Principle of Electromechanical Energy conversion

Electromechanical energy conversion is a device which converts energy of one form to another
form. Electromechanical device converts electrical energy into mechanical energy and vice versa.
Energy conversion takes place through the medium of electric field or magnetic field.

The electromagnetic system is an essential element of all rotating electrical machines and
electromechanical devices.

Review of magnetic circuits and its properties

Magnetic field

Is the space around the poles of a magnetic and is represented by magnetic lines of forces.

In the region surrounding a permanent magnet there exists a magnetic field, represented by magnetic
flux lines similar to electric flux lines.

Magnetic flux lines differ from electric flux lines where they don’t have an origin or
termination point.

Magnetic flux lines radiate from the north pole to the south pole through the magnetic bar.

The strength of a magnetic field in a given region is directly proportional to the density of flux lines
in that region.

Magnetic Field Intensity

 
The magnetic field strength or magnetic field intensity is given by MMF per unit
length of the magnetic circuit.
 Magnetic Field Intensity, H = (NI) ÷ l 
where N = Number of turns of magnetizing coil
                   I = Current through the coil
              l = length of magnetic material in meters
Units: AT/m.
The magnetic field intensity is also known as magnetic field strength or magnetizing
force.
 
Magnetic force
Is the force exerted on one magnet by another one, either of attraction or of repulsion.

If unlike poles of two permanent magnets are brought together, the magnets will
attract and the flux distribution will be as shown below.

But if likes poles are brought together, the magnets will repel. And the flux
distribution will be as shown below.

If a magnetic materials such as iron, nickel, cobalt are placed in the flux path, the flux lines will pass
through the them rather than the surrounding air because they provide an easy path for magnetic
flux.
Direction of magnetic field can be determined by the Right Hand Rule
Place your right hand around conductor with your thumb in the direction of the current
Your fingers will point in the direction of the magnetic field

Cross(❌) means field is inwards i.e., away from you.

Dot(.) means field is outwards i.e., coming towards you.

Magnetic flux and Flux density

Magnetic flux is a measure of the number of magnetic lines of force passing through some surface
held in the magnetic field.
SI unit = webers (Wb)
Symbol, Φ

Flux density(B) is the number of flux per unit area.

Is a scalar quantity.
B = Φ /A
Units; Wb/m2 or teslas (T)
1 tesla = 10,000 gauss
B may also be measured in gauss.

Q) Given the flux density at cross section 1 is B1 = 0.4T, determine B2 ?

Φ = B1 x A1 = B2 x A2

Permeability
The ability of a material to carry the magnetic lines of flux is known as permeability of that material
or is a measure of the ease with which magnetic flux lines can be established in the material.

The magnetic lines of force can pass through high permeability materials like iron, steel, very easily.
Low permeability materials like wood etc. don’t allow the flux lines to pass through them easily.
Magnetic material is material in which flux lines can readily be created and is said to have high
permeability.

Materials that have permeability slightly less than that of free space are said to be diamagnetic and
those with permeability slightly greater than that of free space are said to be paramagnetic.
Magnetic materials, such as iron, nickel, steel and their alloys, have permeability hundreds and even
thousands times that of free space and are referred to as ferromagnetic.

Absolute Permeability
 It is the ratio of flux density (B) in a particular medium to the magnetic field strength (H) which
produces magnetic flux density. It is denoted by µ.
 
Absolute Permeability, µ = µo µr
Units: Henry/meter (H/m)
 
 
Permeability of the Air/Space/Vacuum
 If a magnet is kept in air or vacuum, then the ratio of flux density (B) and magnetic field strength
(H) is defined as the permeability of free space. It is denoted by µo.
 
Permeability of free space, µo = 4π x 10-7 H/m
 
Relative Permeability
 Is the ratio of permeability of material to the permeability of vacuum or air.
 
Relative Permeability, µr = µ ÷ µ

μ
μr =
μ0
It has no units.
The relative permeability of vacuum, air and all non-magnetic materials is 1. The relative
permeability of all the magnetic materials is very high. For example, the relative permeability of
permalloy (nickel 78% and iron 22%) is about 50000.
Magnetic circuit
Magnetic circuit is closed path to which a magnetic field, represented as lines of magnetic flux, is
confined or is a closed path followed by magnetic flux.

