Saudi Aramco Gas Flow Measurement PDF

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
GAS FLOW MEASUREMENT
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
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of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : General Engineering For additional information on this subject, contact

File Reference: AGE-302 PEDD Coordinator on 874-6556
Engineering Encyclopedia Gas Flow Measurement
Gas Flow Measurement
Section Page
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................ 5
Brief History Of Gas Measurements .................................................................... 5
Economical Value And Recent Development
Of Accurate Measurement Techniques ............................................................... 6
Fundamental Laws Of Nature.............................................................................. 6
Flow Parameters ................................................................................................. 7
DEVELOPMENT OF THE FLOW EQUATION ............................................................... 9

General Flow Equation ........................................................................................ 9
Incompressible Fluids........................................................................................ 16
Compressible Fluids .......................................................................................... 21
Dimensional Analysis ........................................................................................ 29
Working Equation-Natural Gas .......................................................................... 31
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION ....................................................................................... 34

Installation Of Primary Devices.......................................................................... 34
Meter Run Dimensions ........................................................................... 34
Straightening Vanes ............................................................................... 34
Types Of Flow Meters............................................................................. 36
Configurations ................................................................................................... 42
Secondary Devices............................................................................................ 48
MEASURING AND DATA RECORDING DEVICES ..................................................... 51

Conventional Circular Charts............................................................................. 51
Conventional Density Measuring Devices ......................................................... 52
Conventional Fluid Sampling Devices ............................................................... 56
Modern Field Mounted Devices ......................................................................... 57
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards i

Remote Terminal Units- Rtu .............................................................................. 59

Field Sampling Devices ..................................................................................... 60
Fluid Analyzing Devices .................................................................................... 60
Control Room Equipment .................................................................................. 61
ACCURACY DETERMINATION & INSTRUMENT TROUBLE SHOOTING................. 62

Primary Devices ................................................................................................ 62
Field Instruments ............................................................................................... 62
System Accuracy............................................................................................... 64
RECENT GAS FLOW MEASUREMENT TECHNOLOGIES ........................................ 66

Vortex Shedding Flow Meter ............................................................................. 66
Ultra Sonic Flow Meter ...................................................................................... 67
Coriolis Mass Flow Meter .................................................................................. 70
EXERCISE PROBLEMS IN FLOW CALCULATIONS .................................................. 77

Exercise 1: Manual Flow Calculations Using Flange Fittings............................ 78
Example Of Orifice Plate Sizing Calculation: ..................................................... 81
Flow Calculations Using Circular Charts ........................................................... 87
Example Of 3 Pen Recorder Chart .................................................................... 89
Btu And Heating Value Determination ............................................................... 91
Flow Calculations Using Turbine Meters ........................................................... 95
Flow Calculations Using Ultra Sonic Meters ...................................................... 99
Flow Calculations Using Mass Meters............................................................. 109
ADDENDUM .............................................................................................................. 113
ADDENDUM A: ORIFICE FACTORS TABLES ......................................................... 114
ADDENDUM B: ORIFICE INSTALLATION ............................................................... 127
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards ii

Table of Figures
Figure1. Constriction ..................................................................................................... 9

Figure 2. Constriction With Flow Parameters .............................................................. 14
Figure 3. A Tubular Type Straightening Vane ............................................................. 35
Figure 4. A One Piece Radial Type Straightening Vane.............................................. 35
Figure 5. A Gas Turbine Meter.................................................................................... 36
Figure 6. Vena Contracta Constriction ........................................................................ 38
Figure 7. Square Edge ................................................................................................. 39
Figure 8. Quadrant And Conic Edge ............................................................................ 39
Figure 9. Segmental And Eccentric Orifices................................................................ 40
Figure 10. Single Chamber Orifice Fitting .................................................................... 40
Figure 11. Dual Chamber Orifice Fitting ....................................................................... 41
Figure 12. Flow Nozzle................................................................................................. 44
Figure 13. A Magnet Flow Meter And A Venturi Tube .................................................. 45
Figure 14. A Target Meter ............................................................................................ 46
Figure 15. An Integral Orifice And Differential Pressure Cell........................................ 47
Figure 16. Two Pen Chart Recorders.......................................................................... 51
Figure 17. Three Pen Chart Recorder .......................................................................... 52
Figure 18. Buoyancy Gas Balance .............................................................................. 53
Figure 19. Recording Gravitometer ............................................................................. 54
Figure 20. Momentum Gravitometer............................................................................ 55
Figure 21. A Field Transmitter...................................................................................... 58
Figure 22. Vortex Flow Meter ....................................................................................... 67
Figure 23. Propagation Of Ultrasonic Waves ............................................................... 68
Figure 24. Ultrasonic Flow Meter ................................................................................. 69
Figure 25. U- Shaped And W- Shaped Vibrating Tubes............................................... 71
Figure 26. Principle Of The Coriolis Force ................................................................... 72
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards iii

Figure 27. Orifice Plate Sizing Calculation Graphic...................................................... 83

Figure 28. Circular Chart For Flow Calculation (Example Exercise............................. 88
Figure 29. 3 Pen Recorder Chart (Example Exercise) ................................................. 90
Figure 30. Graphic For Btu And Heating Value Determination.................................... 92
Figure 31. Graphic For Flow Calculations Using Turbine Meters ................................. 95
Figure 32. Graphic For Flow Calculations Using Ultrasonic Meters ........................... 100
Figure 33. Ultrasonic Wave Propagation................................................................... 101
Figure 34. Graphic For Flow Calculations Using Mass Meters................................... 110
Figure B-1. Typical Orifice Plate Line Installation ...................................................... 127
Figure B-2. Typical Orifice Plate................................................................................. 128
Figure B-3. Typical Meter Run Length....................................................................... 129
List of Tables
Table 1. Basic Orifice Factor Fb................................................................................. 114

Table 2. Reynolds Factor Ff ....................................................................................... 115
Table 3. Expansion Factor For Flange Taps Y1 ......................................................... 116
Table 4. Expansion Factor For Flange Taps Y2 ......................................................... 117
Table 5. Base Pressure Factor Fpb ............................................................................. 118
Table 6. Base Temperature Factor Ftb ....................................................................... 119
Table 7. Flowing Temperature Factor Ftf .................................................................... 120
Table 8. Specific Gravity Factor Fgr ........................................................................... 121
Table 9. Super Compressibility Factor Fpv ................................................................. 122
Table 10. Manoneter Factor Fm ................................................................................. 123
Table 11. Gravitational Correction Factors Fl ............................................................. 124
Table 12. Physical Properties Of Gases.................................................................... 125
Table 13. Linear Coefficients Of Thermal Expansion ................................................ 126
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards iv

INTRODUCTION
Brief History of Gas Measurements
The general public knows very little about natural gas. What
they know is what they see:
• Turn the valve on a stove, a hissing sound might be heard
• Light it with a match, it can be seen burning
Gas is mysterious, a paradox. If it escapes the steel walls of

dark enclosures, it will creep along the ground silent, pushed by
the wind suffocating all life requiring oxygen to sustain
existence. In the past gas had very little or no use economically.
When Saudi Aramco began exploration and geological surveys
50 years ago, the main interest was for liquid fluids or
hydrocarbons. When petroleum wells were drilled before any
liquid crude emerged, invisible and dangerous (light ends)
gases varying in sulfur content emerged. Crude was priced
according to the relative API gravity (indirect density) and sulfur
content (sourness).
The sulfur content was measured in terms of gaseous impurities

such as SO2, SO3 and H2S. Less than ten years ago gas and
petroleum light ends were flared. When we talk about
measurements of anything we basically define quantitative
values to qualitative concepts occurring in nature. Abstract as
they may be, but real and existing. When talking about gas
measurement we need to know what it is that we are measuring
and how to apply quantitative values to the measurements.
Ancient names like Guy Lussac, Charles, Boyle, Faraday and
Avagadro have asked these questions. What is natural gas? It
cannot be felt, heard, seen or in its purest form, it cannot even
be tasted or smelled.
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 5

Economical Value and Recent Development of Accurate Measurement

Techniques
The answer to both questions comes from the chemical analysis

of natural gas constituents. Yes, natural gas behaves like a gas
and obeys the gas laws. We now have established the ground
rules. The next step is to define the measurement parameters.
To do this we need to have a brief idea of the fundamental laws
of nature under which all substances exist by and obey.
Fundamental Laws of Nature
The fundamental laws of nature are:
1. Matter and Energy are directly related
2. Matter and Energy cannot be created or destroyed
Corollary:
1. Matter and Energy are interchangeable
2. Matter and Energy are transformable
As a result of the basic fundamental laws of mass and energy,

the subsequent laws emerged.
1. Conservation (Law of Mass Conservation): The rate of

change of matter with respect to time is constant
(constant = 0), also:
2. Continuity (Law of Energy Conservation): The total

energy of a system increases as the system goes from
one state to another by an amount equal to the total heat
energy added to the system less the work done by the
system. The total energy includes:
• Kinetic & Potential
• Internal (molecular random motion)
• Storable (chemical & electrical)

These forms of energy are properties of the system. Heat

and work are not, but are forms of energy that are
transferable across the system boundaries.
3. Avogadro’s Law: Equal volumes of gases measured at

the same pressure and temperature contain the same
number of molecules.
1 gm = 22.4l @ s.c.; 1mole = 378.6 cuft @ s.c.
s.c. = 60 deg. F. & 0 psig. or 14.73 psia
1 gm = 22.4l = 6.024*10E23 molc
1 cu ft = 7.61*10E23 molc
6.024*10E23, and 7.61*10E23 are Avogadro's numbers

in metric or English units
4. Boyle’s Law: The volume occupied by a gas varies

inversely with pressure at a given temperature.
5. Charles Law: The volume occupied by a gas varies

directly with the absolute temperature at a given
pressure.
Flow Parameters
The measurement parameters which have a direct bearing on

fluids consist of two categories:
• Static Parameters
• Dynamic Parameters
In static measurements the parameters considered are three:
1. Temperature - A scalar quantity (has magnitude but no

direction) is defined as the quantitative measure of heat
or the lack of heat (cold) in the system.
2. Density - A scalar quantity is defined as the mass

occupying a unit volume.

3. Static Pressure - A vector quantity (has magnitude and

direction) is defined as the potential head, force exerted
on a cross-sectional area of a fluid.
Ps = F/A = Vdg/A = Aldg/A = ldg (Potential Head).
It is static because it is in equilibrium with a counter force known

as the surface tension or viscous force.
In dynamic measurements the parameters considered are also

three:
1. Heat - A vector quantity is a result of the excitation or

movement of molecules across or through a given system. In
fluid flow it is generated by the viscous or frictional forces in
the system.
2. Dynamic Pressure - A vector quantity, is defined the same

as static pressure. Pd = lda, where a = acceleration.
Pressure differential due to unequal potential heads caused

by unequal interacting forces. When force equilibrium is
broken by increasing the pressure or overcoming the counter
frictional or viscous force, dynamic movement occurs in the
direction of minimum energy, hence flow.
3. Velocity - A vector quantity defined as the rate of change of

distance with respect to time. It is a quantitative measure of
fluid flow in any given direction.
For incompressible fluids, velocity is a result of pressure

differential, where temperature and density are held constant.
For compressible flow, velocity is a result of either pressure
change, temperature change and/or density change; individually
and/or simultaneously. It these changes in compressible fluids
that make the flow measurement more complicated to work
with. Currently many attempts are being made to accurately
measure realistic flow with all flow parameters varying and
behaving realistically.
The latest techniques developed to date are only empirical

(experimentally oriented) and computer calculated because of
the tedious mathematics involved. In gas flow measurement,
orifice plates were found to give better accuracies than turbine,
mass, vortex or other flow meters.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE FLOW EQUATION
General Flow Equation
1. Physical Phenomena
Consider a fluid traveling in a pipe of uniform cross-sectional

area at a constant mass flow rate (steady flow). Consider
now a constriction in the pipe as shown in Figure 1.
1 3
DATUM
Figure1. Constriction

Since the flow is steady, the same number of molecules must

pass through any section of the pipe per unit time. Therefore,
the molecules must travel faster through cross-section 2 than
they travel in the unrestricted pipe, represented by cross-section
1. In order to bring about this increase in velocity (which
amounts to an increase in kinetic energy), the fluid must
decrease its energy content of another form. The other form of
energy is the potential energy or head or static pressure. In the
more general case, there is also a decrease in the internal
energy of the fluid as represented by a decrease in temperature.
The decrease in static pressure between sections 1 and 2 is
accompanied by a decrease in fluid density. For most liquids,
this density change is negligible, however, for gases this factor
must be taken into consideration.
Downstream of the constriction, the pipe section opens out into

its original cross-sectional area. Disregarding supersonic flow
conditions and frictional effects, the static pressure, temperature
and velocity all return to their original values. Due to the energy
exchange that occurs in the region of the constriction, the
difference in static pressure between sections 1 and 2 may be
used as a measure of the difference in the velocity between
those same sections. This is the principle behind flow meters in
which a constriction is used to develop a differential pressure.
2. Mass and Energy Balance
The first step in the derivation of the flow equation is using the
fundamental laws of the universe.
• Conservation (The Law of Mass Conservation): The rate

of change of matter with respect to time is constant.
• Continuity (The Law of Energy Conservation): The total

energy of a system increases as the system goes from
one state to another by an amount equal to the total heat
energy added to the system less the work done by the
system.

A corollary to the above fundamental laws was deduced by Dr.

Albert Einstein in which it was shown that Mass and Energy are
interchangeable and are related to one another by a universal
constant. This universal constant is the speed of light
(300,000,000 meters per second, 186,000miles per second).
These fundamental laws can be expressed mathematically as

what is called the equations of state:
a. From Newton’s first law: An object remains at rest or in a

constant state of motion, unless acted upon by an
external force.
b. From Newton’s second law: an external force acting on

an object is directly related to that objects momentum.
The momentum of the object is changed as a result of
the external force acting on the object.
Force F = Change in Momentum P with respect to Time t

Momentum P = Mass m * Velocity v
Mass is a scalar quantity (has magnitude but no direction), while

velocity is a vector quantity (has magnitude and direction).
Therefore, Momentum is considered a vector quantity because
it is the product of a scalar and a vector.
F= dP/dt. = d(mv)/dt = mdv/dt + vdm/dt
From the Law of Energy Conservation -Continuity: The total

energy of a system E, increases as the system goes from one
state to another by an amount equal to the total heat energy H,
added to the system less the work done W, by the system.
E=H-W
Work done W, by the system is the difference between the

kinetic energy K, and potential energy S.
W = K - S.

This difference is manifested in the change in momentum P of

the system as it responds to the external force F exerted on the
system causing it to change from its original state of constant
motion or rest, or change from its original state of equilibrium to
another state by an amount or distance a.
K - S = (dP/dt) * a = F * a = W
For steady state flow, all quantities are in equilibrium. There is

no change in stored or potential energy in the system, dS = 0.
Therefore, there is no change in kinetic energy, dK = 0 and no
work done by the system.
dW = dK - dS = 0
If there is no work done by the system, there is no generation or

exchange of heat in the system, dH = 0. Therefore, there is no
change in the total energy of the system.
dW = dH = 0
dE = dH - dW = 0
The work done by the system is defined as the force required to

move an object (in this case the fluid) in the system through a
known or fixed distance.
Therefore: W = F * a
dW = adF + Fda = 0
adF = 0, Constant Applied Force So, Fda = (dP/dt) * da = 0
So, dP/dt = 0
dP/dt = d(mv)/dt = mdv/dt + vdm/dt
dv/dt = 0 Constant Steady Flow So, vdm/dt = 0
dm/dt = 0, Conservation of Mass
(m2 - m1)/(t2 -t1) = constant = 0. t1= 0, so t2 = t, where t is the
time lapsed
(m2 - m1)/ t = m2/t - m1/t = 0.

