuttings to the surface
years. These applications have included 100 cases in which - Provide steel/steel and steel/rock lubricity
high down-hole pressures have necessitated the use of cesium - Provide protection against all forms of corrosion
formate brines for well control purposes. - Allow formation evaluation
Some 15 applications of cesium formate brines to date - Pose little or no hazard to rig personnel
have been HPHT reservoir drill-in operations in high angle - Have little or no adverse effect on the environment
wells where operators considered that conventional fluids - Have little or no adverse effect on elastomers
could create a safety risk and adversely effect project If the drilling fluid is to be used in reservoir sections
economics. We review the published information on the field without further intervention it must cause minimal change to
performance of the cesium formate brines in HPHT the native permeability of the reservoir rock in the near
applications, and conclude that the novel benefits of the wellbore area. The drilling fluid filtrate must also be
technology that were first promised some 15 years ago during compatible with other filtrates that might leak-off from
the early product development phase have now been fully subsequent cementing and completion operations. A
validated. completion fluid should have the same overall properties as a
reservoir drilling-in fluid and, ideally, should be the same fluid
Introduction minus any drilled solids.
The objective of the drilling and completion process is to In the past these functionalities have been provided by
safely deliver high quality wells that are optimized in terms of surprisingly low-tech/low-cost fluid formulations based
providing shareholder value: simply on slurries of barite particles suspended in viscosified
oil or water containing halide salts (chlorides or bromides).
2 IADC/SPE 99068
The problem now facing the oil industry is that the process of
economically extracting what remains of the world’s
hydrocarbon reserves is stretching the traditional drilling and
completion fluids to their performance limits and beyond. This
is particularly true in the case of offshore HPHT field
developments where the application conditions are extremely
challenging and the required fluid performance demands are
exacting.
This paper examines how conventional drilling and
completion fluids have been failing to fully meet the demands
of difficult HPHT well construction. It then charts the
development of formate brines as the new improved HPHT
drilling and completion fluids, from their origins in Shell
Research in 1986 through to the present day use of cesium
formate brine in North Sea and Gulf of Mexico.
Our review of the published information on the field
performance of the cesium formate brines in HPHT
applications draws us to conclude that the benefits of the
technology that were first promised some 15 years ago during
the early product development phase have now been fully
validated.
Problem definition
Modern HPHT drilling conditions can expose the inherent
design failings of conventional drilling fluids1. The high
loading of barite in conventional muds creates high frictional
pressure losses during circulation in long sections, leading to
unacceptably high ECDs in narrow drilling windows. High
downhole temperatures can degrade the solids-carrying
capacity of conventional muds, causing both dynamic and
static barite sag and increasing the risk of loss of well control
in high-angle wells. Oil-based muds can absorb large volumes
of gas and this can cause well control problems too if the muds
remain static for long periods in long horizontal holes. To
make things worse, an influx of hydrocarbon gas into oil-
based mud may destabilize the formulation and cause barite
sag. Laboratory return permeability tests done on samples of a
range of conventional mud types taken directly from the field
show that they can cause considerable formation damage2, and
the presence of very high levels of barite in high-weight muds
formulated for high-pressure wells cannot improve matters.
The use of Corrosion Resistant Alloys (CRA) in HPHT
wells has been exposing fundamental flaws in the performance
of conventional completion fluids based on chloride and
bromide brines. It is well-documented that severe localized
corrosion and stress corrosion cracking of CRA tubulars will
take place in HPHT wells if they are exposed to chloride and
bromide brines containing oxygen, CO2 or H2S 3-9.
Furthermore, the sulfur-containing corrosion inhibitors
commonly used in halide brines are known to decompose to
H2S at high temperatures and create another source of stress
corrosion cracking10. To date the vendors of halide brines
seem to have made little progress towards finding an effective
inhibitor to mitigate the serious corrosion problems created by
their products in HPHT wells.
In conclusion, a review of the challenge posed to
conventional fluids by the demands of HPHT operations
indicates that the use of hydrocarbons, solid weighting agents
and halide brines (chloride and bromides) in drilling muds and
completion fluids increases the risk of problems with well
control, well integrity and well productivity. The negative
influence of conventional fluids on drilling and completion
operations can be sufficiently serious to compromise safety
and degrade the economics of difficult or ambitious HPHT
field developments.
The birth of formate brines
In the early-1990’s Shell had a small drilling fluids research
team based in The Netherlands looking at how to deal with the
problems caused by conventional fluids in HPHT operations.