In contrast to an electric circuit through which electric charge flows, nothing actually flows in a
magnetic circuit.

In a magnetic circuit, flux starts from one point and finishes at the same point. A magnetic circuit
usually consists of magnetic materials having high permeability such as iron, soft-steel, etc. since
they offer small opposition to magnetic flux.
 
The magnetic flux is usually produced by an electric current through a solenoid (having a large
number of turns. There are three types of magnetic circuits:

 Series Magnetic Circuit

 Parallel Magnetic Circuit
 Series-parallel Magnetic Circuits
 Series Magnetic Circuit

 Is a magnetic circuit that has many parts of different dimensions and materials connected in series.
 
Consider a composite magnetic circuit consisting of three parts having different lengths, area of
cross-sections and relative permeabilities. It also has an air-gap.
 
In this case, the reluctance of each part will be different depending upon the dimensions and relative
permeabilities of that part. The total reluctance will be the sum of the reluctance of individual parts.
The same flux will flow through complete circuits.

 
Parallel Magnetic Circuit

A magnetic circuit that has more than one path for the magnetic flux is called a parallel magnetic
circuit. It is similar to a parallel electric circuit that has more than one for electric current to flow.

Consider a parallel magnetic circuit shown in Figure. A current-carrying coil is wound on the central
limb. The flux set up by this coil is divided at A into two paths i.e.

 Flux ɸ1 passes along the path AFEB,

 Flux ɸ2 passes along the path ADCB

It is clear that ɸ = ɸ1 + ɸ2
 
Here the two magnetic paths AFEB and ADCB are in parallel, the total MMF required for this
parallel circuit will be equal to the MMF required for anyone of the above said paths.
Magneto-motive Force (MMF)

The magneto motive force is the driving force which produces the magnetic flux. The magnetic field
intensity (H) is decided by MMF.
 
Magneto-motive Force, MMF = NI
 
where N = Number of turns of magnetizing coil
                 I = Current through the coil
Units: Ampere Turns (AT)
 
 
Reluctance (S)
 It is opposition offered to the flow of magnetic flux by the magnetic material.
 
Unit: AT/Wb
 
Reluctance, S = l ÷ (µ x a)
 
where l = length of the magnetic path in meters.
           a = area of the cross-section of magnetic path in meter square.
           µ = absolute permeability of medium in H/m.
              = µoµr
Therefore, Reluctance, S = l ÷ (µoµra)
 
The reluctance is also given by the ratio of the MMF and the amount of flux produced.
 
i.e. Reluctance, S = MMF ÷ flux
 
Reluctance, S = (NI) ÷ φ

Leakage Flux
The part of the total magnetic flux which flows through the magnetic circuit is called useful
magnetic flux. However, the magnetic flux which does not completely pass through the magnetic
path, but partially passes through the air is called leakage magnetic flux

 
Mathematically, φtotal = φuseful + φleakage
 
 
Leakage Factor (λ)
The ratio of total flux produced to the useful flux is called leakage factor or leakage coefficient.
Leakage factor,   λ = φtotal / φuseful
 
The value of leakage factor is always greater than unity. Typical values of leakage factor are from
1.12 to 1.25. In the magnetic circuits, the magnetic leakage can be minimized by placing the exciting
coils as close as possible to the points where the flux is to be utilized.
 
Fringing
The magnetic lines of force repel each other while passing through a non-magnetic material. Due to
this when the flux lines cross the air gap, they tend to bulge outwards. This effect is known as
fringing.

 
 
The effect of fringing is to make the effective air gap area larger than that of magnetic path and
consequently, the flux density in the air gap is reduced. The effect of fringing depends upon the
length of the air gap. To minimize fringing, the air gap length is kept as small as possible. The effect
of fringing can be neglected if air gap length is very small as compared to its width.

Examples;

Q1) Consider a toriod with the mean length of 20 cm, the cross section of 2 cm2 ,and the relative
magnetic permeability of 6700. What is the magnetic flux and the magnetic flux density if the coil
has 10 turns and the current is 2 amperes?

Solution;

Given;

Mean length =20 cm= 0.2m

A= 2cm2 = 2*10-4 m

µ = 6700

N= 10

I=2 A

Φ =?

B=?