Therefore, m2/t = m1/t

mass m = volume V * density ρ
Volume V = Cross-sectional area A * distance a
dm/dt = d(Vρ)/dt = Vdρ/dt + ρdV/dt = 0
dρ/dt = 0 constant density fluid. So ρdV/dt =0

dV/dt = 0, Conservation of Volume
(V2 -V1)/ (t2 -t1) = constant = 0. t1 = 0, so t2 = t
V2/t - V1/t = 0. Therefore V2/t = V1/t
V = A * a. So V2/t = A2 * a2/t, and V1/t = A1 * a1/t
a/t = v. So V2/t = A2v2 and V1/t = A1v1
V2/t = V1/t.
Therefore: A2v2 = A1v1 Volume Continuity m = V* ρ = Aaρ
m2/t = m1/t. Therefore: V2ρ2/t = V1ρ1/t
A2v2ρ2 = A1v1ρ1 Mass Continuity
Going back to the law of energy conservation; the total energy

of a system increases as the system goes from one state to
another by an amount equal to the total heat energy added to
the system less the work done by the system. This total energy
is of four main types:
1. Kinetic energy of fluid motion
• Steady overall motion in the fluid flow direction
• Steady overall motion in other directions (radial

inward or outward components swirl, etc.)
• Turbulent velocity fluctuations
• Molecular motion
2. Potential energy due to the position of the fluid in the

gravitational field (height above a reference level)

3. Potential energy due to the static pressure level of the

fluid. This could be considered as the energy interaction
(work) necessary to push the fluid in or out of the system
4. Internal energy of the fluid due to molecular motion.

Internal energy is principally a function of the temperature
of the fluid
Now consider Figure 2. This time we will define specific flow

parameters.
1 3
S
2
L
q
DATUM
Figure 2. Constriction with Flow Parameters
• Kinetic energy of fluid motion: K = (mv2)/2
Where: m = mass of fluid
v = linear velocity
• Potential energy due to the position of the fluid in the

gravitational field: S = mgL
Were: g = gravity
L = height above datum

• Potential energy due to the static pressure level of the

fluid: F = pV
Where: p = static pressure
V = fluid volume
• Internal energy of the fluid due to molecular motion: I =

mgu
Where: u = internal molecular energy
The total energy of a system must be a constant and in a steady

state the change in the total energy of the system is zero.
∑ ET = constant, & δET = 0 for steady state
∑ ET = K + S + F + I = constant, & δET = δK + δS + δF + δI = 0
The total energy of a system increases as the system goes

from one state to another by an amount equal to he total heat
energy added to the system less the work done by the system.
The energy transferred from the fluid to the surroundings and

visa versa, is of two types.
1. Heat H = qmg, where: q = molecular heat
2. Work done (turbine blades, propellers). W = wmg,

Where: W = work done by the molecule
∑ ET = H - W = constant, & δET = δH - δW = 0 for steady state
∑ ET = K + S + F + I = H - W = constant, &
δET = δK + δS + δF + δI = δH - δW = 0
K2 –K1 + S2 – S1 + F2 – F1 + I2 – I1 = H2 – H1 – W2 + W1
W1 = 0 & Q2 = 0
K1 + S1 + F1 + I1 = K2 + S2 + F2 + I2 + H1 + W2
(mv12)/2 + mgL1 + p1V1 + mgu1 = (mv22)/2 + mgL2 + p2V2 + mgu2

+ mgq + mgw

v12/2 + gL1 + p1/ρ1 + gu1 = v22/2 + gL2 + p2/ρ2 + gu2 + gq + gw
Specific gravity γ = Density ρ * g = ρg
v12/2g + L1 + p1/γ1 + u1 = v22/2g + L2 + p2/γ2 + u2 + q + w
To summarize, the three major equations for mass and energy

have been derive from the mass and energy conservation laws
and are called:
Mass Continuity: A2v2ρ2 = A1v1ρ1 Eqn. 1
Volume Continuity: A2v2 = A1v1 Eqn. 2
Energy Continuity: v12/2g + L1 + p1/γ1 + u1 = v22/2g +

L2 + p2/γ2 + u2 + q + w Eqn. 3
Incompressible Fluids
1. Theoretical Equation
From equation 2: v1 = (A2/ A1)v2 Eqn. 4
For incompressible fluids, γ1 = γ2 = γ
If we assume the pipe is horizontal, the internal energy is

constant throughout the system, flow is adiabatic (no heat
transfer through the boundaries) and no shaft work transmitted
through the controlled system:
Equation 3 becomes: v12/2g + p1/γ = v22/2g + p2/γ Eqn. 5
Substituting for v1 in Eqn.5 from Eqn.4
[(A2/ A1)v2]2/2g - v22/2g = p2/γ - p1/γ
v22/2g [1 - (A2/ A1) 2] = (p1 -p2)/γ
v22 γ [1 - (A2/ A1) 2] = (p1 -p2) 2g
v22 γ = [(p1 -p2) 2g] /[1 - (A2/ A1) 2] Eqn. 6

The term v22 γ called the dynamic pressure is proportional to the

differential pressure.
Equation 6 is the equation for constriction type differential

pressure liquid flow meters. These meters are used to measure
volume or weight flow rates.
From Eqn. 2 volume continuity, the volume flow rate can be

defined as:
Volume Flow Rate Qv = A2v2 = A1v1 = Av Eqn. 7
From eqn.1 mass continuity, the mass flow rate can be defined
as:
Mass Flow Rate Qm = A2v2ρ2 = A1v1ρ1 = Avρ Eqn. 8
Qm = Avρ = Qvρ Eqn. 9
Specific gravity γ = Density ρ * g = ρg
gQm = Avρg = Qvρg = γQv
Weight flow rate Qw = gQm = γQv Eqn. 10
From equation 6:
v22 = [(p1 -p2) 2g] /[1 - (A2/ A1) 2] γ
v2 = √ {[(p1 -p2) 2g] /[1 - (A2/ A1) 2] γ}
A2 v2 = A2 √ {[(p1 -p2) 2g] /[1 - (A2/ A1) 2] γ}
From equation 7:
Qv = A2 v2 = A2 √ {[(p1 -p2) 2g] /[1 - (A2/ A1) 2] γ}
Volume Flow Rate Qv = A2 √ {[(p1 -p2) 2g] /[1 - (A2/ A1) 2] γ}
Eqn. 11
From equation 10:
Qw = gQm = γQv = γA2 √ {[(p1 -p2) 2g] /[1 - (A2/ A1) 2] γ}
Weight Flow Rate Qw = A2 √ {[(p1 -p2) γ2g] /[1 - (A2/ A1) 2] }Eqn. 12

The term 1/√ [1 - (A2/ A1) 2] is called the velocity of approach

factor, since it arose from the substitution of v1 ( the fluid velocity
approaching the constriction) in equation 5. The theoretical
equations are based on the fluid area at the down stream
pressure tap A2 . In general, the actual value of the fluid area at
the down stream pressure tap A2 is not known, so the area of
the bore of the constriction A2 is used. The flow coefficient is
thus relied upon to correct for this and other deviations from the
theoretical model.
2. Practical Applications
Deviation from theoretical conditions is due to the fact that the

characteristics of the flow at the measurement sections depend
not only on the physical properties of the fluid (velocity,
viscosity, density etc) geometry and dimensions of the pipe at
that section; but also on the history of the fluid prior to reaching
this section.
In order to study the effect of each of these factors on the

characteristics of the flow and the resulting computational
consequences, it would be necessary to perform a prohibitively
large number of experiments. However, this series of
experiments can be reduced considerably if advantage is taken
of kinematics similarity considerations. These techniques
permit, if certain conditions are fulfilled, the use of test results
conducted on one flow system for predictions of other flow
systems. The conditions to be fulfilled to achieve kinematics
similarity are:
a. The system must be geometrically similar: One flow

system is a scaled model of the other.
b. The flows must be dynamically similar: A correspondence

of fluid forces in the two systems.
Fluid forces consist of inertial, viscous, gravitational,

compressibility, pressure and elastic forces. Certain
dimensionless ratios have been developed based on fluid
properties, velocities and dimensions. These are essentially
force ratios. Examples of such force ratios are:

a. Reynolds Number Rn = ρvD/µ is related to the fluid flow in

the pipe where:
ρ = Density of fluid
v= Velocity of fluid
D = Pipe diameter
µ = coefficient of viscosity
b. Match Number Ms = v/vs where vs is the velocity of sound

in the fluid under the same conditions.
c. Euler Number E = P/ρv2 where P is the fluid pressure.
The Reynolds and Euler numbers reflect the ratios of inertial

forces to viscous forces and pressure to inertial forces
respectively.
From equation 11, Volume Flow Rate Qv = A2 √ {[(p1 -p2) 2g] /[1
- (A2/ A1) 2] γ}
The practical working equation for volume flow rate is:
Qv = CA2 √ {[(p1 -p2) 2g] /[1 - (A2/ A1) 2] γ} Eqn. 13
From equation 12, Weight Flow Rate Qw = A2 √ {[(p1 -p2) γ2g] /[1
- (A2/ A1) 2] }
The practical working equation for weight flow rate is:
Qw = CA2 √ {[(p1 -p2) γ2g] /[1 - (A2/ A1) 2] } Eqn. 14
The term C is called the discharge coefficient.
The velocity of approach term 1/√ [1 - (A2/ A1) 2] is sometimes

combined with the discharge coefficient term ‘C’ yielding
another discharge coefficient called Cv, where:
Cv= C/ √ [1 - (A2/ A1) 2]
Combining A2 with Cv yields another discharge coefficient CD,

where: CD = Cv A2

The Volume Flow Rate now becomes:
Qv = Cv A2 √ {[(p1 -p2) 2g] /γ} = CD√ [2g(p1 -p2)/γ]
The Weight Flow Rate now becomes:
Qw = Cv A2 √ [2gγ (p1 -p2)] = CD√ [2gγ (p1 -p2)]
In a steady state system, the system is in equilibrium energy

wise. There is no change in energy.
δET = δK + δS + δF + δI = 0. & δK = δI = 0
Therefore, δS + δF = 0
mgδL + δpV = 0
mg(L2 – L1) = -V (p2 – p1) = V (p1 – p2 )
mg(L2 – L1)/V = (p1 – p2 )
γ(L2 – L1) = (p1 – p2) Therefore:
Qv = CD√ [2g (p1 -p2)/ γ ] = CD√ [2g (L2 – L1)]
If we consider (L2 – L1) = Lc, where Lc is the level of the fluid in

the manometer or pressure differential measuring device, then:
Qv = CD√ [2g Lc ] = CD√ [2g] √[ Lc ]
√ [2g] is a constant so we can combine it with CD and call it CG,

therefore:
The Volume Flow Rate Qv = CG √[ Lc ] Eqn. 15
The Weight Flow Rate Qw = γ CG √[Lc ] = γ Qv Eqn. 16

Compressible Fluids
1. Theoretical Equation
Similar to a liquid when a gas passes through a constriction in

the pipe, the velocity increases and the pressure decreases.
However this decrease in pressure is accompanied by
significant changes in density.
The usual assumption is that the gas goes through an isentropic

(no heat gained or lost and no friction) expansion between
sections 1 &2 in figure 2. This assumption allows the use of the
combined Boyle’s and Charles laws in what is called the
process equation.
Boyle’s law: The volume occupied by a gas varies inversely with

pressure at a given temperature.
V ∝ (1/p)T
Charles law: The volume occupied by a gas varies directly with

the absolute temperature at a given pressure.
V∝(T)p
For an ideal gas, the process equation is pV=RT
Therefore p1V1=p2V2 =RT
For isentropic expansion pVk = RT, therefore p1V1k = p2V2 k = RT
From the energy continuity equation 3, assuming an adiabatic

process q = w = 0 and L2 - L1 = 0, no elevation change.
Therefore v12/2g + p1/γ1 + u1 = v22/2g + p2/γ2 + u2
Defining the term Enthalpy ε = (p/γ) + u Eqn. 17
v12/2g + ε1 = v22/2g + ε2 Eqn. 18
In a steady state, dε/dT = d(p/ γ)/dT + du/dT = 0 and du/dT = 0

Therefore, dε = (1/γ )dp + pd(1/γ) = 0
Using the isentropic expansion pVk = RT, d(pVk)/dT = pdVk/dT +

Vkdp/dT = 0. Therefore, pdVk = - Vkdp

Ideally k=1, so pVk = pV = RT and
dε = (1/γk) dp + pd (1/γk) = (1/γ ) dp + pd (1/γ) = 0
In a steady state, dp = 0, therefore, dε = pd (1/γk)
Volume = m/ρ =mg/γ. Per unit weight, V = 1/γ,
Therefore, Vk= 1/γk
pdVk = pd(1/γk ) = dε.
Therefore, dε = - Vkdp
The change in enthalpy is dε = - Vkdp Eqn.19
ε2 - ε1 = - ∫ Vkdp
ε 1- ε 2 = ∫Vkdp
Evaluation of the integral yields:
ε1- ε2 = p1V1[k/(k-1)][ 1-(p2/p1)[(k – 1)/k]] Eqn.20
From equation 18, ε1 - ε2 = v22/2g - v12/2g
Substituting for ε1 - ε2 into equation 20,
Therefore, v22/2g - v12/2g = p1V1[k/(k-1)][ 1-(p2/p1)[(k – 1)/k]]
From equation 4, v1 = (A2/ A1)v2 (v22/2g)( 1- (A2/ A1)2 )
= p1V1[k/(k-1)][ 1-(p2/p1)[(k – 1)/k]]
v22 = 2g p1V1[k/(k-1)][ 1-(p2/p1)[(k – 1)/k]]/( 1- (A2/ A1)2 )
Per unit weight V1 = 1/γ1,
v22 = 2g (p1/γ1)[k/(k-1)][ 1-(p2/p1)[(k – 1)/k]]/( 1- (A2/ A1)2 )
v2 = √ {2g (p1/γ1)[k/(k-1)][ 1-(p2/p1)[(k – 1)/k]]/( 1- (A2/ A1)2 )}
Qv = A2 v2
= A2√ {2g (p1/γ1)[k/(k-1)][ 1-(p2/p1)[(k – 1)/k]]/( 1- (A2/ A1)2 )}

Multiply and divide the square root by (p1-p2)
Qv = A2√{2g(p1/γ1)(p1-p2)[k/(k-1)][1-(p2/p1)[(k – 1)/k]]/(p1-p2)( 1- (A2/

A1)2 )}
Let Yv be the volumetric expansion factor up stream of the

constriction. Therefore, The volumetric expansion factor:
Yv= √{{k/[(k-1)(p1-p2)]}[1-(p2/p1)[(k – 1)/k]]} Eqn.21
Volume Flow Rate:
Qv = A2 Yv√{p1(2g/γ1)(p1-p2)/( 1- (A2/ A1)2 )} Eqn.22
Qw = gQm = γ2Qv
= γ2A2 Yv√ {p1 (2g /γ1)(p1-p2)/( 1- (A2/ A1)2 )}
p1V1 = p2V2 or p1/γ1= p2/γ2 so γ2 = (p2/p1) γ1
Qw = (p2/p1) γ1A2 Yv√{p1(2g /γ1)(p1-p2)/( 1- (A2/ A1)2 )}
Qw = A2 Yv√{(2g γ1)(p1-p2)p1(p2/p1)2/( 1- (A2/ A1)2 )}
Qw = A2 √{{k/[(k-1)(p1-p2)]}[1-(p2/p1)[(k – 1)/k]]}{[(2g γ1)(p1-
p2)p1(p2/p1)2]/[ 1- (A2/ A1)2 ]}}
Let Yw be the weighted expansion factor upstream of the

constriction. Therefore, The weighted expansion factor:
Yw=√{{[k(p2/p1 )2][1-(p2/p1)[(k – 1)/k]]}/[(k-1)(p1-p2)]} Eqn.23
Weight Flow Rate:
Qw=A2 Yw√{[(2g γ1)(p1-p2)p1]/[ 1- (A2/ A1)2 ]} Eqn.24
2. Practical Applications
The practical working equation for volume flow rate is:
Qv = A2 Yv√{p1(2g/γ1)(p1-p2)/( 1- (A2/ A1)2 )}