The team decided that the best way forward was to focus on
finding a new fluid system that could provide all of the
required functionality under HPHT conditions without
resorting to the inclusion of hydrocarbons, solid weighting
agents and halide brines. In their view the ideal solution was
one that:
• reduced hydraulic flow resistance
• eliminated solids sag
• did not solubilise hydrocarbon gases
• was not destabilized by the influx of reservoir gases
• reduced localized or pitting corrosion by acid gases
• eliminated stress corrosion cracking
• did not require the use of corrosion inhibitors
• avoided causing formation damage
It appeared that an aqueous formulation based on solids-
free, non-corrosive brine might provide the required
properties. The question of which brine to use had already
been partially answered by another of Shell’s research teams
working on drilling fluid viscosfiers in the mid-1980s. This
team had discovered that the temperature stability of common
drilling fluid polymers was enhanced when they were
dissolved in aqueous solutions containing high levels of
sodium and/or potassium formates11. This insight gave them
novel ability to formulate solids-free brine formulations with
densities up to SG 1.57 (13.1 ppg) that had viscosity and fluid
loss control stability at high temperatures.
Further investigation showed that the density ceiling of
formate brine systems could be extended to SG 2.30 (19.2
ppg) with caesium formate12-14. This breakthrough made it
possible to create a seamless suite of formate brines suitable
for use as solids-free drilling and completion fluids across the
commonly required density range; a feat that had never been
possible before. At the closing stages of the first phase of
product development in 1995 the perceived advantages of the
formate brines when compared with conventional HPHT
drilling and completion fluids were 15:
• Minimal formation damage
• Maintenance of additive properties at high temperatures
• Elimination of barite and its sagging problems
• Reduced hydraulic flow resistance
• Lower ECDs
• Lower swab and surge pressures
• Better power transmission to motors and bits
• Low gas solvency
• Better kick detection and well control
• faster flow-checks
IADC/SPE 99068
• Low potential for differential sticking
• Naturally lubricating
• Reduced torque and drag
• Inhibition of hydrate formation
• Non-hazardous
• Very low corrosion rates, local and general
• No stress corrosion cracking
• Compatibility with elastomers
• Biodegradable and posing little risk to the environment
The advent of fluids with such a unique set of performance
advantages promised to eliminate a host of HPHT well
construction problems caused by the inherent deficiencies of
traditional drilling muds and brines.
First field trials of formate brines in HT wells
In 1996 Mobil conducted the first field trial of a formate-based
drilling fluid in a high temperature well 16. Mobil reported that
the use of potassium formate brine as a low-solids drill-in fluid
provided the following benefits in this first trial:
• Excellent polymer stability at 154°C (310°F)
• Effective hole cleaning
• ROP increased by 20%
• No formation damage (skin factor=0)
• Thin, easily removable filter cake
• Good inhibition of formation clays
• No corrosion
• Reduced incidence of differential sticking
• Low treatment costs during drilling
Over the next 3 years Mobil used potassium formate brine
as a drill-in fluid in a further 15 deep gas wells in Northern
Germany. The performance of these fluids was reviewed in
2000 17.
The potassium formate brine was used by Mobil in an
attempt to eliminate the drilling problems that had occurred in
offset wells where bottomhole static temperatures were as high
as 155oC (311oF). The problems encountered with
conventional water-based polymer mud included inadequate
solids suspension, poor solids transport, stuck pipe, and tight
holes. Mobil’s migration to formate-based fluids eliminated
most of their problems and brought well construction costs
under control.
The drilling fluids were formulated using potassium
formate brines with densities up to SG 1.55 (12.9 ppg).
Xanthan polymer was added for viscosity control, and PAC or
modified starch was used to provide fluid-loss control. Sized
calcium carbonate particles (1-3%) were added for pore
bridging. The wells were all drilled without any borehole or
fluid-related problems. There were no sticking problems, no
build-up of cuttings beds, and the torque and drag was
immediately reduced after displacing to formate mud.
The fluid costs and maintenance costs were significantly
reduced as a result of using the potassium formate brine. Other
benefits attributed to the brine included:
• 25% lower pump pressures
• 25% increased ROP
• 100% success rate in running production liner
3
Once the wells had reached TD, the used drilling fluid was
processed through normal solids-control equipment to remove
the majority of bridging agents and drill solids. The processed
fluid was then used as a completion fluid during the
completion phase. The wells were put on production with a
typical production rate 35% higher than expected (or higher
than previous offset wells). Mobil concluded 17:
• Formate-based fluids have been applied as high density,
temperature stable, low solids, environmentally friendly,
non-damaging, non-corrosive drilling and reservoir
drilling fluids
• The use of formate-based fluids has resulted in a dramatic
increase in drilling performance and hydraulics.