Reluctance, R given by R = l/ µo µrA [µo= 4pi*10-7]

R= 1.19*105 At/Wb

Φ=MMF/R [MMF=NI]

Φ=(2*10)/(1.19*105) = 1.68*10-4 Wb

Now, B = Φ/A

B= 0.84 Wb/m2 or T
Q2) An iron cored toroid of relative permeability 980 has a mean length of 120 cm and core area of
100 cm2. A current of 0.3 A establishes a flux of 40µWb. Calculate

1. The number of turns of coil.

Solution:
µr=980
l=120 cm=120 × 10−2m
A=10 cm 2 =10×10−4 m 2
I =0.3 A
Φ=40µWb =40×10−6 Wb

l
S=
µ0 µ r A
120× 10−2
=
4 π ×10−7 × 980× 10 ×10−4

=97,491.23AT/Wb

2. self-inductance.
Solution:
¿
Φ= S
ΦS
N=
I
40 ×10−6 × 97,491.23
=
0.3
= 12.998
=13

3. Energy stored in magnetic field.

Solution;
1
Energy = L I 2
2
1
= ×1.733×10−3 ×(0.3)2
2
= 7.8×10−5J
= 78µJ
 Q3) A square magnetic core has mean path length of 55cm and cross-sectional area of 150cm2.A 200
turn coil of wire is wrapped around one leg of the core. The core is made of a material have
following magnetizing curve data;

H(turns/m) 20 50 100 115 200 1000 2000

B(Tesla) 0.01 0.2 0.7 0.8 1.1 1.46 1.6

1) How much current is required to produce 0.012 wb of flux in the core?

2) What is the relative permeability at that current level?
3) What is its reluctance?

Chart Title
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
B(tesla)

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
115
H(turns/m)

Solution

Given:
L=55cm=0.55m;
A=150cm2=150×10-4m2
N=200rpm

1) Φ = 0.012wb

Ni=Φ s

Φ
 B=
A
 0.012
 =0.8Tesla
0.015

From the magnetization curve, the corresponding

H =115 AT/m

Hence, F=HL
115×0.55 =63.25AT

F
I=
N

=63.25/200=0.316A

2) μ =B/H
=0.8/115=0.00696 H/m
μ 0.00696
μr= =
μο 4 ∏ ×10−7

=5540

63.25
3) S= = 5270 AT/wb
0.012

Reference:
Gupta, J.B.(2005-06).Theory and performance of electrical
machines(page:22,example:1.4).Delhi:J.Soffset printers.
Similarities between electric and magnetic circuits;

Electric circuit Magnetic circuit

Path traced by the current Path traced by the magnetic flux

EMF is the driving force in the electric circuit. MMF is the driving force in the magnetic circuit.
The unit is Volt. The unit is ampere turns.

There is current I in the electric circuit which is There is flux phi in the magnetic circuit which is
measured in amperes. measured in weber .

The flow of electrons decides the current in the The number of magnetic lines of force decides the
conductor. flux.

Resistances (R) oppose the flow of current. The Reluctance (S) is opposed by magnetic path to the
unit is ohm. flux. Unit is ampere turn/weber.

R=rho*l/a S = l ÷ (µoµra)
Directly proportional to l Directly proportional to l
Inversely proportional to a Inversely proportional to µ = µo µr and a.
Depends on nature of material.

The current I = EMF/R The flux = MMF/S

Current density Flux density

Kirchhoff current law and voltage law is Kirchhoff mmf law and flux law is applicable to
applicable to the electric circuit. magnetic circuit.

Conductance = 1/Resistance Permeance = 1/Reluctance

Unit is Wb/AT Unit is siemens
Differences;
Electric circuit
Current does flow in electric circuit.
i.e there is a movement of electrons
Current would not flow through the sir until an
arc is struck.
Energy must be supplied to the electric circuit to
maintain the flow of current.
The resistance and conductivity are independent
of current density under constant temperature but
may change due to temperature.
Electric lines of flux are not closed. They start
from positive charge and end on negative charge.
There is continuous consumption of electrical
energy.
Magnetic circuit
Flux does not actually flow in a magnetic circuit.
Flux can pass through air.
Energy is required to create the magnetic flux
but not required to maintain it.
The reluctance, permanence and permeability are
dependent on flux density.
Magnetic lines of flux are closed lines. They
flow from north pole to south pole externally and
south to north internally.
Energy is required to create the magnetic flux
but not to maintain it.
Comparison between electrical and magnetic quantities  