The practical working equation for weight flow rate is:
Qw=A2 Yw√{[(2g γ1)(p1-p2)p1]/[ 1- (A2/ A1)2 ]}
Combining the velocity of approach term 1/√ [1 - (A2/ A1) 2] with

the expansion factor Yv yields:
Cv= √{{k[1-(p2/p1)[(k – 1)/k]]}/{[(k-1)(p1-p2)][1 - (A2/ A1) 2 ] }}
Combining A2 with Cv yields another discharge coefficient CDv ,

Where: CDv = Cv A2 = A2√{{k[1-(p2/p1)[(k – 1)/k]]}/{[(k-1)(p1-p2)][1 -
(A2/ A1) 2 ] }}
The Volume Flow Rate now becomes:
Qv = CDv √{p1(2g/γ1)(p1-p2)}
The Weight Flow Rate:
Qw=A2 Yw√{[(2g γ1)(p1-p2)p1]/[ 1- (A2/ A1)2 ]}
Combining the velocity of approach term 1/√ [1 - (A2/ A1) 2] with

the expansion factor Ym yields:
Cm = √{{[k(p2/p1 )2][1-(p2/p1)[(k – 1)/k]]}/{[(k-1)(p1-p2)][1 - (A2/ A1) 2]}}
Qw = A2 Cm √[(2g γ1)(p1-p2)p1]
Combining A2 with Cv yields another discharge coefficient CDm,

Where: CDm = Cm A2
Qw = CDm √[(2g γ1)(p1-p2)p1]
In a steady state system, the system is in equilibrium energy

wise. There is no change in energy.
δET = δK + δS + δF + δI = 0. & δK = δI = 0. Therefore,
δS + δF = 0
mgδL + δpV = 0
mg(L2 – L1) = -V (p2 – p1) = V1 (p1 – p2 )
mg(L2 – L1)/V1 = (p1 – p2 )

γ1(L2 – L1) = (p1 – p2 ) Therefore,
Qv = CDv √{p1(2g/γ1)(p1-p2)}
Qv = CDv√ [p12g(p1 -p2)/ γ1 ] = CDv√ [p12g (L2 – L1) ]
If we consider (L2 – L1) = Lc
Where: Lc is the level of the fluid in the manometer or pressure

differential measuring device, then:
Qv = CDv√ [2g p1Lc ] = CDv√ [2g] √[ p1Lc ]
√ [2g] is a constant so we can combine it with CDv and call it CG.

Therefore,
The Volume Flow Rate Qv = CG √[ p1Lc] Eqn. 25
Qw = CDm √[(2g p1 γ12) Lc]
The Weight Flow Rate Qw = γ1 CG √[p1Lc ] = γ1 Qv Eqn. 26
Qv = A2√{2g(p1/γ1)(p1-p2)[k/(k-1)][1-(p2/p1)[(k – 1)/k]]/(p1-p2)( 1- (A2/

A1)2 )}
The above equation is developed for gas measurement in

A.G.A. Report 3 to be: Qv = A2√{2g(p1/γ1)(p1-p2)[k/(k-1)][1-
(p2/p1)[(k – 1)/k]]/(p1-p2)( 1- (A2/ A1)2 )}
Qv = A2 Yv√{p1(2g/γ1)(p1-p2)/( 1- (A2/ A1)2 )}
Defining C = 1/ /√ [1 - (A2/ A1) 2]
A2 = πd22/4 Where d2 = orifice diameter
Yv= √{{k/[(k-1)(p1-p2)]}[1-(p2/p1)[(k – 1)/k]]}
(p1 – p2 ) = γ1(L2 – L1) = γ1 Lc
Qv = (πd22/4) C √{p12g Lc} √{{k/[(k-1)(p1-p2)]}[1-(p2/p1)[(k – 1)/k]]}
Qv = (π/4)√ {{2gγ1}{{k/[(k-1)(p1-p2)]}[1-(p2/p1)[(k – 1)/k]]}}d22C √{p1Lc

/γ1}
Qv = 218.44d22C (Tb /pb)√{(p1Lc)/(γ1 T1)} Where : Eqn.27

Tb = Absolute temperature base, (Rankin) ° R = (°F + 460°)
pb= Absolute pressure base Psia
T1 = Absolute gas temperature, (Rankin) ° R = (°F + 460°)
For calculation convenience, the term C, velocity of approach, is

broken down into three terms:
1. C0 = constant for any fixed orifice size in a given pipe.
Eqn.28
2. Viscous forces factor Fr =1+E/R Where: Eqn.29
E = p1/(ρ1v12)
R = (ρ1v1D)/µ
3. Expansion factor Yv= √{{k/[(k-1)(p1-p2)]}[1-(p2/p1)[(k – 1)/k]]}

has been experimentally checked and reduced to
empirical formulae:
Yv = volumetric upstream expansion factor for flange

pressure taps: Y1
Y1= 1- [(0.41 + 0.35β4)x] / k Where: Eqn.30
A2/ A1= (πd22/4)/ (πD12/4) = d22/ D12 = β2
x = (p1-p2)/ p1= [γ1 (L2 – L1)]/ p1= [(γ1 Lc)/ p1] and
k = cp / cv
Where: cp = specific heat of gas at constant pressure.
cv = specific heat of gas at constant volume.
The volumetric down stream expansion factor for flange

pressure taps: Y2 = Y1/√ (1- x) Eqn.31
From equation 27, 28 & 29:
Qv = 218.44d22C (Tb /pb)√{(p1Lc)/(γ1 T1)} Then,
C = C0 Fr Y1 and Qv = 218.44d22C0 Fr Y1 (Tb /pb)√{(p1Lc)/(γ1 T1)

The basic orifice factor Fb = (218.44d22 C0 Tb) /{pb√[(γ1 T1)] }
Eqn.32
Qv = FbFr Y1 √{(p1Lc)
Tb = Absolute temperature base, (Rankin) ° R = (°F + 460°)
pb= Absolute pressure base Psia
T1 = Absolute gas temperature, (Rankin) ° R = (°F + 460°)
Taking standard conditions: 60° F & 0 psia, then:
Base conditions (standard) become:
Tb = T1= 60° + 460° = 520° R and pb = 14.73 Psia
This base condition is based upon the standard condition

parameters of temperature and pressure. Actual conditions
deviate from standard conditions. Therefore we must account
for this deviation when working with actual flow conditions. We
therefore introduce the following factors:
FTb= Tb (actual)/ Tb (standard) = Tb /520
Fpb= pb(standard)/ pb (actual) = 14.73/ pb
T1 = 60° F + 460° = 520° R (standard)
γ1 = 1 lbsw /V3 (standard)
FT1 = √[ T1 (standard)/ T1(actual) ] = √ (520/T1)
Fγ1 = √ [γ1 (standard)/γ1(actual)] = √ (1/γ1)
Fb(actual) = Fb (standard) (Flow Factor)
Flow Factor = FTb Fpb FT1 Fγ1
Fb = Fb FTb Fpb FT1 Fγ1
Qv = (FbFr Y1) √{(p1Lc) = (FbFTbFpbFT1Fγ1FrY1) √{(p1Lc) Eqn. 33
This equation is not yet complete. Several other flow factors

have to be considered for actual flow.

1. Super Compressibility Factor
No gas or vapor follows the simple laws of Boyle and

Charles exactly. The deviation from these laws is called
compressibility. The theorem of corresponding states
correlates the deviation from Boyle’s and Charles’ laws
with the ratios of temperature and pressure to pseudo
critical temperature and pressure. This correlation is
defined by the value of Z. For gases of known molecular
weight mw, γ1= (mw p1)/(10.73T1Z1)
Since γ1 is a half power term in the flow equation,

therefore, the super compressibility factor is:
Fpv = √(Zb/Z1)
Where: Zb is the super compressibility factor at base

conditions. Eqn.34
Z1 is the super compressibility factor at flowing

conditions.
2. Manometer Factor:
The correction factor for any manometer is:
Fm = √[1-(γ1/γm)] Where: γm= specific gravity of the

manometer fluid. Eqn.35
3. Water Vapor Factor:
Fwv = [1-(pv/p1)]/[1-(pbv/pb)] Where: pv = water vapor

partial pressure at at flowing condition. Eqn.36
Pbv= water vapor partial pressure at base condition.
4. Meter Metal Temperature Expansion Factor : The metal

thermal expansion factor is: Fe = 1 +αe (T1 – To) Where:
αe= coefficient of expansion of meter metal.
Eqn.37
To = temperature of orifice when manufactured

5. Elevation Factor:
FL= gHL/gSL Where: gHL= acceleration due to gravity at

the meter site or elevation. Eqn.38
gSL= acceleration due to gravity at sea level = 980.665

cm/sec2 (sea level, 45°lat)
gHL = 0.0328095(978.01855 – 0.0028247L +

0.0020299L2 – 0.000015058L3 – 0.000094H)
Where: L = latitude in degrees

H = elevation in feet above sea level
Substituting all the flow factors into equation 33:
Qv = (FbFTbFpbFT1Fγ1FrY1 Fpv Fm Fwv Fe FL )√(p1Lc) Eqn.39
The actual discharge coefficient is now C. The flow equation

becomes:
Qv = C√(p1Lc) Where: Eqn.40
C = FbFTbFpbFT1Fγ1FrY1 Fpv Fm Fwv Fe FL Eqn.41
Dimensional Analysis
1. Volumetric Flow
To verify the integrity of any equation a dimensional analysis of

the equation is performed on the equation and its components.
From equation 38:

Qv = (FbFTbFpbFT1Fγ1FrY1 Fpv Fm Fwv Fe )√(p1Lc)
FTb = Tb /520 = ° R/ ° R = no units

Fpb = 14.73/ pb = Psia/Psia = (lbm)(in-1)(sec-2)/(lbm)(in-1)(sec-2) =

no units
FT1 = √ (520/T1) = √(° R/ ° R) = no units
Fγ1 = √ (1/γ1), γ1 = no units, Therefore Fγ1 = no units
Y1= 1- [(0.41 + 0.35β4)x] / k, β = d2/ D1 = (in2)/(in2) = no units,
x = (p1-p2)/ p1= Psia/Psia = no units
k = cp /cv = no units/no units = no units, Therefore Y1= no units
Fe = 1 +αe (T1 – To), αe= in/in ° R, αe (T1 – To) = (L ° R) / (L ° R)

= no units, therefore Fe= no units
Fwv = [1-(pv/p1)]/[1-(pbv/pb)], pv/p1 = Psia/Psia = no units, pbv/pb=

Psia/Psia = no units, Therefore Fwv = no units
Fpv = √(Zb/Z1) , Zb = no units, Z1 = no units, Therefore Fpv= no

units
Fm = √[1-(γ1/γm)], (γ1/γm) = no units, Therefore Fm= no units
FL = gHL/gSL = (in)(sec-2)/ (in)(sec-2), Therefore FL= no units
Fr =1+E/R, E/R = [p1/(ρ1v12)]/[(ρ1v1D)/µ]
= (p1µ)/(ρ12v13D)=[(lbm2)(in-2)(sec-3)]/[(lbm2)(in-2)(sec-3)]
Therefore E/R= no units, Fr = no units
From equation 41, C = FbFTbFpbFT1Fγ1FrY1 Fpv Fm Fwv Fe FL
Fb = C /(FTbFpbFT1Fγ1FrY1 Fpv Fm Fwv Fe FL)
From equation 40, Qv = C√(p1Lc) C = Qv /√(p1Lc)
Fb = C /(FTbFpbFT1Fγ1FrY1 Fpv Fm Fwv Fe FL)
= Qv /(FTbFpbFT1Fγ1FrY1 Fpv Fm Fwv Fe FL)√(p1Lc)

Fb= Qv/(no units Factor)√(p1Lc) = (in3)/√(lbm) = (in3)(lbm-0.5)
= L3M-0.5
Fb= (in3)(lbm-0.5) = L3M-0.5
Qv = C√(p1Lc) = (FbFTbFpbFT1Fγ1FrY1 Fpv Fm Fwv Fe) √(p1Lc)
= Fb√(p1Lc) = (in3)(sec-1) = L3T-1
Qv = (in3)(sec-1) = L3T-1
2. Weighted Flow
The Weight Flow Rate: Qw = Qmg = γ1Qv = (lbm)(in)(sec-3)
= MLT-3
(lbm)(in)(sec-2) = lbw = MLT-2,
Therefore Qw= (lbw)(sec-1) = (MLT-2)(T-1)
Working Equation-Natural Gas
From equation 39:
Qv = FbFTbFpbFT1Fγ1FrY1 Fpv Fm Fwv Fe FL √(p1Lc)
For natural gas, the water vapor factor (Fwv) can be omitted
since natural gas is dry. Another factor that can be safely
omitted is the manometer factor (Fm) since pressure differentials
are measured electronically by transducers.
For flat regions, the acceleration due to gravity is constant, so

elevation factor (FL) can be disregarded as well.
The working equation for natural gas now becomes:
Qv = FbFTbFpbFT1Fγ1FrY1FpvFe√(p1Lc) for Natural Gas Eqn. 42

From equation 27: Qv = 218.44d22C (Tb /pb)√{(p1Lc)/(γ1 T1)}
C = C0 Fr Y1
Fr &Y1 are assumed to be 1.0 (Correction factors are applied

later to compensate for the assumption of Fr & Y1). Applying
base conditions (standard) to equation 32 for Fb:
Tb = T1= 60° + 460° = 520° R and pb = 14.73 Psia
γ1 = 1 lbsw /V3 (standard)
Equation 32, the basic orifice factor:
Fb = (218.44d22 C0 Tb) /{pb√[(γ1 T1)] } becomes
Fb = 338.17 C0d22 Eqn.43
β = d2 / D1
Fb = 338.17 C0β2D12 Eqn.44
Values of Fb as calculated from equation 44 are tabulated for

flange taps and full flow or pipe taps. Actual flow deviates from
the assumed value of Fr & Y1. .Applying correction factors for Fr:
From equation 29, viscous forces factor Fr =1+E/R

Where: E = p1/(ρ1v12) & R = (ρ1v1D)/µ
Fr has been determined experimentally for natural gas to

become the empirical equation:
Fr = 1 + B/√(p1Lc) where: Eqn.45
B = [3.442µcp√(T1/γ1)] b. or B = [164,800 µe√(T1/γ1)] b.
µcp = absolute viscosity of gas in centipoise (cp)
µe = absolute viscosity of gas in pounds mass per inch second

(lbm)/(in)(sec)
b = constant for a given pipe, orifice size and pressure tap

location.