• Since the use of formate-based fluids has been
implemented the productivity of wells has increased
compared to wells drilled with conventional muds
• Stuck-pipe incidents have been significantly reduced with
formate-based fluids due to thinner filter cakes and the
naturally low friction coefficient of formates.
• Despite exposure to temperatures of up to 165°C (329°F)
BHST the polymers in the formate brine have retained
their stability.
• Corrosion has been minimal to negligible.
A decade later potassium formate brines are continuing to
provide the solution to the challenges posed by drilling deep
high-angle gas wells. In SPE paper 92407 and accompanying
slides18,19, Saudi Aramco have described how they have
successfully used fluids based on potassium formate brine to
drill and complete a series of long horizontal wells at 13,900 ft
to 14,600ft TVD in hard and abrasive sandstone. Aramco
report that one of the first wells drilled with a low-solids SG
1.44 (12.0 ppg) formate fluid exhibited “greatly improved drill
string/wellbore lubricity and bit performance, reduced torque
and drag, reduced ECD’s and lower pump pressures”. Wells
Tinat-3 and Hawiyah-201 gave excellent flow test results, the
best seen to date in their respective field.
Cesium formate production
By the end-1996 it was clear, from Mobil’s initial field trials
of potassium formate, that low-solids fluids based on formate
brines with densities up to SG 1.55 (12.9 ppg) could indeed
fulfil their promise in deep gas well drilling and completion
operations where the BHSTs extended up to 165oC (329°F).
The only factor preventing the field testing of formates under
even more extreme conditions was that there was insufficient
cesium formate brine available to make useful volumes of
high-density formate brines for HPHT drilling and completion.
It was at this critical point that Cabot Corporation came to the
rescue and announced that it was to build a large-scale
caesium extraction plant, the only one of its kind in the world,
at the TANCO mine site located in Manitoba, Canada.
Without this timely intervention by Cabot the high-density
formate brines would not now be available in kiloton
quantities to fill the gap left by the failure of conventional
drilling and completion fluids to perform adequately in HPHT
well constructions.
Mining started on the TANCO site in 1929 when Jack Nutt
Mines Ltd opened a shaft to extract tin ore from the pegmatite
4 IADC/SPE 99068
rock body located under Bernic Lake. The pegmatite was
found to contain around 80 different minerals within 8
mineralogical zones, and it was mined intermittently for
lithium and tantalum for the next 60 years. One of the
pegmatite zones is made up of high-quality pollucite ore
(cesium silicate) and contains >80% of the world’s known
reserves of caesium.
Cabot Corporation purchased the mine in 1993 and within
3 years embarked on a $50 million investment program aimed
at creating a mining and extraction facility capable of
producing commercial quantities of cesium formate from the
pollucite ore body under Bernic Lake. Within a further 2 years
the production plant was producing 700 bbl/month of SG 2.2
(18.3 ppg) cesium formate brine only for use in HPHT drilling
and completion fluids.
To ensure that distribution channels were kept clear Cabot
Corporation established its own specialist fluid service
company, Cabot Specialty Fluids (CSF), that provides the
cesium formate brines to oil companies on a day-by-day rental
basis. CSF has brine storage and service centres on the Gulf
coast in USA, and at locations in UK, Norway, Dubai and
Egypt. At the time of writing the company has 30,000 bbl of
SG 2.2 caesium formate brine in stock, or being used in the
field.
First cesium formate applications in HPHT wells
Offshore UK
Cesium formate brine first entered service as an HPHT
completion fluid in September 1999. It was successfully
applied as SG 1.80 (15 ppg) perforating fluid in a BHST
185oC (365oF) well in the Shearwater field operated by Shell
UK.
Just a month later Total UK used SG 1.90 (15.8 ppg)
cesium formate brine as an HPHT completion fluid in the
Dunbar field. This was followed by a further 7 applications of
SG 2.19 (18.2 ppg) cesium formate brines as completion and
workover fluids in Total’s Elgin/Franklin fields over the next
12 months. The BHST in one of these wells was as high as
207oC (405oF) and cesium formate brine was exposed to this
temperature for 18 months during a well suspension operation.