Electric
Magnetic Circuit 
Circuit 

e.m.f. E (V)  m.m.f. Fm (A) 

current I (A)  flux Φ (Wb). 

resistance R (Ω)  reluctance S (H−1)  

R= (ρl) / A S = l / μ0μrA 

I = E / R Φ = mmf / S

Properties:

Several materials represent different macroscopic properties, they give different response to
external magnetic field. The reason for difference is certain different microscopic properties,
like electron shell configuration, movement and spin of electrons, or rather the influence of
external magnetic field on these properties. In ferromagnetic materials the relationship between B
and H (magnetisation curve) is nonlinear, multivalued, „history” dependent, and often time
dependent, its characteristics can not be described analytically, hence it has to be determined
experimentally for each type of material.

Magnetisation curve:

When an initially non-magnetised piece of ferromagnetic material is magnetised by increasing the

external field slowly, then the flux density will also increase. The curve B(H) showing this vary of
flux density B vs. change of magnetic field intensity H called primary, original, dc or normal
magnetisation curve. 

Typical shape of magnetisation curve

The largest hysteresis loop belongs to the peak values Bmax and Hmax, determined by the flux
density of saturation. The hysteresis loops of less peak values located inside the largest loop. If the
magnetising force changes slowly the loop is called static hysteresis loop. 
 Hysteresis curves of different maximum value of Hmax

Dynamic hysteresis curves

 
In case of alternating magnetic field generated by alternating current of network frequency (or
higher) the points of the B(H) plane form a full hysteresis loop during each period. In addition, due
to the alternating flux an induced voltage appears which produces eddy currents inside the
ferromagnetic material. According to Lenz's law the magnetic field of these eddy currents makes the
change of the flux density more delayed, therefore increasing the frequency the dynamic hysteresis
loops become spacious compared to static ones

Relative permeability
 In each point of magnetisation curve the absolute permeability 
µ= B /H and the relative permeability may be determined. Because of the non-linearity of the curve
in engineering practice several simplifications applied.
 Static and dynamic hysteresis curves

1 static and 2,3,A Dynamic hysteresis.

Basic Concept of Torque Equation

Torque is a twisting and turning force that tends to cause rotation around an axis, which might be a
center of mass or a fixed point. In short, it can be defined as a rotational equivalent of a linear force.
The force causes an acceleration whereas the torque causes an angular acceleration.
Symbol: τ
Expression: τ =Fr………………..where F=force
r= length of the position vector
SI unit: newton meter (Nm)

Types of Torques
1. Reluctance Torque
2. Electro-magnetic Torque

1. Reluctance Torque

When a free rotating iron piece is placed between two opposite magnetic poles, as shown in figure 1,
the piece gets magnetized due to magnetic induction. The magnetic lines of force pass through the
piece, the molecules of the soft iron line up parallel with the magnetic lines of force and with their
N-pole pointing in the direction that the lines of force are travelling through the iron piece, as
illustrated in figure 1. A force of attraction or repulsion which has the tendency to align both the
fields, would take place on the soft iron piece depending on the polarity of the pole formed on the
soft iron piece with respect to the main field. This may cause the rotation of the iron piece,
depending upon its relative position with respect to the main field. The angle between the axis of the
main magnetic field and the magnetic axis of the soft iron piece (or rotor winding) is called the
torque angle. This angle is measured with respect to the direction of rotation of the soft iron piece
(or rotor)

. (Figure 1)

In figure 1. The two fields are aligned in the same direction and therefore, no torque is experienced
on the soft iron piece. However, there is only force of attraction at end A and B of the soft iron piece.
The forces experienced at the two ends A and B being equal in magnitude and direction cancel each
other. In this case, torque angle is zero and the torque experienced in the iron piece is also zero.

The different position of the iron piece with respect to the main field are shown in figure shown
below.

In figure 2(a), the magnet axis of the soft iron piece makes an angle δ (0<δ<90o) with the axis of the
main magnetic field i.e. torque angle is δ is lying between in 00 to 900. In this position of the soft iron
piece, it tends to align itself in the direction of the field owing to the force of attraction at its both
ends. This torque is considered to be negative as it tries to reduce the torque angle. For any value of
δ less than 900, the torque is negative.