For natural gas: µcp= 0.0103 cp, T1= 60° Fγ1 = 0.65
B = [3.442µcp√(T1/γ1)] b = {(3.442)(0.0103cp)√[(520° R)/(0.65)]}
b = 1.0027b
For all practical purposes B = b, for natural gas and the values
of b are tabulated for flange taps and full flow or pipe taps.
The correction factor for Y1, from equation 30 is:
Y1= 1- [(0.41 + 0.35β4) x] / k
β = d2/D1 x = (p1-p2)/ p1= [γ1 (L2 – L1)]/ p1= [(γ1 Lc)/ p1]
k = cp / cv
cp = specific heat of gas at constant pressure
cv = specific heat of gas at constant volume
If pressure is measured down stream from a flanged pressure

tap, then the correction factor for Y2 from equation 31 is:
Y2 = Y1/√ (1- x)

INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION
Installation of Primary Devices
Meter Run Dimensions
The inlet pipe for as much as 80 pipe diameters ahead of the

primary device may have an important bearing on the accuracy
of the measurement. A few isolated tests showed errors from
severe flow disturbances such as from metered elbows in two
planes and throttling, balanced - ported, pressure – regulating
valves at 60 to 100 pipe diameters upstream.
A comparison of different national standards shows wide

discrepancies in the amount of straight pipe recommended.
Such discrepancies might be expected in phenomena of such
erratic nature. Exact geometry of the fitting, alignment with
respect to the pressure taps and Reynolds number are
important. Disturbances on the outlet side of the primary device
have little effect on the measurement.
Recommendations are based on test data, at conditions

deemed representative of normal operations. Special caution
should be exercised when, because of low fluid viscosity or high
flow velocity, the straight run of pipe is less effective in restoring
normal flow contours. When taps at 2.5 and 8 diameters are
used, all upstream spacing should be increased by 2 diameters
and all downstream spacing should be increased by 8
diameters.
Straightening Vanes
Most of the major errors due to inadequate approach limits

result from swirls or vortices. These can be effectively
eliminated by the installation of a straightening vane between
the source of disturbance and the primary device.

The straightening vane consists of a number of parallel

passages of relatively small transverse dimensions installed in
the pipe parallel to the line of flow. A common type is composed
of a bundle of small tubes wedged together. Another type
consists of several rectangular plates welded together in a radial
pattern.
Figure 3. A Tubular Type Straightening Vane
Figure 4. A One Piece Radial Type Straightening Vane
For maximum efficiency, no passage through the vane should

have an area of greater than 1/16 the area of the inside of the
pipe. Straightening vanes furnish inexpensive insurance of good
flow measurement where swirl-producing disturbance precede
the primary device.

Types of Flow Meters
a. Turbine Flow Meters
The speed of a turbine flow meter’s rotor increases linearly

with flow velocity. Blade rotation is thus a measure of
velocity and is detected by non contacting external magnetic
or other proximity detectors.
The relationship between line velocity and rotor speed is

linear (within ± 0.5%) over a wide flow range of 10:1 to 20:1.
Figure 5. A Gas Turbine Meter
The fluid velocity is:
Velocity (v) = rotor speed = angular velocity (ω) * radius of

rotation (r = internal diameter of meter/2)
v = ωD/2 ω = 2π/time = 2π*Frequency
Frequency f = 1/time
v = πDf Qv = volumetric flow rate = vA A = π(D/2)2
Qv = (π2D3/4)f

The turbine meter has blades rotating around the central stator.
Each blade sweeps a 2π radian or 360 ° of arc which is a full
circle and hence one complete cycle. So depending on the
velocity of flow the number of cycles in one second can vary
from 0 (no rotation, no flow) to several cycles.
Each turbine blade is fitted with a magnetic button at its tip so

that when the blade completes one revolution or cycle a pulse is
generated indicating a complete cycle has been made. Actual
turbine meters have several blades and at each tip a magnetic
button is installed to be detected by the signal generator and
transmitted as a pulse. So, depending on the velocity of flow of
fluid in the pipeline the number of rotations per unit time is
directly related to the velocity of flow. Therefore for a given
velocity v, the number of rotations per second, or pulses per
second (1 rotation = 1 pulse) can be determined from v = πDf
f = v/(πD) pulses/second.
Like wise if the flow rate is set by the flow control valve
upstream of the meter, the frequency can also be determined
from Qv = (π2D3/4)f
f = 4Qv /(π2D3) = (4/π2 D3 ) Qv = Cm Qv pulses/second
Where: Cm= (4/π2 D3 ) in-3
Qv = (π2D3/4)f = Kmf cubic inches/second
Where: Km = (π2D3/4) in3, So Cm = 1/ Km
b. Orifice Flow Meters

There are several types of orifice plates to suite the process

conditions and flow requirements. Such plates are called
constriction devices.
1 3
DATUM
Figure 6. Vena Contracta Constriction
The type of orifice bore is dictated by the process requirements.
• Square edge concentric orifice plates are used for clean

gases and low velocity vapor flow.

Square Edge
Figure 7. Square Edge
• Quadrant and conic edge orifice plates are used when

the Reynolds number is below 10,000. The upstream
orifice edge is either rounded or conical.
In all types of orifice plates, the tapered edge must always face
upstream of the flow.
Figure 8. Quadrant and Conic Edge

• Segmental and eccentric orifice plates are used for fluids

with entrained water and/or air.
Figure 9. Segmental and Eccentric Orifices
Single chamber orifice fittings are used in low production gas

where down time for plate inspection and maintenance of the
meter does not impact revenue loss considerably.
Figure 10. Single Chamber Orifice Fitting

• Dual chamber orifice fittings are used in high gas flow

throughput were down time for meter inspection and
maintenance can significantly impact cost and revenue
loss. The upper chamber serves as an isolated chamber
where the orifice plate can be rolled up into and isolated
from the line so as not to disturb the flow. In the upper
chamber the orifice plate can be totally removed and
inspected.
Figure 11. Dual Chamber Orifice Fitting
The flow rate through all of these orifice plates and types has
been derived in Section II.
Qv = C√(p1Lc)
Where: C = FbFTbFpbFT1Fγ1FrY1 Fpv Fm Fwv Fe FL

Configurations
There are many possibilities for the choice of a primary device.

For special requirements, however, usually the choice lies
between the more common differential producers, in which case
the following rules may be helpful in deciding on an instrument
for measuring gas flow.
What type of fluid is to be handled?
• Is the fluid, gas or vapor?
• Is the fluid clean, dirty or slurry?
• Is the fluid corrosive?
What are the process conditions?
• Temperature limits
• Pressure limits
What are the installation conditions?
• Is the measurement open or closed channel?
• Line size
• Operating pipe Reynolds number
• Adequate meter run length upstream
• Need for flow conditioners
• Excessive pipe vibration
• Flow steady or pulsating
• Ambient conditions for temperature and humidity
What are the performance and general flow

measurement requirements?
• Overall required accuracy

• Range of flow meter usage, normal or over a wide

range
• Flow meter usage for control only and the response

frequency required (0.1 is usually required for small
line size control)
• Range of flow rates and periodic over or under range

flow rates
Economics of installation and operation
• Initial cost of primary and secondary devices and

auxilary equipment
• Installation, piping and labor costs
• Energy and pumping costs to operate the metering

system to compensate for overall pressure drop
• Reliability of the system
• Availability of parts and service facilities
• Future applications
• Risks of new flow meter type trials
Use of a sharp, square-edged, concentric orifice plate is

common practice, unless the need for another type of primary
device is indicated by the velocity, nature of the fluid or
requirements of the application. Other types of primary devices
are:
1. If the velocity is so high that the value of β = d/D

exceeds 0.42 consider the use of one of the following:
• A meter tube larger than the existing pipe
• A higher differential range
• A flow nozzle, if β is less than 0.66

Figure 12. Flow Nozzle
2. If the flowing fluid contains large amounts of solids in

suspension, consider the use of one of the following:
• A magnetic meter, if the fluid is sufficiently conductive
• A venturi tube, with or without an exit cone.
• A target meter
• A flow nozzle in a vertical line with the flow in a

downward direction, if the solids are heavy enough to
settle rapidly

Figure 13. A Magnet Flow Meter and a Venturi Tube
2. If the flowing fluid contains small amounts of heavy

granular solids, or if the flowing fluid is a gas or vapor
containing appreciable amounts of condensate, consider
the following:
• An eccentric or segmental orifice with the opening at

the bottom of the conduit
• A target meter
• A flow nozzle in a vertical line with the flow in a

downward direction

Figure 14. A Target Meter
3. If the fluid contains sticky solids of approximately the

same density as the suspending fluid, consider the
following:
• A quadrant or semicircular profile orifice
• A target meter
4. If the fluid contains appreciable amounts of air or vapor,

consider the following:
• An eccentric or segmental orifice with the opening at

the top of the conduit
• A concentric orifice or flow nozzle in a vertical line

with the flow in an upward direction
• A target meter

If the fluid is viscous or for other reasons the Reynolds

number is low, consider the following:
• A quadrant or semicircular profile orifice
• A concentric orifice or flow nozzle with correction

factors which vary widely with rate of flow and
viscosity changes
• A target meter
If the flow rate is very low and the fluid is very clean,
consider the following:
• An integral orifice and a differential pressure cell (d/p

cell)
• A small flow calibrated meter run
Figure 15. An Integral Orifice and Differential Pressure Cell

Natural gas measurements are an exception. In the

measurements of natural gas, concentric orifices with either
flange taps or taps at 2.5 and 8 pipe diameters are used almost
exclusively. AGA Report No.3 recognizes eccentric and
segmental orifice plates and these have been used to some
extent in the measurement of wet gas.
Secondary Devices
1. Field Measured Parameters
The measured parameters which have a direct bearing on the

fluid consist of two catagories:
• Static Parameters
a. Temperature
Being a quantitative value of the transfer of heat, is

usually measured by either using certified mercury in
glass thermometer installed in stainless steel
thermowells, or remote temperature detectors (RTDs)
made of platinum resistance probes also located in
thermowells.
b. Static Pressure
Being the line pressure under which the fluid is flowing.

This pressure is not dynamic, and it is measured by a
manometer either down stream, or up stream of the flow
meter.

• Dynamic Parameters
a. Dynamic Pressure-Flow
Occurs when upstream pressure is not in equilibrium with

downstream pressure. A pressure differential exists,
causing fluid to move in the direction from higher to lower
pressure. This is the pressure differential caused by the
insertion of an orifice or constriction in the line used to
measure the flow.
b. Fluid Composition
The composition of the fluid entails the measurement of

physical mixtures of components constituting the fluid,
the resistance to flow (viscosity), the specific heat and
gravity.
Gas is sold and priced according to its physical

abundance and energy value. The purity of the gas is
determined by the amount of inert and unburnable
components in the mixture, such as nitrogen, carbon
dioxide and hydrogen sulfide.
2. Types of Measuring Instruments
Current measuring instruments used in the gas industry are

mostly of the electronic telemetric type, such as transducers.
Transducers are usually crystals which are caused to vibrate or
oscillate at a known frequency induced by electronic pulses or
signals. The signals are measured in terms of voltage and have
a 4-20mADC output.
• Temperature Transducers
Usually consist of a platinum resistance detector sensing

system. A 4-20mADC output and an accuracy of 0.2% of
span or better. Normal span adjustment is usually between
-18 to 66°C (0 -150°F). The combined accuracy of the
transmitter and RTD is such that it will not vary more than
0.25°C (0.5°F) from the real temperature.

• Pressure Transducers
Usually consist of a 2-wire type, fully field adjustable. They

are usually mounted downstream of the orifice fitting using
flange taps (also can be mounted upstream of the orifice
plate). They are used to measure static pressure.
• Differential Pressure Transducers
Usually consist of 2-wire type, fully field adjustable and have

a 4-20mADC output. They are mounted as close to the
orifice as possible (within 6 m or 20 ft).
• Fluid Sampling Devices
Usually consist of AISI 316 SS sampler probe, with a single

or dual pitot tube configuration. Probe tips should be near
the center of the pipe. The sample cylinder is of constant
pressure with samples taken continuously, either time or flow
proportional. Relative density, heating value, moisture and
fluid composition are determined in the laboratory by
analysis of the sample obtained from the auto-sampler.

MEASURING AND DATA RECORDING DEVICES
Conventional Circular Charts
There are several types of circular charts. The circular charts

are usually of the 2 & 3 pen type recorders.
The parameters required to be measured are:
• Temperature
• Static Pressure
• Dynamic Pressure
• Time
a. Two Pen Circular Chart Recorders
An example of a two pen type recorder is shown in figure 16.

Each pen has a different color to differentiate between the two
measured parameters, namely static pressure and differential
pressure (inferred volume throughput). As shown:
Figure 16. Two Pen Chart Recorders

b. Three Pen Circular Chart Recorders
An example of a three pen type recorder is shown in figure 17.

Each pen has a different color to differentiate between the three
measured parameters, namely static pressure, differential
pressure and temperature (inferred volume throughput). As
shown:
Figure 17. Three Pen Chart Recorder
Conventional Density Measuring Devices
There are several types of density measuring devices. To name

a few:
a. Gravity Balance
This device is an “indirect measuring” device and employs two

principles.

• Archemedes Principal: The buoyant force exerted on a

body suspended in a fluid is proportional to the density of
the fluid.
Using the pressure adjustment method, a balanced condition of

the float and counter weight beam is obtained by adjustment of
the pressure of the gas or air in the chamber. The specific
gravity is found from the ratio of the absolute pressures of the
air and the gas.
Pressure
Gas Sample Gauge
Window
Displacer Calibrating Weight
Figure 18. Buoyancy gas Balance
• Boyle's Law: The density of a gas is proportional to its

absolute pressure.
Using a beam deflection method, the pressure in the chamber is

the same (usually atmospheric) with either air or gas. The
specific gravity is indicated or read from the difference in the
angles of deflection of the beam with gas as compared to that
with air.

Figure 19. Recording Gravitometer
b. Impulse or Momentum
This device compares the torque developed by an impeller

wheel pumping air to the torque developed by an impeller wheel
pumping gas. The ratio of these two torques is equal to the
relative density of the air and the gas, and therefore provides a
measure of specific gravity of the gas.

Figure 20. Momentum Gravitometer
c. Centrifugal
This device uses the principle that the differential pressure

between the center and tip of a fan, rotating at constant speed,
will vary as the specific weight of the gas varies. An acceptable
instrument using this principle has two centrifugal blowers in
separate chambers mounted on a common shaft turned by a
motor or turbine. One chamber is open to the atmosphere and
the other is connected to the gas supply. The differential
pressure from each chamber is measured and, by dividing the
gas pressure by the air pressure, the specific gravity is
obtained. The measurement may be done manually, or the
pressure may be corrected by a suitable linkage system to a
specific gravity scale.

Conventional Fluid Sampling Devices
There are two basic types of samples; spot and composite.

Two procedures for collecting spot samples can be used.
a. A series of fillings and blow downs of a cylinder that can

be used in warm environments with dry gases.
b. Using continual heat to replace the heat lost at the point

of pressure reduction to return the stream to the line
temperature before the gas enters the cylinder. The gas
is purged through the collecting cylinder for several
minutes and then allowed to fill the line pressure. In
each case, external valves to the cylinders should be
used for pressure reduction and for purge control, since
internal cylinder valves could be eroded by these actions
and fail to seal bubble-tight. Composite samples are
taken over an extended period, and the rate of filling is
controlled on a basis of time or low rate. The time-based
system is a clock-controlled pressure regulator which
controls the rate of filling.
The time period commonly used is one month. The flow-based

system is a flow proportional sample collecting signal from the
metering device. If the flow rate is X cuft/hr, the sample
frequency is set at a percentage amount of the flow.
So if in 1hr X cu ft passed through the meter then the sample

collected should be Y cu ft = % of X: If X=100cuft/hr usually
Y=10% of X, or Y=10cuft. So for every 100cuft, 10cuft of
sample is collected.