Over a period of 6 years cesium formate brine has been used
24 times by Total as an HPHT completion fluid in their
Dunbar, Elgin, Franklin and Glenelg fields.
Offshore Norway
Only 16 months after first field trial as a completion fluid
an SG 1.92 (16 ppg) cesium formate brine was used with great
success as a drill-in and completion fluid in the first of
Statoil’s Huldra wells (BHST: 147oC or 297oF) in the
Norwegian sector of the North Sea. Five more Huldra wells
were drilled and completed with cesium formate brines
between March 2001 and April 2002.
Statoil went on to drill-in, core, log and complete 2 high-
angle HPHT wells in the Kristin field (BHST: 175oC or 347oF)
with a fluid based on SG 2.09 (17.40 ppg) caesium formate
brine. In June 2004 Statoil began using SG 2.09 (17.40 ppg)
cesium formate brine as a drill-in and completion fluid for a
series of 7 HPHT wells in the Kvitebjoern field. Statoil have
used cesium formate brines in 44 HPHT well operations in the
past 5 years.
Offshore USA
In early-2002 BP used SG 2.11 (17.60 ppg) cesium formate
brine for an HPHT well (BHST 176oC or 350 oF) intervention
job in the offshore High Island field. Three years later Walter
Oil and Gas used a 17.2 ppg cesium formate brine as a
completion fluid at 215oC (420oF) in a Mobile Area 862 well.
Onshore
In November 2005 the Hungarian operator, MOL, used SG
1.86 (15.5 ppg) caesium formate brine as a completion fluid
for a perforating and frac-pac operation in gas well Vetyem-1.
This was the first use of caesium formate brine in an onshore
HPHT well.
Overview of cesium formate use in HPHT wells
The formate brines make perfect drilling and completion fluids
for difficult well construction projects where extraordinary
fluid performance is critical for economic success. They have
been used in more than 400 wells since their commercial
introduction in 1993 and the demand for formate brines has
been growing steadily at a compound rate of approximately
30% per year over the past decade. As an indication of the
current dimensions of the business it is estimated that the
annual revenues generated from the sale and rental of formate
brines to the oil industry in 2005 should exceed $ 45 million.
Since entering service in 1999 cesium formate brines have
been used in 101 individual HPHT operations in 21 different
fields. In this time they have passed extensive and rigorous
field-testing:
• At densities up to SG 2.25 ( 18.7 ppg)
• At temperatures up to 215oC (420oF)
• For periods up to 18 months downhole
• In hole-angles from near-vertical through to horizontal
• In oil, gas and condensate reservoirs (all sandstone) with
permeabilities from < 1mD to 2 Darcy
Figure 1 shows the applicational segmentation of cesium
formate jobs to date (October 2005). The majority of
applications have been completion jobs, 54 with straight
cesium formate brine or blended potassium/cesium formate
brines and 10 with low-solids oil-based fluids containing
cesium formate brine as the soluble weighting agent 20-22. The
completions have been of various kinds:
• Cased and perforated
• With sand control screens
• Barefoot (openhole)
• Gravel pack
So far only some 20 of the 64 completion operations have
been reported in SPE papers 1,20-24 but the track record of the
cesium formate brines appears to have been flawless
throughout. Perforating with cesium formate brine after
drilling-in with oil-based muds has been a particular success
story 22.
Laboratory studies have shown that formate brines are
non-corrosive, and protect carbon steels and CRA against
localized/pitting corrosion caused by acid gases 8,25,26. Just as
importantly, formate brines do not cause stress corrosion
cracking of CRA tubulars at high temperatures, even in the
presence of acid gases 27. Field use has validated the findings
IADC/SPE 99068
of these laboratory corrosion studies. Well productivities
appear to have either met or exceeded expectations, as is
normally the case when formate brines are used as drill-in or
completion fluids 28,29. The risk of thermal decomposition of
formates at high temperatures is a common concern to new
users of caesium formate. In practice, however, none of the
five major oil companies who regularly use cesium formate
have been able to find any evidence of thermal decomposition
taking place in their HPHT wells. The cases examined include
the Elgin/Franklin well suspension operations where cesium
formate brines have been exposed to downhole temperatures
of 207oC (405oF) for periods of more than year 30.