(Figure 2a)

When the torque angle becomes 900, as illustrated in figure 2(b), the torque developed is zero. This
is unstable position of the soft-iron piece as slight change in the δ in either direction will develop the
torque in that direction

(Figure 2b)
.
When the torque angle δ becomes more than 900 but does not exceed 1800, as illustrated in figure
2(c), the ends of soft iron piece A and B (now north and south poles) are attracted toward south and
north poles of the main magnet respectively and thus torque developed tends to increase the torque
angle. So the torque developed is taken as positive.

(Figure 2c)

When the torque is 1800, as shown in figure 2(d), the torque again becomes zero. But this is a stable
position as any change in the value of torque angle will create a torque causing restoration of the
position of the iron piece.
 (Figure 2d)

For δ exceeding 1800 but not exceeding 270o, as illustrated in figure 2(e), the torque developed is
negative as it tries to reduce the torque angle. For angle to be 2700, figure 2(f) the torque developed
is zero. This position is again unstable as for torque angle δ=900. The torque again becomes positive
for torque angle between 2700 and 3600, figure 2(g). When δ becomes 3600 i.e. 00 in figure 2(h), the
torque developed is zero and the position is stable.

(Figure 2e)

(Figure 2f)

(Figure 2g)
 (Figure 2h)

From the above discussion, it is seen that the torque developed is the function of the torque angle δ.
The torque becomes alternately negative and positive, as illustrated in figure 3, and correspondingly
the iron piece cannot respond to torque variation and, therefore it remains standstill. The torque so
developed is called reluctance torque. This principal of developing is torque is used in the reluctance
motors.

(Figure 3)

Electro-magnetic or Interaction Torque.

When the rotor conductor doesn’t carry any current and the stator coils are energized, stator
magnetic field is set up as illustrated in figure 5(a).

(Figure 5a)
The field set up the around the conductor if the rotor conductor carries the current in the inward
direction, indicated by +sign as shown in figure 5(b) while the stator coil doesn’t carry current.
 (Figure 5b)
When both the stator and the rotor carries current, the magnetic flux produced by the stator and the
magnetic flux produced by the rotor interacts with each other giving the resultant magnetic flux
distribution as illustrated in figure 5(c). The magnetic lines of force has the tendency to strengthen
out, so the force experienced is in downward direction.

(Figure 5c)
The counter-clockwise torque produced due interaction of stator and rotor magnetic field is called
the interaction or electro-magnetic torque.
In figure 5(d), one current carrying conductor is considered where the current in the coil is in inward
direction indicated by the cross under the stator north pole and in outward direction indicated by the
dot under the South Pole. The magnetic flux created by the coil interacts with the flux created by the
stator coils giving a resultant magnetic flux distribution. Such counter-clockwise torque produced is
called interaction or electro-magnetic torque.

(Figure 5d)

The Physical Understanding of Interaction Torque

One freely rotating permanent magnet is placed in the stationary magnetic field in which due to the
interaction torque, the two fields align themselves in the same direction. The angle between the
stator field axis and the rotor field axis is called the torque angle δ.
Therefore, 1/ at an angle less than 900, the torque is negative as it reduced the torque angle.
2/ at an angle 900, the torque developed is maximum.
 3/ at an angle more than 900 but less than 1800, the fields align due to the production
of repulsive force, thus giving negative torque. (Figure 6a)

(Figure 6a)
0
4/ at an angle 180 , the torque developed is zero due to the aligned field. (Figure 6b)

(Figure b)
5/ at an angle more than 1800, the torque developed is positive as the torque angle is
increased. (Figure 6c)

(Figure 6c)
0 0
6/ at an angle varying between 270 and 360 , the torque developed is positive. (Figure
6d)

(Figure 6d)
0
7/ at an angle 360 , the torque is zero. (Figure 6e)

(Figure 6e)

From the above discussion, we can draw conclusions that:

1. The torque is negative for the first half rotation and positive for next half rotation while it
remain maximum at an angles of 900 and 2700.
2. In the cylindrical rotor machine, there will be only electro-magnetic torque.
 3. Reluctance torque can only be produced in slant pole machine with a condition that there
should not be any supply given to the rotor.
4. In order to have rotation of machine and development of torque, the number of stator pole
must equal to the number of rotor pole. E.g. For figure 7. Shown below, no torque will be
developed as we can clearly see that the number poles in stator doesn’t equal to number of
poles in rotor.