Modern Field Mounted Devices
Field measuring devices consist of pressure, temperature and

flow transmitters.
a. Pressure Transmitters
The static pressure transmitters and/or transducers are

usually connected to the downstream orifice fitting tap gauge
line. They are of the 2-wire type, fully field adjustable, and
have a 4-20mADC output.
b. Temperature Transmitters
Temperature transmitters and/or transducers, consist of a

linearized platinum resistance temperature detector (RTD)
sensing system, with 4-20mADC output. Normal span
adjustment is between -18° & 66°C (0-150 ° F). Direct
connected temperature recorders (line or panel) mounted
are of the filled type with 8 inch or 12 inch circular chart
(24hr. or 7day). The bulb & capillary tubing are of the 316SS
type and the flexible armor is of the 304 SS type. The
thermowells are of 316L SS.
c. Flow Transmitters
Flow transmitters and/or transducers measure differential

pressure across the orifice plate. They consist of the 2-wire
type fully field adjustable. There are usually two flow
transmitters and/or transducers, one for low flow adjusted
from 0 to 20 inches of water, the other for high flow adjusted
from 0 to 100 inches of water. Their outputs are calibrated to
read 0-20mADC corresponding to 0-20 in. H2O and 0-100
in. H2O for low and high flows respectively. The flow
recorders are usually of 1/2 inch 316 SS type tubing
installed with a slope on 1:12(in/ft) towards the orifice fitting.
Condensate chambers are installed at all gauge line low

points in cases where the lines do not drain directly back into
the orifice fitting.

Figure 21. A Field Transmitter

Remote Terminal Units- RTU
a. Flow Computer
Flow computers perform all calculations necessary to convert

the basic measured variables (flow rate, static pressure and
temperature) and the manually entered data (meter capacity
rating, transmitter span values etc.) into gas custody transfer
quality values of flow rate and accumulated standard volume
and/or energy units. Units may also posses the optional
capability to receive and handle variable input signals from
gravitometers, calorimeters and densitometers; and to compute
gas transfer in mass and total energy units as well as volumetric
units. If required the following data can be displayed and
furnished to an interface terminal strip for re transmitting.
• Instantaneous flow rate- Analog (MMSCFD)
• Accumulated volume- ASCII/RS232 ( A code and

standard which allows different computers to
• Communicate with each other) MSCF
• Accumulated volume increments- From relay contact

closure
b. Power Supply.
Typical voltage supplies used are:
• 480V 3Ph 60Hz- Power for MOVs, central hydraulic

pump units, motors, etc.
• 120V 1Ph 60Hz- Power for some field and panel

mounted instruments, lighting, small motors and certain
motorized valve solonoids, etc.
• 125VDC- Power for emergency lighting & equipment.
• 24VDC- Power for digital flow computer and some field

mounted instruments. An uninterrupted power supply
(UPS) is usually provided for flow computers to avoid
affecting the metering results during periods of power
failure.

Field Sampling Devices
Gas samples in the field are usually taken using continuous

samplers. Sample collection control systems are time based or
flow proportional in sampling rate. AISI 316 SS sampler probes
of 1/8 or 1/4 inch diameter tubing either of single or dual pitot
tube configuration are used. The probe tips should be near the
center of the pipes up to 12 inch in size, and at least 1/6th of the
ID into larger size pipes. The sampling cylinders are of constant
pressure, and are periodically taken to the lab to determine:
• The relative density (specific gravity), gas heating value

and moisture content.
• Percentage constituent, which affect the

supercompressibility. Some systems have on line
gravitometers to determine the specific gravity of the gas.
The fluid composition is analyzed in the lab
• From the gas sample cylinder by chromatography.
Fluid Analyzing Devices
Chromatographs
The science and mechanism of chromatography is beyond the

scope of this paper. It is in the field of electrochemical
engineering. However attached are simplified diagrams of a
typical chromatograph setup and an analysis report showing the
constituents of the gas being metered for supercompressibility
calculations.
Gravitometers
As mentioned before, the relative density is measured in the lab

or in the field by portable gravitometers.
Calorimeters
The heating value of the gas is measured in the lab by a

conventional calorimeter.

Control Room Equipment
a. Display Monitors
The control room is equipped with monitoring devices such as

display screens, to monitor the operations of the gas station.
The signals from the RTUs in the site are transmitted either by
microwave or telemetry links via long distance comm. channels,
to a central control room where they are graphically displayed.
The display monitors are also equipped to have accessibility to
the station controls such as FCVs MCVs or HCVs to be able to
manipulate the station operation remotely.
b. Alarm Panels
Alarm panels indicate abnormalities or malfunction of station

equipment. Emergency backup controls are usually located at
the central control room. Most of the process operations and
parameter calculations are done by the flow computer located at
the site. The control room is basically to monitor the flow
process and initiate any corrective action.

ACCURACY DETERMINATION & INSTRUMENT TROUBLE SHOOTING
Primary Devices
1. Orifice Plate
The plate is normally checked during instrument calibration for

rust deposits and edge smoothness.
2. Orifice Fitting
The fitting is normally checked for seal damage, rust, proper fit,
and correct installation and visual appearance. Flanges are
checked for correct joints and proper sealing. General
Instruction No. 405.002 “Custody Transfer of Gas" and Saudi
Aramco Engineering Standard SAES-Y-101 "Royalty and
Custody Metering for Hydrocarbon Gases" explicitly explains
how to maintain and trouble shoot the orifice plate and fittings.
Field Instruments
Accuracy determination for field instruments is covered in the

GI-405.002. The field instruments consist of:
1. Skid Mounted Instruments
• Pressure Transmitter
• Temperature Transmitter
• Low Flow Differential Pressure Transmitter
• High Flow Differential Pressure Transmitter
2. Remote Terminal Unit (RTU)
• Flow Computer

The parameters in the flow computer for natural gas

are:
a. Orifice flow factor: Fb
b. Base temperature factor: FTb
c. Base pressure factor: Fpb
d. Flowing temperature factor: FT1
e. Specific gravity factor: Fγ1
f. Viscosity factor: Fr
g. Expansion factor: Y1
h. Supercompressibility factor: Fpv
i. Orifice plate expansion factor: Fe
The calculated values are:
C= FbFTbFpbFT1Fγ1FrY1FpvFe
√(p1Lc)
Qv = C√(p1Lc) scf/h or scf/d and/or
Qw = γ1Qv (lbm)(in)(sec-3) or lbw/h
• Power Supply
3. Sampling Devices

System Accuracy
In an ideal situation, any system assigned to measure and

report should have zero error – an exact reading of the physical
quantity being measured. However, systems of this type do not
exist. In practice, all measurement systems introduce certain
error in the measurement of the physical quantity. The choice of
tolerable limit to the error dictates system’s sophistication and
ultimately its value. As with all measurement processes there
are two types of error:
1. Bias
Bias errors are systematic (accountable, consistent or

fixed) components which cause the measurement to
always be either high or low. These errors are either
inherent in the system design or a result of faulty
operational & maintenance procedures. They may arise
by using an inadequate measurement method such as
unjustified extrapolation of measured data, or
static/dynamic error within the measurement system, or
caused by operation in an unfavorable environment or
calibration error.
2. Random
Random errors (unaccountable, chance) are the inherent

uncertainty of the system and typically due to the
inaccuracy of the equipment being used. This type of
measurement should vary about a mean value and over
the course of many measurements the errors should
average out, and not result in a bias to the measurement.
The random errors are rather different because they are
not expected and subject to irregular, chance or random
causes and must be treated with statistical methods.
They can be caused by reading mistakes, errors of
judgment, variations of conditions as caused by sporadic
noise or specification errors in a component under
measurement inspection. In such situations a sequence
of measurements or observations, whose nominal values
are expected to remain constant, may well exhibit a
purely random scatter. Over large observations, the
purely random errors, in theory are eliminated.

Other types can be human error by consistently misreading

data, and arithmetical errors such as incorrect rounding of data
values. These errors are cumulative and very costly.
However, the equipment can only be calibrated and operated to

provide an accuracy that falls within an uncertainty band. Any
system in place for Custody and Royalty Measurement must be
of the highest accuracy. Any thing less will incur high losses for
the company. If we assume sales volume of approximately 2.7
BSCFD at a cost of $0.5 per MMBTU; this amounts to total
revenue of $1,400,000 per day. 0.5% error can result in
$7,000.00 per day.
Based upon the raw data obtained from the calibration of the
station, a report is generated giving the results and
recommendations of the survey and inspection carried out on
that particular station GI 405.002
The percent deviation of each individual instrument is calculated

and the overall system deviation is obtained for 50%, 75%, &
100% flow conditions. The deviation tolerance allowed overall is
± 0.2 %.

RECENT GAS FLOW MEASUREMENT TECHNOLOGIES
Crude and hydrocarbon product measurements consist of two

types:
• Volumetric
• Mass Flow
Accuracy and precision play the key role in influencing the

current applications of volumetric and mass measurement
technologies when applied to royalty and custody transfers for
exports and domestic consumption. Amongst the technologies
being applied are:
Vortex Shedding Flow Meter
Vortex shedding is a common flow phenomenon that causes

bridges to collapse and telephone wires to sing. The instability
of the flow field after it splits into two paths around a bluff object
causes vortices to shed from alternate sides of the object at a
frequency linearly proportional to velocity.
If the approximately sinusoidal pressure or velocity changes

created by the moving vortices in the fluid are detected, the flow
rate can be determined. The relationship between pipeline
velocity and shedding frequency is linear and independent of
fluid density over the flow rate ranges.
The K, or meter factor is the same for liquids, gases, vapors and
cryogenic fluids. This makes the vortex meter suitable for
steam, natural gas and liquid flows. In some countries this meter
is approved for custody transfer of natural gas.

Figure 22. Vortex Flow Meter
Ultra Sonic Flow Meter
The use of highly sophisticated techniques enables us to detect

very small time differences. These small time differences make
it possible to reach a measuring resolution as low as 1mm/s. the
ultra sonic flow meter takes advantage of the principle that an
ultrasonic pulse travels faster downstream while slower
upstream.
Pulse transit time differential is based on a simple physical fact.

Imagine two boats crossing a river on the same diagonal line,
one with the flow and the other against the flow. The boat
moving with the flow needs much less time to reach the
opposite shore. Ultrasonic waves behave in exactly the same
way. A sound wave traveling in the direction of the flow of the
fluid is propagated at a faster rate than one traveling against the
flow ( vAB.> vBA).

Transit times tab and tba are measured continuously. The

difference (tba-tab) in time traveled by the two ultrasonic waves is
directly proportional to the mean flow velocity v of the fluid. The
larger the difference in time between the two pulses the more
fluid passes by.
Figure 23. Propagation of Ultrasonic Waves
Propagated rate of ultrasonic waves:
In the direction of flow A to B vAB = c0 + v cos ϕ
Against the direction of flow from B to A vBA = c0 - v cos ϕ
c0 = sound velocity in fluid
ϕ = angle between pipe axis and measuring beam.
vAB> vBA
Transit time of ultrasonic waves:
t AB = L/ vAB= L/(c0 + v cos ϕ) t BA = L/ vBA= L/(c0 - v cos ϕ)
L = length of measuring beam, distance between sensors A and

B.
tAB< tBA
Mean velocity v = (vAB - vBA)/2 = [(c0 + v cos ϕ) – (c0 - v cos ϕ)]/2
v = [(L/ t AB ) – ( L/ t BA)]/2

v = [L (t BA - t AB )]/ (2t BAt AB)
The volumetric flow rate per unit time is the product of the mean
velocity v multiplied by the pipe cross sectional area.
Qv = Av = [(πD2)/4]{[L (t BA - t AB )]/ (2t BAt AB)}
Qv = [(πLD2)/(8t BAt AB)] [(t BA - t AB )]
D = pipe diameter.
Let [(πLD2)/8] = constant = K Then,
Qv = K[(t BA - t AB )/(t BAt AB)] Eqn. 46
Because ultrasonic meters do not rely on kinetic energy from

the fluid, very low flow rates can be detected and no pressure
drop.
Figure 24. Ultrasonic Flow Meter

Coriolis Mass Flow Meter
The use of Coriolis mass meters in custody transfer metering is

relatively new, although they have been used for process
optimization for nearly 20 years. The same instrument
measures mass flow and density. Hence, volumetric flow if
needed can easily be calculated. Coriolis mass meters are very
accurate and can deliver ± 0.15% of volumetric accuracy.
The mass flow meter measures fluid in motion. The mass flow
meter consists of one or two flow tubes enclosed in a sensor
housing. Inside the housing, the flow tube is vibrated at its
natural frequency by a magnetic drive coil located at the center
of the bend in the tube. As the fluid flows through the tube it is
forced to take on the vertical momentum of the vibrating tube.
When the tube is moving upward during half of its vibration
cycle, the fluid flowing into the meter resists being forced
upward by pulsing down on the tube. Having been forced
upward, the fluid flowing out of the meter resists having it’s
vertical motion decreased by pushing up on the tube. This
causes the flow tube to twist when the tube is moving downward
during the second half of its vibration cycle; it twists in the
opposite direction. This combination of forces which causes the
flow tubes to twist is called the Coriolis effect. Due to the tube’s
elasticity, the amount of twist is directly proportional to the mass
flow rate of the fluid flowing through the tube.
Magnetic sensors located on each side of the flow tube

measure the velocity of the vibrating flow tube. The sensors
send this information to an electronics unit where the
information is processed and converted to an output signal
proportional to the mass flow rate.

Figure 25. U- Shaped and W- Shaped Vibrating Tubes
Assume you are standing in the center of a merry-go-round

rotating with an angular velocity w (for clarity one revolution per
minute). You start to walk at a constant speed from the center to
the edge of the merry-go-round. When passing ‘A’ you are
covering the distance ‘A’ and when passing ‘B’ you are covering
the distance ‘B’ both in the same one-minute. It is clear that the
distance ‘B’ is much greater than the distance ‘A’. Apparently
you have been accelerating. You have a certain mass and from
Newton’s second law Force = mass x acceleration. So there
must be a force.

This force and acceleration is named after Coriolis and are the
basis for the mass flow meters. The Coriolis force Fc prevents
you from arriving at the point you were originally heading for.
The resulting deflection ‘D’ is a measure of the Coriolis force
and as such the mass.
The faster you walk the larger the deflection.
0
B0 A
FD
A
B
m
Figure 26. Principle of the Coriolis Force

From Newtons 2nd Law, the Coriolis force induced by the flow is:
F = 2mωv Where:
F = force
m = mass at a known distance L from the axix 0-0
ω = angular velocity
v = linear velocity
This is equivalent to F = mass * acceleration, for rotational

motion.
The input and output velocities are in opposite directions.

Looking at the measuring tube along the axis
R-R, the force F1 and F2 applied by the fluid to the input and
output legs are in opposite directions but have the same
magnitude.
Since the tube oscillates around the axis 0-0, the force
developed create an oscillating moment M around the axis R-R,
with a radius r. The moment M is:
M = F1r1 + F2 r2
F1= F2 and r1 = r 2
Therefore: M = 2Fr = 4mωvr Eqn.47
The mass (m) = (the densityρ) (Volume) = ρ (tube cross section

area) (tube length)
m = ρV = ρAL
v = L/t t = L/v
Qm = m/t = mv/L
M = 4ωrLQm

The moment M induced an angular deflectionn, or twist θ, of the

measuring tube around the axis R-R. The twist is maximum at
half the travel of the vibrating tube (See Figure 25)
The deflection caused by the moment M is opposed by the

elastic modulus force K of the tube.
The general definition of the torque (T) created by the twisting

moment in a specimen is:
T = Kθ
M = T = Kθ
Therefore: Kθ = 4ωrLQm
Qm = (Kθ)/(4ωrL) Eqn.48
By measuring the angle of deflection with the magnetic position

sensor mounted on the deflecting tube casing, the mass flow
rate can be found.
This type of meter measures the mass of the fluid flowing

through vibrating “U, S or W” shaped tubes. As mentioned
above, as the fluid flow through the vibrating tubes, the naturally
occurring Coriolis force causes a slight rotation of the meter
tube about its axis, which is proportional to the amount of mass
flowing in the tube.
Another method of measuring the mass flow rate is by

measuring the angle of deflection θ as a function of the time it
takes for each leg of the tube to cross the middle point of the
travel corresponding to the total deflection. The time differential
between the two legs is zero in no flow and increases linearly
with flow. Hence the angle of deflection also increases as it is a
function of time. These time differentials are interpreted as pulse
of different lengths by the digital logic circuit.
Sin θ = opposite side of the triangle / its hypotenuse =

differential length / distance between the tube legs.
(See figure 25)
Sin θ = (vtδt)/2r
Where: vt is the tube velocity in the middle of its travel. = ωL

For small angles, Sin θ = θ Therefore: θ = (ωLδt)/2r
From equation 48:
Qm = (Kθ)/(4ωrL)
Qm = (Kθ)/(4ωrL) = (KωLδt)/(8r2ωL) Therefore:
Qm = (Kδt)/(8r2) K/8r2 = geometrical constant of the tube. = κ
Qm= κδt Eqn.49
The mass flow rate is therefore proportional to the time interval.