Cesium formate brines have been used 16 times as HPHT
drill-in fluids for difficult high-angle wells, all so far in the
North Sea and almost entirely (15) with Statoil (in the
Huldra23, Kvitebjoern and Kristin fields24). With the
exception of the two Kristin wells, where Statoil experienced
problems with hole enlargement in some shale sections 24, the
project managers have all expressed satisfaction with the field
performance of caesium formate brines as the basis for low-
solids HPHT drill-in fluids. The following list of comments is
taken from the five public domain papers 1,20-24 written by BP
and Statoil engineers on their experiences of using drill-in
and/or completion fluids based on cesium formate brines:
General
• Major operational success for BP
• Cesium formate has a niche application in HPHT wells
with open hole completions
Well productivity
• Return permeability tests show a substantial improvement
• Good well flow performance
• Resulted in six-fold increase in well production
• Use of cesium formate is an important contribution to
improving well productivity
• Target production rates will be easily achieved
• Clean-up treatments not necessary
• Reduced negative effects from incompatibilities between
drilling fluid and completion fluid
• Reduced risk of screen plugging
• High productivity from wells
Fluid stability
• Stable fluid properties at high temperatures
• Stable mud properties
Well control
• No well control or loss situation
• Provides an extremely good well control environment
• No sag potential
• Elimination of barite sag
• Low gas solubility
• Virtual elimination of gas diffusion into horizontal wells
• Quick thermal stabilization during flow checks
• Well stabilizes quickly during flow checks
5
Hole stability and cleaning
• Good hole stability in interbedded sand and shales
• No hole stability problems
• Caliper log of 8 ½” hole shows 9” in shale section above
reservoir, and 11” in coal layers
• Good hole cleaning
• Less mud conditioning and wiper trips than usual
Hydraulics
• ECD is generally SG 0.04-0.06 at 4,500 metres
• Good correlation between PWD data and hydraulic
calculations
• Reduced ECD improved ROP in hard formations
• Lower ECDs (SG 0.03-0.05) than with OBMs
• Good ROPs
• Fast tripping speeds
• Fast casing running speeds
• ECD is higher when drilling clay than when drilling sand
• Thorough understanding of fluid behavior
• Drilled reservoir at 10 metres/hour
• Low ROP in shale solved by using PDC bit with sharp
cutters
Differential sticking
• Low potential for differential sticking
• Successfully drilled long horizontal at only 200 psi
overbalance
Lubrication
• Torque values indicate friction factors as low as 0.22
• Casing wear similar to that observed with OBMs
• No need to add lubricants
Materials compatibility
• Aflas elastomers used on all plugs and packers
• No tool failures or incidents relating to elastomers
Cementing
• Compatible with cement slurries
• Very effective casing shoe squeeze on first attempt
Completion
• Transition from drill-in fluid to completion fluid was
simple, since both systems use same base fluid
• Less screen plugging risk
Logging
• Logging interpretation is manageable
• Filtrate can be non-static during data acquisition
• Consider acquisition of core data to calibrate log response
• Problems getting WL-logs past coal layer
• Results demonstrate that the effects of formate muds on
nuclear logs can be accurately predicated 31
Effect on rig time
• Drilling benefits have given rig time savings
• Reduced time to complete the well
6 IADC/SPE 99068
In addition to normal use as HPHT drill-in and completion
fluids the cesium formate brines also have applications as
stand-by kill pills and stand-by stuck-pipe release pills. In
these cases the brines are sent offshore, on long-term rental,
for contingency reasons. The brines have one further
important use, namely as solids-free well suspension fluids,
where they have been supplied on rental terms for up to 18
months. These assorted applications have so far accounted for
21 field requests for cesium formate brines.
Figure 2 shows the user segmentation of cesium formate
jobs to date. Statoil has been the biggest user by far, followed
by Total/Elf, Norsk Hydro, Shell and BP. On a regional basis
all but 3 of the 100 offshore operations using cesium formate
have been in the North Sea.
Published field case histories
Huldra field, offshore Norway, 200123
Huldra is a gas condensate field in the Norwegian sector of
North Sea operated by Statoil. During drilling and completion
of this field, high temperature and pressure conditions were
encountered in the reservoir section (675 bar, 150ºC or 302oF).
The difference between the pore pressure and fracture pressure
gradient was small in the reservoir. The Huldra gas stream
contained 3-4% CO2 and 9-14 ppm H2S. The wells were
drilled at a 45º - 55º inclination through the reservoir and
completed with 300-micron single-wire-wrapped screens.