Since K is the elastic modulus force of the tube, it must be
temperature compensated. Like all metals the elastic modulus
varies with temperature. Typically, the surface temperature of
the flow tube is monitored using a platinum RTD. As the
temperature changes the signal processing electronics
continuously adjust the constant of proportionality, which scales
δt to obtain the corrected mass flow rate.
These meters can also measure density as function of the tubes

natural frequency since the mass flow measurement is not
affected by the natural frequency of vibration of the tube. It is
possible to measure the density of the fluid with the same
sensors used for mass flow.
For an oscillating or vibrating mass system, the angular velocity

is:
ω = v/r = 2πr/tr = 2π/t frequncy f = 1/t so ω = 2πf
t = √(m/K)
Therefore: ω = 2πf = √(K/m)
m = mass of tube (m1) + mass of fluid (m2) = m1 + Vρ
ω = 2πf = √[K/( m1 + Vρ)]

t = 2π/√[ K/( m1 + Vρ)]
t2 = (4π2)/ [K/( m1 + Vρ)]
t2 = [(4π2)( m1 + Vρ)]/ K
{[(t2 K)/ (4π2)] - m1}= Vρ Therefore:
ρ = {[(t2 K)/ (4π2)] - m1}/ V = {[(t2 K)/ (4π2)] - m1}/(AL) Eqn. 50
By measuring the period of vibration and compensating for the

change in spring constant with temperature, the fluid density
can be found.
Qm = ρ QV
QV = Qm / ρ
Where: Qm = (Kθ)/(4ωrL) Equation 48 or
Qm= κδt Equation 49 and
ρ = {[(t2 K)/ (4π2)] - m1}/(AL) Equation 50
Coriolis meters are limited in size, up to 8”, which covers most

custody transfer metering requirements. It is expected that their
use is custody transfer metering will increase in the next few
years.

EXERCISE PROBLEMS IN FLOW CALCULATIONS
This section deals with problem solving exercises and examples

in meter design criteria. The material and contents of this
section will be handed out during the instruction of the course
after the theory has been taught and concepts of flow
measurements have been presented to the participants.
The types of calculations and exercise contained in this section

are as follows:
A. Manual Flow Calculations Using Flange Fittings.
1. Example of flow calculation
2. Example of Orifice Plate Sizing Calculation
B. Flow Calculations Using Circular Charts
1. Example of 2 Pen Recorder Chart
2. Example of 3 Pen Recorder Chart
a. Time Driven Type Recorder
b. Meter Driven Type Recorder
C. BTU and Heating Value Determination
D. Flow Calculations Using Turbine Meters
E. Flow Calculations Using Ultrasonic Meters
F. Flow Calculations Using Mass Meters
G. Computer Program Flow Calculations Using Flange

Fittings

Exercise 1: Manual Flow Calculations Using Flange Fittings
Example of flow calculation given:
A meter, Stainless steel orifice plate, Type SS 316 equipped

with flange taps, static pressure from down stream tap located
500feet above sea level at latitude 35°.
Field Data:
Line size is 8.071 inches (actual line size) and the orifice size is
4.000 inches
Flowing temperature is 65° F and ambient temperature is 70° F
Contract base pressure is 14.65 psia and base temperature is

50° F
Specific gravity is 0.570
Mole % nitrogen content is 1.10%
Mole % carbon dioxide content is 0.00%
The average differential head is 50 inches water column and the

average downstream gauge static pressure is 370psig.
The average barometric pressure is 14.4 psia
Required:
The orifice flow constant and the quantity rate of flow for one
hour at base conditions.
Solution:
Line size D = 8.071 inches and orifice size d = 4.000 inches.

Therefore, β = d/D = 4.000/8.071= 0.4956
Published inside diameter of pipe is 8.071inches. Ratio of actual

to published inside diameter = 1. Percent difference is 0.0;
therefore the tables can be used.

Average downstream absolute pressure = average downstream

gauge static pressure + average barometric pressure.
Therefore, p2 = 370 + 14.4 =384.4 psia
Average √(Lcp2) = √[(50) (384.4)] = 138.64
Average Lc/p2 = 50/384.4 = 0.1301
From Table 1, Appendix A, page A-1 for Fb, d = 4.000 inches &
D = 8.071 inches
Fb = 3935.3
From Table 2, Appendix A, page A-2 for b
b = 0.0248
Therefore: Fr =1 + [b/√(Lcp2)] = 1 + (0.0248/138.64) = 1 +

0.00018
Fr= 1.0002
From Table 4, Appendix A, page A-4 for Y2 interpolating for

Lc/p2 = 0.1301 & β = 0.4956
Y2 = 1.0008
From Table 5, Appendix A, page A-5 for Fpb pb = 14.65 psia
Fpb = 1.0055
From Table 6, Appendix A, page A-5 for FTb Tb = 50° F
FTb = 0.9808
From Table 7, Appendix A, page A-6 for FT1 T1 = 65° F
FT1 = 0.9952
From Table 8, Appendix A, page A-7 for Fγ1 γ1 = 0.570
Fγ1 = 1.3245
From Table 9, Appendix A, page A-8 for Fpv using the specific
gravity method of super compressibility factor evaluation.

The pressure adjustment factor:
Fp = (156.47)/ (160.8 – 7.22γ1 + Kp)
Where: Kp = Mc – 0.392Mn
Kp = 0.0 – 0.392(1.1) = – 0.4312
Fp = (156.47)/ [160.8 – 7.22(0.570) + (– 0.4312)]

=1.0014
Adjusted pressure = p2 Fp = (370)(1.0014) = 370.5psig
The temperature adjustment factor FT = (226.29)/ (99.15 +

211.9γ1 – KT)
Where: KT = Mc + 1.681Mn
KT = 0.0 + 1.681(1.1) = 1.849
FT = (226.29)/ (99.15 + 211.9(0.570) – 1.849) = 1.0376
Adjusted temperature = T1FT – 460 = (65 + 460) (1.0376) – 460

= 544.7 – 460 = 87.4° F
For adjusted pressure 370.5psig and adjusted temperature 84.7

°F
Fpv =1.0254
From Table 10, Appendix A, page A-9 for Fm for p2 = 370 psig,
ambient temperature = 70 ° F, and γ1=0.570
Interpolating Fm = 0.9989
From Table 11, Appendix A, page A-10, for FL for latitude 35°
and elevation 500feet above sea level interpolating:
FL = 0.9995
The coefficient of expansion of steel is α = 0.0000185 inch /° F

for 316 SS and T1= 65° F
Fe = 1+ (0.0000185(65 – 68)) = 1 – 0.000055 = 0.999945
Fe = 0.9999

Then the orifice flow constant is:
C = FbFTbFpbFT1Fγ1FrY1 Fpv Fm Fwv Fe FL
For dry gas Fwv can be eliminated.
C = FbFTbFpbFT1Fγ1FrY2 Fpv Fm FLFe = (3935.3) (0.9808)
(1.0055)(0.9952)(1.3245)(1.0002)(1.0008)(1.0254)(0.9989)
(0.9995)(0.9999)
C = 5237.33
The rate of flow for one hour is:
Qv = C√(p2Lc) = (5237.33) (138.64)
Qv = 726,103.4312 cubic feet/hour
Example of Orifice Plate Sizing Calculation:
Given:
The orifice consist of a carbon steel meter tube equipped with

flange taps and a type 304 stainless steel orifice plate. Static
pressure measurements are taken from the upstream tap.
Field Data:
dr = mean orifice bore diameter at Tt of 68°F, in inches –

4,000
Dr = mean meter tube internal diameter at Tr of 68°F, in inches

= 8.071
Gr = real gas relative density (specific gravity) = 0.570
hw = average differential pressure, in inches of water at 60°F

= 50.0
Pb = contract base pressure, in pounds force per square inch

absolute = 14.65

Ph = average upstream absolute static pressure, in pounds force

per square inch absolute = 370.0
Tb = contract base temperature of 50°F, in degrees Rankine

(50°F + 459.67) = 509.67
Tf = flowing temperature of 65°F, in degrees Rankin (65°F +

459.67) = 524.67
xc = carbon dioxide content, in mole percent = 0.00
xn = nitrogen content, in mole percent = 1.10
k = isontropic exponent (cp / cr) = 1.3
α1 = linear coefficient of thermal expansion for a stainless steel

orifice plate, in inches per inch - °F = 0.00000925
α2 = linear coefficient of thermal expansion for a carbon steel

meter tube, in inches per inch -°F = 0.00000620
µ = dynamic viscosity, in pounds mass per foot-second

= 0.0000069
Required:
The orifice diameter and the quantity rate of flow for one hour at
base conditions.

Temperature
Recorder
Meter Secondary
Flow
Element
Primary Element
Meter Run
Orifice Plate
Figure 27. Orifice Plate Sizing Calculation Graphic
Solution:
From the given diameters dr and Dr the orifice diameter d can be

calculated at 65°F.
d = dr[1+ α1( Tf -Tr )] = 4.000[ 1 + 0.00000925(524.67 – 527.67)]
d = 3.99989 inches
D = Dr [1+ α2 (Tf -Tr)] = 8.071[1 + 0.00000620(524.67 – 527.67)]
= 8.07085 inches
β = d/D = 3.99989 inches./ 8.07085 inches = 0.495597
C = 1/ /√ [1 - (A2/ A1) 2] = 1 /√ [1 - (d/ D) 4] = 1 /√ [1 - β 4]
=1/√ [1 – 0.495597 4] = 1.03160

C = C0 Fr Y1
Y1= 1- [(0.41 + 0.35β4) (x/k)
x = (p1-p2)/ p1= [γ1 (L2 – L1)]/ p1 = Lc/27.707p1
= 50.0/ [(27.707) (370)] = 0.00487729
Y1= 1- [0.41 + (0.35) (0.495597 4)] [(0.00487729)/ (1.3)]
= 0.998383
Fr =1+E/R Where: E = p1/ (ρ1v12) & R = (ρ1v1D)/µ
p1 = 370 psia, γ1= 0.570 ρ1/ρa = γ1
From Table 12, Appendix A, page A-11
ρa = 0.07650 lbm/ft3
ρ1 = γ1ρa = (0.570) (0.07650) lbm/ft3 = 0.043605 lbm/ft3
= [(0.043605)/(123)] lbm/in3
ρ1= 0.000025234375 lbm/in3
According to industrial standards (SAES-J-032) for gas lines

across country the maximum velocity must not exceed 100
ft/sec to avoid line errosion and ruptures.
v1= 100ft/sec = 1200 in/sec, v12 = 1440000 in2/sec2
E = p1/(ρ1v12)
= (3.70)/[(2.52344)(1.44)] (lbf /in2)/[(lbm/in3)(in2/sec2)]
= 1.0182
R = (ρ1v1D)/µ
= [(2.5234) (1.44) (105) (8.07085)]/ (6.9) [(lbm/in3)(in/sec)(in)]/
[(lbm)/(in) (sec)] = 425,029
E/R = µ p1/ (ρ12v13D) = (1.0182)/[(4.25029)(105)] = (2.3956)(10-6)

Fr =1+E/R = 1+ (2.3956) (10-6) = 1.0000024
C = C0 Fr Y1 = 1.03160 C0 = C/ (Fr Y1)
= (1.03160)/[(1.0000024)(0.998383)] = 1.03327
Fb = 338.17 C0d2 = (338.17)(1.03327)(3.99989)2
= 5590.427168 (in3)(lbm)-0.5
Fpv = √(Zb/Z1)
γ1 = (mwp1)/(10.73T1Z1) Z1= (mwp1)/(10.73T1γ1) &
Zb= (mwpb)/(10.73Tbγ1)
Zb/ Z1= [(pb)/(Tb)]/[ (p1)/(T1)] = [(pb)(T1)]/[ (p1)(Tb)]
The pressure adjustment factor Fp = (156.47)/ (160.8 – 7.22γ1 +

Kp)
Where:
Kp = xc – 0.392xn
Kp = 0.0 – 0.392(1.1) = – 0.4312
Fp = (156.47)/ [160.8 – 7.22(0.570) + (– 0.4312)] =1.0014
Adjusted pressure = p1 Fp = (370) (1.0014) = 370.5psig
Adjusted base pressure = (14.65)(1.0014) = 14.67psig
The temperature adjustment factor FT = (226.29)/ (99.15 +

211.9γ1 – KT); where:
KT = xc + 1.681xn
KT = 0.0 + 1.681(1.1) = 1.849
FT = (226.29)/ (99.15 + 211.9(0.570) – 1.849) = 1.0376
Adjusted temperature = T1FT – 460
= (65 + 459.67) (1.0376) – 459.67

= 544.40 – 459.67 = 94.73° F
Adjusted base temperature = (509.67) (1.0376) – 459.67
= 528.83 – 459.67 = 69.16° F
Zb/ Z1= [(pb)(T1)]/[ (p1)(Tb)]
= [(14.67)(94.73+ 459.67)]/[(370.5) (69.16 + 459.67)]
= 0.0415
Fpv = √(Zb/Z1) = √ (0.0415) = 0.2037
FTb =Tb/(60+459.67) = (509.67)/(519.67) = 0.9808
Fpb = (14.73)/pb = (14.73)/(14.65) = 1.0055
FT1 = √[(60 + 459.67)/(T1)] = √ [(519.67)/(524.67)] = 0.9952
Fγ1 = √(1/γ1) = √[(1)/(0.570)] = 1.3245
FL = g/32 = 32/32 =1
Fm = √[1- (γ1/γm)] = √(1- 0.570) = 0.6557
Fe = 1+α1(T1-Te) = 1 +0.00000925(65 – 68)
= 0.99997 √(p1Lc) = √ [(370)(50)]
= 136.0147[(lbf/in2)(in)]0.5 =136.0147[( lbm sec-2)]0.5
Qv = FbFTbFpbFT1Fγ1FrY1FpvFeFmFL√(p1Lc)
Qv = (5590.4272) (0.9808)(1.0055)( 0.9952) (1.3245) (1)
0.9984) (0.2037)(1)(0.6557)(1)(136.0147)[(in3 )(lbm)-0.5]
[(lbm sec-2)]0.5
Qv= (5590.4272) (0.9808)(1.0055)( 0.9952)(1.3245)(0.9984)
(0.2037)(0.6557) )(136.0147)(in3 )( sec-1)

Qv= (5590.4272) (23.5783) (in3)( sec-1) = 131812.835669
= 76.2806 ft3 / sec = 274,610.0743 ft3 / hr
Qv= 274,610.0743 ft3 / hr
Flow Calculations Using Circular Charts
Example of 2 Pen Recorder Chart.
Given:
Differential Pressure (Avg) = 15.5 inches H2O.
Static Pressure (Avg) = 145.5lbs = 145.5+14.73 =

160.23psia.
Hourly coefficient of discharge C = 415.60 (assumed)
Qv = C √(PLc) = 415.60√[(160.23) (15.5)]
Qv = 20,690 SCFH, or 496,560 SCFD
Data:
Avg.atm.press. = 14.1psia
Base press. = 14.73psia
Press.comp.index = 10psig
Required:
To correct meter pressure to compensate for the difference

between Press. Comp. Index Design and correct Operating
Conditions.