When the first production well was drilled in this field,
with oil-based mud, a severe well kick was experienced while
running the sand screens. The main reason for the kick was a
loss of drilling-fluid density due to barite sag during the wiper
trip. A cesium formate-based drill-in fluid was therefore
selected for the following wells to improve well control. The
main benefits identified with the cesium formate brine
compared with the oil-based fluid were: no sag potential, low
ECD, less screen plugging risk, (low solids), use of solids that
could be acidized (CaCO3), low gas solubility,
environmentally friendly, and quick thermal stabilization
during flow checks.
Return permeability testing was carried out and the
predicted reduction in formation permeability after drawdown
(due to adherence of residual filter cake) was in the range 36-
70%. Further testing showed that incorporating a treatment
with dilute organic acid to remove residual filter cake was
effective in restoring core permeability to its near-native state.
The operator decided to go ahead and use formate fluid,
knowing that any formation damage would be shallow and
could be removed by a simple dilute acid soak at balance.
The drilling operation itself was characterized by good
hole stability, low ECD and good hole cleaning. The excellent
rheology and thermal stability of the drilling fluid led to rig-
time savings from faster tripping speeds, faster casing-running
speeds, less mud conditioning and fewer wiper trips. The ROP
was also good, at 10 metres/hour. The drilling fluid was
circulated over a combination of 250, 300, and 400-mesh
shaker screens before the completion screens were run. After
running the screens, the drilling fluid was replaced with
filtered cesium formate completion brine.
Statoil report that the six Huldra wells drilled and
completed with cesium formate brine are each producing with
excellent average Productivity Indices of around 1.9 million
scf/day/psi. In fact plateau production rates were achieved
from the first three wells of the six-well project. The Huldra
project manager is quoted as saying: “For the specific
conditions of the Huldra field there was no realistic fluid
alternative for successfully drilling and completing the wells”.
There were no obvious signs of formation damage in the
wells, and no acid stimulation was required. This finding casts
some doubt over the the meaning of results obtained from the
reservoir-conditions core-flood testing at an independent
laboratory which had suggested that the wells would be
impaired by inadequate removal of drilling fluid filter-cake
under drawdown.
Devenick field, offshore UK, 20011
Devenick is a gas condensate field operated by BP in the UK
sector of the North Sea. A SG 1.68 (14 ppg) cesium formate
fluid was chosen by the operator to drill and core a 1,000
metre horizontal HPHT appraisal / development well in the
field. The low-permeability sandstone matrix of the Devenick
reservoir is very hard and abrasive, and is deemed to be a
significant challenge to drill and complete. A long horizontal
wellbore was required in order to yield sufficient productivity
and to penetrate the different reservoir segments. The priority
was to minimize reservoir damage by using a low-solids
drilling fluid. With a planned maximum deviation of 88o, and a
BHST of 135oC (275oF), barite sag and well control issues
were a concern.
Formate brine was believed to offer several advantages
over oil-based mud (OBM), and was primarily selected on
grounds of formation damage characteristics, low ECD and
potential for improving ROP and well control. Return
permeability testing on Devenick reservoir core samples
indicated that the cesium formate brine would cause minimal
formation damage compared to oil-based mud. This was an
important consideration given that an openhole completion
was programmed.
Also, hydraulic modeling suggested that the formate brine
would reduce the ECD by approximately 300 psi over an
OBM, giving wider safety margins between pore and fracture
pressure. Equally important for this well was the fact that the
ECD reduction would reduce the apparent rock strength seen
by the bit by 23%, arguably yielding a similar improvement in
ROP. Other horizontal HPHT wells drilled previously by BP
had suffered well-control problems, and the use of formate
brine was believed to offer a much-reduced well-control risk
over an OBM fluid. Elimination of barite sag and no diffusion
of methane into the horizontal wellbore were the main reasons
for this. With the hard nature of the reservoir sands, slow
drilling rates of 2-3 m/hr and short bit life were expected. The
6” interval was programmed for 60 days and 17 round trips for
alternate drilling and coring runs. A turbine-motor was used
instead of a mud-motor.
Significant rig time was saved during drilling since the
fluid was stable and did not require additional time to circulate
and condition mud to counter sag during trips. Coring was
difficult because the angle of the bedding plane kept causing
the core samples to break. After a successful logging run the
hole was displaced to clean cesium formate brine for the
completion.
IADC/SPE 99068
The reported results from the completed well were promising,
with good production and zero skin. The BP project team is
quoted as saying that they felt the well would have been
difficult to deliver without the use of cesium formate brine. In
addition to the advantages discussed above, the team felt that
the fluid brought a number of HSE advantages such as
elimination of the need for skip & ship, no well-control
incidents and better integration between drilling and
completion. The advantages with the fluid far outweighed the
disadvantages, which were fluid cost and increased complexity
in the reservoir log analysis.
Visund field, offshore Norway, 200222
The Visund field is a subsea development offshore Norway.
Norsk Hydro put the field on production in 1999. The field
was taken over by Statoil in 2003. Visund has proven to be a
highly complicated reservoir with a complex geology.
Permeabilities range from 300 to 3,000 mD. The Visund
reservoir was accessed by a series of wells drilled and
completed with long horizontal sections to reach several
targets with one well. The wells have relatively high pressures
and moderate temperatures (440 bar, 115ºC or 239oF). Sand
control was aided by oriented perforating in the direction of
maximum stress.
The wells were drilled at high overbalance with oil-based
mud. The long drilling times under these conditions resulted in
deep mud filtrate invasion around the wellbore. The first wells
were perforated with standard oriented perforating system
with zinc-cased charges in a SG 1.65 (13.8 ppg) CaCl2/CaBr2
perforating kill fluid. When the wells were put on stream, the
chokes were plugged by large chunks of zinc oxide.
These wells showed significantly lower productivities than
should be expected from the reservoir characteristics. A study
was carried out to identify the source of the problem. Several
areas of improvement were identified, including the fluid
system. The CaCl2/CaBr2 brine formulation proved to be
unstable and viscous, making it difficult to achieve a good
cleanup. The brine was also found to be incompatible with the
formation water. Further laboratory studies showed that
reactions between zinc powder by-products from the charges
and CaCl2/CaBr2 brine caused the kill pill to lose its fluid-loss-
control properties, which then resulted in formation damage.
The idea of replacing the brine with oil-based mud was
abandoned because of high particle content.
A new perforating system was developed which, among
other changes, replaced the zinc charges. The CaCl2/CaBr2
perforation fluid was replaced with a low-solids oil-based fluid
weighted up with cesium formate brine. Five new oil-
producing wells were drilled and perforated with the new
system under dynamic underbalanced conditions. Productivity
Indices for the previous wells were in the range of 60-90 Sm3
oil /day/bar, whilst the new wells were ranging from 300 to
900 Sm3 oil /day/bar. It was concluded that the effect of the
changes to the perforating system, combined with the
application of dynamic underbalance and the new formate-
weighted fluid, was responsible for the 3 - to 6-fold increase in
productivity. The formate-based fluid is believed to be one of
the main contributors to the improved well productivity.
7
Kristin field, offshore Norway, 2003 24
Kristin is a HPHT gas condensate field in the Norwegian
sector of North Sea operated by Statoil. The Kristin Field is
located approximately 240 km west of the mid-Norwegian
coast with an average water depth of 360m. With a reservoir
pressure and temperature of around 900 bar and 170°C
(338oF) respectively, Kristin has been labeled a high pressure,
high temperature (HPHT) field. The Kristin field development
is based on four sub-sea templates with a total of twelve
production wells. All the wells are completed with 6-5/8”
open-hole screens with a slot width of 350-micron. The
reservoir has a pore pressure equivalent to a mud weight of SG
1.98. The difference between the pore pressure and fracture
pressure gradient in the reservoir is small, giving a narrow
drilling window.
The reservoir sections (300-400 metres, 32º-46º
inclination) of the first two Kristin wells were drilled and
cored at a 50 bar overbalance using a fluid based on SG 2.09
(17.40 ppg) cesium formate brine. Statoil report that the ECD
was in the range SG 0.04-0.06, comparing favorably against
oil-based muds that generally give ECD of SG 0.09-0.11. The
coring runs were successful but the logging was difficult
apparently because of hole enlargement (16½” and
occasionally larger) in the Lange shales above the reservoir. It
is understood that similar hole enlargements were seen in
exploratory wells drilled using oil-based mud. The Kristin
wells were plugged back for temporary suspension since
completion equipment was not ready. They have since been
completed in cesium formate brine.
Kvitebjorn field, offshore Norway, 2004/5 24
The Kvitebjorn field is another HPHT (BHST: 145oC or
293oF) gas condensate field in the Norwegian sector of the
North Sea. Over the past 18 months the operator has drilled
and completed the 300-400 metre reservoir sections (24-30o
deviation) of six Kvitebjorn wells with fluids based on SG
2.02 cesium formate brine. Statoil report that the ECD during
drilling was low, as previously seen in the Huldra and Kristin
wells.