Figure 28. Circular Chart for Flow Calculation

(Example Exercise
Solution:
Fp = (Pm+Ps)/Pb where Fp=Oper.Press.Correction Factor
Pm = Press.in meter
Ps = Avg.Atm.Press.
Pb = Base Press
Fp = (14.1+10)/14.73=1.63612
Required operating gear ratio = standard standard non Press

Press.Comp. Index Gear Ratio (200), divided by Operating
Press.Correction Factor = 200/Fp = 200/1.63612
=122.2404(Press.Comp.Index Design).
Actual gear ratio design in the Press.Comp.Index Design

(obtained from manufacturer, correct to 4 decimals) is
120.0000 to 1 (closest actual gear ratio to fit the design
condition).

Actual Index Design Press Factor = 200.0000/120.0000
= 1.6667
Percent Error Press.Comp.Index (with 10.00psig meter

press.) = [(122.2404-120.000)/122.2404]100% =1.83%
(fast).
Correct Meter Press. = (Actual Index Design Pressure

Factor) Pb - Ps = 1.6667*14.73-14.10=24.56-14.10
Correct Meter Pressure = 10.46psig. The 10 psig

Press.Comp.Index will indicate 1.83% more volume if the
delivered gas pressure is not properly adjusted to 10.46
psig.
Example of 3 Pen Recorder Chart
1. Time Driven Type Recorder
Given:
This recorder is driven by a 6 inch meter with index drive rate

100cuft/rev. The meter is rated at 30,000cuft/hr maximum
displacement.
Data:
The gear mechanism is such that 1cycle = 10,000 cuft. The

chart completes 1 rev. in 7 days. Each circumferential division of
the chart = 1hr. Therefore the maximum flow in one hour =
10,000cuft. The meter is rated at 30,000cuft/hr.
Required:
To check chart rating with actual flow indicated by the chart.

Figure 29. 3 Pen Recorder Chart (Example Exercise)
Solution:
The gear mechanism is such that 1 cycle = 10,000cuft. The

chart completes 1 rev. in 7 days. Each circumferential division of
the chart = 1hr. Therefore the maximum flow in one hour =
10,000cuft. The meter is rated at 30,000cuft/hr.
This indicates that the meter is over sized for the required flow
conditions. 1rev = 7 days = 168hrs. The chart is made to
accommodate 1cycle/hr so for 168hrs the volume pen would
cover 168 cycles or 1,680,000cuft in 7 days.
From the chart shown the volume pen covered 64 cycles or

640,000cuft. The left index register had 67,525,700cuft. The
found index register had 68,166,400cuft. The difference is
640,700cuft, which is in close agreement with the chart reading.
To correct to standard conditions, the second line pen reads
51.27 psig (avg.) and the third line pen reads 43.6 ° F.

So: Vst = [(PmTst)/(PstTm)]
Vm = {[(51.27+14.7) (60+460)]/ [(14.7) (43.6+460)]} 40,700
= 2,563,826SCF
At 43.6 ° F and 0.60 sp.gr., (Fpv)2= 1.0090.
Therefore:
Vst = (2563826) (1.0090) = 2,586,900SCF
% deviation = [(2586900-2563826)/2563826] (100) %
= 0.9% increase
BTU and Heating Value Determination
Given:
Natural gas flowing in a 16 inch line; an online BTU analyzer

collects samples and analyses them. The orifice meter
registers a flow rate of 240,000 cfh
Field Data:
Line size is 16 inches (actual line size) and the orifice size is
4.000 inches

60° F
The average differential head is 50 inches water column and the

average downstream gauge static pressure is 370psig.

Required:
The heating value of the gas.
Figure 30. Graphic for BTU and Heating Value Determination
Required:
The heating value of the gas.

Solution:
Heating value is a gas property evaluated on a per unit mass

basis (Hm). This property is technically termed an “ideal
property” (Hmid). From the practical stand point, in mass
measurement there is no difference between the “ideal” and
“real”. The value is converted to a heating value per cubic foot
(HV) using the following relationship:
HV = Hm (ρbid /Zb ) = Hmρb ( BTU/ft3)
The value of HV is used as a factor in calculating the energy

flow rate, or the total energy passing through the flow meter. HV
is also used for product specification.
Heating value can also be expressed per unit volume (Hv id):
(HV)v = Hv id / Zb (BTU/ft3)
Natural gas sometimes contains several components like

carbon dioxide and nitrogen, each contributing to the total gas
heating value.
HV = Σ [Hm (ρbid /Zb )]n = Σ(Hmρb)n And (HV)v = Σ ( Hv id / Zb)n
Where: n = number of components = 1 to n
The mole% of nitrogen in our gas is 1.10% and the mole

percent of carbon dioxide is 0.0%. No carbon dioxide is present.
γ = 0.570 γ = γg + γN2 + = 0.570,
From Table 12, page A-11, in appendix A,
γN2 = 0.96723
% γN2 = (1.1)(0.96723)(10-2)
γN2= 0.01063953 in the gas 0.570 = 0.01063953 + γg
γg = 0.55936047
HV = Σ [Hm (ρbid /Zb)]n = Σ(Hmρb )n
HV = (Hmρb )N2 + (Hmρb )CO2 + (Hmρb )CH4

(Hmρb )N2 = (Hmρb )CO2 = 0
HV = (Hmρb )CH4
Zb= (mwpb)/(10.73Tbγg)
Gas is CH4 (methane), mw = 16.043
Zb = [16.043)(14.73)]/[10.73)(60 + 460)(0.55936047)]
= (236.3134) /(3121.0077) = 0.0757
From Table 12, page A-11, in appendix A
(ρbid)CH4 = 0.04237 (Hm) CH4 = 23,891 BTU/lbm
ρb = (ρbid /Zb ) = [(0.04237)/( 0.0757)] lbm/ft3 = 0.559709 lbm/ft3
HV = (Hmρb )CH4 = (23,891)( 0.559709 )( BTU/lbm)(lbm/ft3)
HV = 13,372 BTU/ft3
The orifice meter registers a flow rate of 240,000 cfh
Heat Energy Output per hour = (HV)(Qv) = (240,000 )(13,372)

[(BTU/ft3)(ft3/hr)] = POWER
POWER = (240,000) (13,372) = 3,209,280,000
(BTU/hr) = 939.7106198 Megawatts
This type of gas can be used as feed fuel for running gas
turbine engines, electric power generating plant and other
power generating facilities. The heating power in natural gas
can be used to heat our homes in winter, in cold climatic
countries, because it is cheap and abundant in nature, $0.50 a
cubic foot.

Flow Calculations Using Turbine Meters
Given:
A 12inch pipeline equipped with flange taps.
Field Data:
Line size is 12.00 inches
Line static pressure is 300 psig
Required:
To install a suitable gas turbine meter with minimum pressure

drop to measure the flow rate.
Figure 31. Graphic for Flow Calculations Using Turbine Meters

Solution:
From the design criteria given in SAES-L-032 “Material

Selection of Piping Systems”, the maximum line velocity for
single phase gas lines shall not exceed 18.3meters/second.
18.3 meters/second = 60.04 feet/second
Qv = Av = (πvD2)/4 = (π)(6.004)(9)(10)3 cu ft/hr
= 169,673.04 SCFH
Turbine meters are designed to operate in a reasonably high

velocity flow stream. The velocity best suited for the meter may
not be best suited to transport the fluid. With properly sized
piping, if the piping runs are short, the pipe size can be the
same as the meter. If the piping runs are long as is in this case,
the pipe size may be larger than the meter size.
We require a meter with appropriate size for minimum pressure

drop. The pressure loss can be found from the following
equation.
∆Pv= 1.2 ∆P ν0.25 γ(Qv/Q)2
Where:
∆Pv = Pressure loss with gas in psi differencial
∆P = Rated pressure loss for a given size meter calibrated

at its maximum and minimum flow ranges in inches
water column.
ν = Kinamatic viscosity of fluid in centistokes.
γ = Specific gravity of gas
Qv = Operating flow rate
Q = Flow rate at rated pressure loss

From the vendor catalogs and performance data, a 4 inch

turbine meter with a maximum flow rate of 384,600 scfh
operating in a 300 psig line static pressure has a rated
pressure drop of 24.5 inches of water column.
24.5 inches W.C = 0.88 psi
For natural gas the dynamic viscosity µm = 0.0000069 lbm/ft

sec. = 0.1026833121cp
ν = [µm (cp)/ρ (g/cm3)] centistokes
γ ρa = ρ = (0.570) (0.07650) lbm/ft3 = 0.043605 lbm/ft3
= 0.0006984850954 g/cm3
ν = (0.1026833121)/ (0.0006984850954) centistokes
= 147.46 centistokes
∆Pv = 1.2 ∆P ν0.25 γ(Qv/Q)2
= (1.2)(24.5)(147.46)0.25 (0.570)[(169,673.04)/(384,600)]2
∆Pv = (16.758) (3.4847) (0.1947) = 11.37 psid
= 11.37 inches W.C. = 0.41psi
∆Pv = 11.37 psid = 0.41psi
This was a good choice of meter size. Therefore the meter

choice is a 4 inch gas turbine meter.
To calibrate the meter we need to know its frequency.
Qv= Av = [(πd2)/4] v = [(πd2)/4][(ω(d/2)] = [(πd2)/4][[(2π)/t][d/2]]
= [(fπ2d3)/4]
Qv = Km f (cu in/sec) Where Km= (π2d3)/4 cu in
f = (4Qv )/(π2d3) cycles/ sec

f = Cm Qv Where: Cm= (4/π2d3) (cu in)-1 = (4/π2d3) in-3
Cm= 1/Km
At maximum flow rate:
Qm = 384,600 scfh
= {[(3.846) (105)] [(1.44) (1.2)]}/[(3.6)] cu in/sec
f = [(4) (4.930572) (103)]/ (6.4) cycles/sec
= 3,081.61pulses/sec
At minimum flow rate:
Qm = 5,546 scfh
= {[(5.546) (103)] [(1.44) (1.2)]}/[(3.6)] cu in/sec
f = [(4) (2.66208) (10)]/ (6.4) = 16.638 pulses/sec
The meter is linear between 30% and 80% 0f its flow range.
At 80% of range Qm = 307,680 scfh
At 30% of range Qm = 115,380 scfh
At 55% of range (the mid point of its linear range)
Qm = 211,530 scfh = [(2.1153) (105) (1.44) (1.2)]/ (3.6)
At 55% the frequency:
f = [(4) (2.1153) (1.44) (1.2) (103)]/ (6.4) = 2,285 pulses /sec
Cm= (4/π2d3) (cu in)-1 = (4/π2d3) in-3 = f / Qv
Cm = (2.285)/ [(1.015344) (102)] cycles / in3 = 2.251pulses/in3
Cm = (4/π2d3) in-3 = f / Qv pulses/in3 = System Factor = 1/Km
System Factor = 1/Km = Cm = 2.251pulses/in3 for this 4 inch

turbine meter.

Flow Calculations Using Ultra sonic Meters
Given:
A 16 inch pipeline equipped with flanges.
Field Data:
Line size is 16.00 inches
Line static pressure is 300 psig.

50° F
Beam sensors are situated 3D inches apart and 180 degrees

opposite each other on top of the pipe.
Transmission frequency is 20KHz
Required:
A suitable size Ultra sonic flow meter and the mass quantity rate
of flow for one hour.

Figure 32. Graphic for Flow Calculations Using Ultrasonic Meters
Solution:
From the design criteria given in SAES-L-032 “Material

Selection of Piping Systems”, the maximum line velocity for
single phase gas lines shall not exceed 18.3meters/second.
18.3 meters/second = 60.04 feet/second.
Qv = Av = (πvD2)/4 = (π)(60.04)(3600)(16/12)2/4
= 301,640.21 cu ft/hr
From the vendor catalogs and performance data, for 300psig

line pressure, a 16 inch Ultra sonic flow meter will give the
desired flow and hence can be used as a flow meter.
For Ultrasonic flow meters it is usually common practice to size

the meter the same as that of the line it is to be installed in.
However smaller size meters will work equally well for long
cross country pipelines where cost of equipment and installation
can be a concern.

Figure 33. Ultrasonic Wave Propagation
Propagated rate of ultrasonic waves:
In the direction of flow from A to B
vAB = c0 + v cos ϕ
Against the direction of flow from B to A
vBA = c0 - v cos ϕ
c0 = sound velocity in fluid
In a less dense fluid the velocity of sound is faster than in a

more dense fluid. It is measured by the Mach number:
Mach number = Velocity of sound in the gas / velocity of sound

in air.
M = c0/c where: c = velocity of sound in air.
c α 1/ ρa and c0 α 1/ ρg so, M α ρa/ ρg
M = c0/c = κ(ρa/ ρg)
Where:
κ = constant characteristic to the physical properties and

behavior of the fluid.
Mach = κ(ρa/ ρaγ) = κ/γg

From the physical properties tables, Table 12 page A-11 in the

appendix:
ρa = 0.07650 lbm /ft3
ρg = γgρa = (0.07650) (0.570) lbm /ft3 = 0.043605 lbm /ft3
M = c0/c = κ(ρa/ ρg) = κ/ 0.0570 = 1.75 κ
Assuming all conditions of measurement s are equal,

Approximating M = 2, c0/c = 2
c0 = 2c = (2)(300) mtrs/sec = 600 mtrs/sec = 1968.50 ft/sec
L = length of measuring beam, distance between sensors A and

B.
D = pipe diameter
L = √ (D2 +9D2) = D√(10)= 3.16D
ϕ = angle between pipe axis and measuring beam.
Cos ϕ = (3D) /(3.16D) = 0.95
vAB = c0 + v cos ϕ
= 1968.50 + (60.04) (0.95) = 1968.5 +57.04 = 2025.54 ft/sec
vAB> vBA
vBA = c0 - v cos ϕ = 1968.5 – 57.04 = 1911.46 ft/sec
Transit time of ultrasonic waves: in the direction of flow from ‘A’

to ‘B.’
t AB = L/ vAB = L/(c0 + v cos ϕ)
t AB = L/ vAB = L/(c0 + v cos ϕ) = (3.16D)/( 2025.54 )
= (4.94) (10-4) (1.3) = 2.1 m sec

t BA = L / vBA= L/(c0 - v cos ϕ) = (3.16D)/( 1911.46 )
= (16.53) (1.3)(10-4) = 2.15 m sec
Against the direction of flow from ‘B’ to ‘A.’
t BA = L / vBA= L/(c0 - v cos ϕ)
tAB< tBA
Mean velocity v = (vAB - vBA)/2 = [(c0 + v cos ϕ) – (c0 - v cos ϕ)]/2
v = [(L/ t AB ) – ( L/ t BA)]/2
v = [L (t BA - t AB )]/ (2t BAt AB)
The volumetric flow rate per unit time is the product of the mean
velocity v multiplied by the pipe cross sectional area.
Qv = Av = [(πD2)/4]{[L (t BA - t AB )]/ (2t BAt AB)}
Qv = [(πLD2)/(8t BAt AB)] [(t BA - t AB )]
Let [(πLD2)/8] = constant = K
Then:
Qv = K[(t BA - t AB )/(t BAt AB)]
Qv = K[(t BA - t AB )/(t BAt AB)] = [(0.05)/(4.52)]K =0.0111K

msec-1
K = [(πLD2)/8] = [(π)(3.16D3)]/8 = 2.73 ft3
Qv = (2.73)(0.0111) ft3/msec
Qv = 109,091 cfh
Maximum line allowable velocity = 60.04 ft/sec and maximum

allowable line flow rate = 301,640.21cfh
The maximum flow rate the meter will measure = 109,091cfh.