The first Kvitebjorn well, A-04, was cored to TD in the
cesium formate brine and then logged successfully on
wireline. Unlike the Kristin wells, the hole sizes and hole
condition through the shales in the Kvitebjorn wells are said to
have been good. The 300-micron sand screens were run
without incident before displacing from caesium formate drill-
in fluid to cesium formate completion brine. The 7”
production string was also run without incident. The brine
losses for the drilling phase were 28.5m3 (179 bbl), which
compares favorably with the 35m3 (220 bbl) programmed
estimate. There were 8 round trips for coring, etc., with the
7.56m3 (47 bbl) total tripping loss giving an average 0.95m3 (6
bbl) loss per trip. On the second Kvitebjorn well, A-05, the
formate brine losses for the drilling phase were 30.7m3 (193
bbl), which compares favorably with the 36m3 (226 bbl)
programmed estimate. There were 7 round trips, with the
3.02m3 (19 bbl) total tripping loss giving an average 0.43m3
(2.70 bbl) loss per trip.
8 IADC/SPE 99068
Conclusions
The many papers written by operators, over a period of 10
years, on their experiences of using formate brines have
indicated that these fluids can add significant value to difficult
well construction projects by:
- Improving well control
- Reducing NPT
- Improving well productivity
- Improving well integrity and lifetime
- Enabling complex well constructions
- Facilitating access to difficult reserves
- Reducing waste disposal costs
- Reducing waste liability
The development of cesium formate brine began 15 years
ago as Shell’s response to demands for a solution to the
performance shortcomings of conventional drilling and
completion fluids that were being exposed by the demands of
HPHT well construction operations. The view of the original
development team back in the early-1990’s was that HPHT
well control, integrity and productivity could be improved by
the use of a novel drilling and completion fluid, such as
cesium formate brine, that was a free of solid weighting
agents, halides and hydrocarbons 12-15. It was fortunate that
the management of Cabot Corporation embraced this view at
an early stage and was willing to invest very large sums of
money in making sufficient cesium formate brine and fluid
engineering resources readily available to the oil industry.
After 100 field applications of cesium formate brine in
HPHT wells it seems that its original promise as a drill-in and
completion fluid has been largely fulfilled. By using this low-
solids non-halide brine, operators have been able to drill and
complete challenging HPHT wells with a degree of success,
economy and security that would have been difficult to
achieve using conventional fluids. Published field test results
indicate that cesium formate brines have been meeting
expectations in terms of providing the hydraulics, well control,
well integrity and well productivity required to safely and
economically deliver a high-quality HPHT well. Cesium
formate has proven to be an excellent replacement for the high
–density halide brines, and has just about completely displaced
zinc bromide brine as a completion fluid in the North Sea
arena.
Formates have a good reputation as shale drilling fluids 32-36,
and cesium formate brine itself has clearly provided good
shale stabilization in 14 out of the 16 HPHT wells where it
has been used as a drill-in fluid. The hole enlargement through
cap-rock shale sections that have been reported in the two
Kristin wells are therefore anomalous and need further
investigation
With the recent movement towards Maximum Reservoir
Contact well geometries, and the discovery of further
examples of incompatibilities between halide brines and CRA,
it now seems that the schedule for the development and
commercial production of cesium formate brine has been both
timely and fortuitous.
Acknowledgments
This paper is dedicated to Tony Clarke-Sturman and Philip
Sturla, whose original invention in 1986 sparked the
development of cesium formate brine as a HPHT drilling and
completion fluid. The authors would also like to offer their
sincere thanks and congratulations to everyone who has been
involved in the development, production, approval and field
testing of cesium formate brine.
Nomenclature
CRA = Corrosion Resistant Alloy
ECD = Equivalent Circulating Density
HPHT = High Pressure, High Temperature
OBM = Oil-Based Mud
ROP = Drilling Rate of Penetration
SG = Specific Gravity
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9
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10 IADC/SPE 99068

2 3
6 16
Drilling
10
Comp/WO- brine

Comp/WO- LSOBM

Stand-by KF
10
Suspension

Well test

Stuck pipe pill

54

Figure 1 – Segmentation of caesium formate brine use by application, 1999-2005

2 1 11 1
6 Statoil
Total
8
Hydro
Shell
44
BP
13 Walter
COP
Dong
Marathon
MOL
24

Figure 2 – Segmentation of caesium formate brine use by operator, 1999-2005