This is less than half the required flow.

Trial No.1 let us bring the sensors closer to each other but 180
degrees apart (Say 2D)
L = √ (D2 +4D2) = D√(5)= 2.2D
Cos ϕ = (2D) /(2.2D) = 0.91
vAB = c0 + v cos ϕ
= 1968.50 + (60.04)(0.91) = 1968.5 +54.63 = 2023.13ft/sec
vBA = c0 - v cos ϕ = 1968.5 – 54.63 = 1913.87ft/sec
t AB = L/vAB = L/(c0 + v cos ϕ) = (2.2D)/(2023.13) = 0.00141sec
t BA = L/vBA= L/(c0 - v cos ϕ) = (2.2D)/(1911.46)
= 0.001496 sec
K = [(πLD2)/8] = [(π)(2.2D3)]/8 = 1.897 ft3
Qv = K[(t BA - t AB )/(t BAt AB)] = (18.97)(8.6)/(2.11)] = 77.31848
= 278,347 cfh
Qv = 278,347 cfh
Trial No. 2: Let us bring the sensors closer to each other but
180 degrees apart (Say 1D)
L = √ (D2 +D2) = D√(2)= 1.4D
Cos ϕ = (D) / (1.4D) = 0.71
vAB = c0 + v cos ϕ = 1968.50 + (60.04) (0.71) = 1968.5 + 42.63
= 2011.13 ft/sec
vBA = c0 - v cos ϕ = 1925.87 ft/sec
t AB = L/ vAB = L/(c0 + v cos ϕ) = 0.000905 =(9.05)(10-4)sec
t BA = L / vBA= L/(c0 - v cos ϕ) = 0.000945 = (9.45) )(10-4)sec
K = [(πLD2)/8] = [(π)(1.4D3)]/8 = 1.21 ft3

Qv = K[(t BA - t AB )/(t BAt AB)] = (1.21)[(102)(4)/( 8.55225)]
= 203,790 cfh
= 203,790 cfh
Qv = 203,790 cfh
Trial No.3: Let us take the sensors apart from each other but
180 degrees apart (Say 1.5D)
L = √[D2+(1.5D)2) = D√(3.25)= 1.8D
Cos ϕ = (D) /(1.8D) = 0.56
vAB = c0 + v cos ϕ = 1968.50 + (60.04) (0.56) = 1968.5 +

33.62 = 2002.12 ft/sec
t AB = L/ vAB = L/(c0 + v cos ϕ) = (11.69) (10-4)sec
t BA = L / vBA= L/(c0 - v cos ϕ) = (12.09)(10-4)sec
K = [(πLD2)/8] = [(π)(1.8D3)]/8 = 1.55 ft3
= 157,962 cfh
Qv = 157,962 cfh
L = √ [ D2 +(2.5D)2 ) = D√(7.25)= 2.7D
Cos ϕ = (D) /(2.7D) = 0.37
vAB = c0 + v cos ϕ = 1968.50 + (60.04) (0.37) = 1968.5 + 22.22
= 1990.72 ft/sec

t AB = L/ vAB = L/(c0 + v cos ϕ) = (17.63)(10-4)sec
K = [(πLD2)/8] = [(π)(2.7D3)]/8 = 2.33 ft3
= 105553 cfh
Qv = 105,553 cfh
Trial No.5: Let us bring the sensors closer to each other but
L = √[D2 +(0.5D)2 ) = D√(1.25)= 1.11D
Cos ϕ = (D) /(1.11D) = 0.9
vAB = c0 + v cos ϕ = 1968.50 + (60.04) (0.9) = 1968.5 + 54.04
= 2022.54 ft/sec
t AB = L/ vAB = L/(c0 + v cos ϕ) = (7.14)(10-4)sec
K = [(πLD2)/8] = [(π)(1.11D3)]/8 = 0.96 ft3
Qv = K[(t BA - t AB )/(t BAt AB)] = (9.6)[(10)(3.6)/( 5.355)]
= 232119 cfh
Qv = 232119 cfh

180 degrees apart ( Say 2D ) and apply a fluid velocity of 80%
of maximum line velocity. Let us assume a better Mach number.
(Say M = 1.8). Usually the mach numbers of compressible fluids
are given in reference tables.
Now v = 80% of 60.04 ft/sec. = 48.03 ft/sec
M =1.8 = c0/c
c0 = 1.8c = (1.8)(300) mtrs/sec
c0 = 540 mtrs/sec = 1771.65 ft/sec
L = √(D2 +4D2) = D√(5)= 2.2D
Q = [(3.14)(1.7)/4]( 48.03) ft3/sec = 230,745.726 cfh
Cos ϕ = (2) /(2.2) = 0.91
vAB = c0 + v cos ϕ = 1771.65 + (48.03)(0.91) = 1771.65 + 43.71
= 1815.36 ft/sec
vBA = c0 - v cos ϕ = 1771.65 – 43.71 = 1727.94 ft/sec
t AB = L/ vAB = (2.2D)/(1815.36) = (15.8)(10-4) sec
t BA = L / vBA= (2.2D)/(1727.94) =(16.6 )(10-4) sec
K = [(πLD2)/8] = [π(2.2D3)]/8 = 1.897 ft3
Qv = K [(t BA - t AB )/(t BAt AB)] = (1.897)[(8)(10)/ (2.6228)]
= 208287
Line flow = 230,745.726 cfh
Qv = 208,287 cfh

Table 1. Test Results
Sensor QL cfh D ft K ft3 v ft/sec tAB (10-4)sec tBA(10-4) sec Qv fh

Distance
0.5D 301,640 1.3 0.96 60.04 7.14 7.5 232,119
1.0D 1.21 9.05 9.45 203,790
1.5D 1.55 11.69 12.093 157,962
2.0D 1.897 14.1 14.96 278,347
2.0D 230,746 1.3 1.897 48.03 15.8 16.6 208,287
(80%)
2.5D 301,640 2.33 60.04 17.63 18.03 105,553
3.0D 2.73 21 21.5 109,091
% Deviation at 2.0D v = 60.04 ft/sec
%Deviation = [(301640 – 278347)/[(301640 +278347)/2]](100)
=8%
% Deviation at 2.0D v =80% of 60.04 ft/sec = 48.03 ft/sec
% Deviation = [(230746 – 208287)/[(230746 + 208287)/2]]
= 10%
Note:
The meter performance is independent of the fluid energy and

dependent on the physical properties of the fluid, especially the
density. If we take into consideration all actual parameter
constants, calculate the proper Mach number based on actual
flow properties with minimum assumptions made and bring all
conditions to standard conditions we should get very close
correlation between actual pipe flow and metered flow. In
practice, the transit times between the sensors are measured by
sophisticated electronic equipment

Process conditions allow 5% deviations. The Ultrasonic flow

meter is still under evaluation and testing currently in Europe
and the United States.
This meter is good for liquid or incompressible flow, and small

gas lines where pipe size and sensor locations does not affect
the performance of the meter.
From the theoretical data and simulated analysis the Ultra sonic
meter needs further refinements to be applicable to custody
transfer. This is an interesting technology item and well worth
the study.
Flow Calculations Using Mass Meters
Given:
A 1.0 inch 150lbs SS316L mass meter installed in a 16 inch gas

line. The tube weighs 20lbs.
Field Data:
Line size is 16.00 inches and meter size is 1.00 inches

50° F
Gauge static pressure is 370 psig.
Straight length of tube is 12.0 inches and the distance between

the inlet and outlet of the meter is 12.0 inches.
Tube weighs 20lbs.
Tube resonant frequency is 180Hz
Required:
The volumetric flow through the meter in one hour.

Figure 34. Graphic for Flow Calculations Using Mass Meters
Solution:
Qm = (Kθ)/(4ωrL)
For small angles, Sin θ = θ = d/2r
Qm = (Kd)/(8ωLr2)
L + δL = √(d2 +L2)
(L + δL) 2 - L2 = d2
d = √[(L + δL) 2 - L2]
E = (Ks)/(Aδs) = (Ks)/ (2AδL)
E = (3)(107) lbsfin-2
K/A = 18,750 lbsfin-2
s = 2(L-r) +0.5(2π r) = 2L +r(π -2) =(2)(12 +6) + 6(3.14 –2)
s = 42.84 inches

δL = (Ks)/(2AE) = (K/A)(s/2E) = (18,750){(42.84)/[(6)(107)]}
= 0.0133875 inches
δL = 0.0134 inches
d = √[(L + δL) 2 - L2] = √[(18 + 0.0134) 2 - 182] = √(0.4826)
= 0.6947 inches
K/A = 18,750 lbsfin-2
K = (18,750)(A) = (18750){[(3.14)(1)]/4}= 14,720 lbsf
ω = 2πf = (2π)(180) Hz = 1130.4 sec-1
Qm = (Kd)/(8ωLr2) = [(14720)(0.6947)]/[(8)(1130.4)(18)(36)]
Qm = 0.001745 lbsf sec in-2
Varifying:
Qm = (Kθ)/(4ωrL) = (Kd)/(8ωLr2)
d = vδt = ωLδt = 0.6947 inches
δt = (0.6947)/(ωL) = (0.6947)/[(1130.4)(18)]
δt = 34.143µsec
Qm = (Kd)/(8ωLr2) = (Kδt)/(8r2)
= [(14,720)(0.00003414 )]/[(8)(36)]
Qm = 0.001745 lbsf sec in-2
Qm = (0.001745)(32)(12) lbsmsec-1 in-1
= (0.001745)(32)(12)(3600)(42.84) lbsm/hr

Qm = 103,342.42 lbsm/hr
ρ = {[(t2 K)/ (4π2)] - m1}/ V = {[(t2 K)/ (4π2)] - m1}/(As)
t =1/f =1/180 = 0.0056 sec
t2 = 0.00003136 sec2
K = 14,720 lbsf (t2 K)/ (4π2)
= [(0.00003136) (14720)]/[(4)(9.86)] lbsf sec2
= [(0.01170) (32) (12)]/ (42.84) lbsm (t2 K)/ (4π2) = 0.1227 lbsm
m1= 20 lbsf = (20)/[(32)(12)] lbsm = 0.05208 lbsm
A = [(3.14) (1)]/(4) in2 = 0.785 in2
As = (0.785) (42.84) in3 = 33.6294 in3
ρ = {[(t2 K)/ (4π2)] - m1}/ (As)
= (0.1227 – 0.05208)/ (33.63) lbsm in-3
= (0.07062)/ (33.63)) lbsm in-3
ρ = 0.0021 lbsm/ in3
The volumetric flow through the meter in one hour is:
Qv = Qm/ρ = 49210676.191 in3/hr
= (49210676.191)/ [(144) (12)] ft3/hr = 28478.40 ft3/hr
Qv = 49,210,676.191 in3/hr = 28,478.40 ft3/hr

ADDENDUM
Index of Addendum Page
Addendum A: Orifice Factors Tables................................................................................
Addendum B: Orifice Installation ......................................................................................
Figures
Figure B-1. Typical Orifice Plate Line Installation ............................................................
Figure B-2. Typical Orifice Plate .......................................................................................
Figure B-3. Typical Meter Run Length .............................................................................
Tables
Table 1. Basic Orifice Factor Fb

Table 2. Reynolds Factor FF
Table 3. Expansion Factor for Flange Taps Y1
Table 5. Base Pressure Factor Fpb
Table 6. Base Temperature Factor Ftb
Table 7. Flowing Temperature Factor Ftf
Table 8. Specific Gravity Factor Fgr
Table 9. Super Compressibility Factor Fpv
Table 10. Manoneter Factor Fm
Table 11. Gravitational Correction Factors FL
Table 12. Physical Properties of Gases
Table 13. Linear Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

ADDENDUM A: ORIFICE FACTORS TABLES
Table 1. Basic Orifice Factor Fb

Table 2. Reynolds Factor FF



Table 5. Base Pressure Factor Fpb

Table 6. Base Temperature Factor Ftb

Table 7. Flowing Temperature Factor Ftf

Table 8. Specific Gravity Factor Fgr

Table 9. Super Compressibility Factor Fpv

Table 10. Manoneter Factor Fm

Table 11. Gravitational Correction Factors FL

Table 12. Physical Properties of Gases

Table 13. Linear Coefficients of Thermal Expansion
Linear Coefficient of
Thermal Expansion, α
Material [U.S. Units (in/in-°F)]
Type 304 and 316 stainless steela 0.00000925
Monela 0.00000795
Carbon Steelb 0.00000620
Note: For flowing temperature conditions other than those stated in foot notes “a” and
“b” and for other materials, refer to the American Society for Materials Metals
Handbook.
a
For flowing conditions between – 100°F and +300°F, refer to ASME PTC 19.5.
b
For flowing conditions between - 7°F and +154°F, refer to Chapter, Section 2.

Addendum B: Orifice Installation
Figure B-1. Typical Orifice Plate Line Installation

Figure B-2. Typical Orifice Plate

Figure B-3. Typical Meter Run Length

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Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

GAS FLOW MEASUREMENT

Chapter : General Engineering For additional information on this subject, contact

Gas Flow Measurement

DEVELOPMENT OF THE FLOW EQUATION ............................................................... 9

INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION ....................................................................................... 34

MEASURING AND DATA RECORDING DEVICES ..................................................... 51

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards i

Gas Flow Measurement

Remote Terminal Units- Rtu .............................................................................. 59

ACCURACY DETERMINATION & INSTRUMENT TROUBLE SHOOTING................. 62

RECENT GAS FLOW MEASUREMENT TECHNOLOGIES ........................................ 66

EXERCISE PROBLEMS IN FLOW CALCULATIONS .................................................. 77

ADDENDUM .............................................................................................................. 113

ADDENDUM A: ORIFICE FACTORS TABLES ......................................................... 114

ADDENDUM B: ORIFICE INSTALLATION ............................................................... 127

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards ii

Gas Flow Measurement

Figure1. Constriction ..................................................................................................... 9

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards iii

Gas Flow Measurement

Figure 27. Orifice Plate Sizing Calculation Graphic...................................................... 83

Table 1. Basic Orifice Factor Fb................................................................................. 114

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards iv

Gas Flow Measurement

Brief History of Gas Measurements

• Turn the valve on a stove, a hissing sound might be heard

• Light it with a match, it can be seen burning

Gas is mysterious, a paradox. If it escapes the steel walls of

The sulfur content was measured in terms of gaseous impurities

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 5

Gas Flow Measurement

Economical Value and Recent Development of Accurate Measurement

The answer to both questions comes from the chemical analysis

Fundamental Laws of Nature

The fundamental laws of nature are:

1. Matter and Energy are directly related

2. Matter and Energy cannot be created or destroyed

1. Matter and Energy are interchangeable

2. Matter and Energy are transformable

As a result of the basic fundamental laws of mass and energy,

1. Conservation (Law of Mass Conservation): The rate of

2. Continuity (Law of Energy Conservation): The total

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 6

Gas Flow Measurement

These forms of energy are properties of the system. Heat

3. Avogadro’s Law: Equal volumes of gases measured at

1 gm = 22.4l @ s.c.; 1mole = 378.6 cuft @ s.c.

s.c. = 60 deg. F. & 0 psig. or 14.73 psia

1 gm = 22.4l = 6.024*10E23 molc

6.024*10E23, and 7.61*10E23 are Avogadro's numbers

4. Boyle’s Law: The volume occupied by a gas varies

5. Charles Law: The volume occupied by a gas varies

The measurement parameters which have a direct bearing on

In static measurements the parameters considered are three:

1. Temperature - A scalar quantity (has magnitude but no

6.02410E23, and 7.6110E23 are Avogadro's numbers