(Figure 7)
5. The magnitude of electro-magnetic or interaction torque in all rotating machine is given as
T e= (stator field strength) × (rotor field strength) × sin δ
Where δ=angle between stator and rotor flux axis

Elementary Concept of An electrical Machine

a. Generator operation

Consider a coil being rotated in the clockwise direction with an angular velocity ω radian per second
under the influence of driving torque T d in a uniform magnetic field of flux density B tesla as
illustrated in figure 8a. An emf is induced in the coil due to the change in the flux linkages (or due to
cutting of the magnetic lines of force). This induced emf will be of magnitude e=2 Blv cos δ and its
direction can be determined by Lenz’s law or Fleming’s right hand rule. We can figure out from the
diagram shown that the coil sides are cutting the flux causing the decrease in the flux linkages and
therefore, emf is induced in the direction as indicated in the figure. Since the coil circuit is closed
through the load resistance Rl , a current i will flow through the coil and load resistance Rl . Thus
induced emf e and the current i are in the same direction.
 (Figure 8a)

The current flowing through the coil sets up its own magnetic field which interacts with the main
magnetic field thereby developing a torque called electro-magnetic torqueT e. The magnetic of this
torque will be proportional to F or Blv sin δ where δis the torque angle.

With the coil open (i.e. Rl being removed), the current flowing through the coil is zero so, electro-
magnetic torque developedT e =0. The driving torque T d (or mechanical torqueT m) is required to be
sufficient to overcome the friction torque T f and no load losses (being ignored for the time being).
As the direction of the friction is opposite to that of the motion of the coil, the friction torque oppose
the driving or the mechanical torque. With the coil circuit closed through the load resistance Rl ,
current i flows through the coil causing the creation of electro-magnetic torque and so, the driving or
mechanical torque must be increased to overcome the developed electro-magnetic torque T e in
addition to the friction torqueT f .
i.e. T d=T e +T f … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … .(1)
Neglecting the friction torque
T d=T e
The current flowing through the coil.
e
i= ………………………………………………………... (2)
Rl +r
Where e the induced emf, r is is the resistance of the coil and Rl is the resistance of the
external load
Or e=i R l +ir
……………………………………………………………. (3)
Multiplying both sides by i, we have
ei =i2 Rl +i 2 r =vi+i 2 r
Where ei is the electrical power generated, i 2 r is the power lost in the coil resistance
producing heat called copper loss. When the coil side cuts the magnetic flux normal to the magnetic
field, emf induced
e=2 Blv
Or ei =2 Blvi=2 Bil× v=2 F × v
v
Or ei=2 F × radius of thecoil ×
¿radius of the coil
 ei=T e × ω
The above explanation establishes the principal of power conversion for generator and the power
flow diagram is given in figure 8b.

(Figure 8b)

b. Motor operation

Now consider a coil connected to a battery or any other source of dc supply and placed in a uniform
magnetic field of strength B tesla as illustrated in figure 9a.

(Figure 9a)
Electro-magnetic torque T e is developed due to the interaction of the main magnetic field and
magnetic field set up due to flow of the current in the coil. The direction of the electro-magnetic
torque produced is counter-clockwise. When the coil rotates under the influence of electromagnetic
torque T ein the magnetic field, the coil cuts the magnetic flux thereby inducing an emf e in it. The
direction of the induced emf e is opposite to that of an applied voltage v .The applied voltage v must
be large enough to overcome the induced emf e called the counter or back emf and the voltage drop
in the coil resistance ir i.e.
v=e +ir…………………………………………………… (1)
Multiplying both sided by I, we get
vi=ei +i 2 r ……………………………………………. (2)
Where vi is the electrical power input, eiis the electrical power developed and i 2 r is the
power lost in the coil resistance called the copper loss.
ei=ω T e
Thus out of total power input or suppliedvi, only ω T e is converted into
mechanical power and the remaining is dissipated in the form of heat.
If T m is also called the shaft torqueT sh, the power flow diagram is given in figure 9b.

(Figure 9b)
Therefore, the difference between the motor operation and generator operation can be written as
follows:
1. In generator operation, induced emf e and the current i are in same direction whereas in
motor operation, induced emf e and the current i are in opposite to each other.
2. In generator, electro-magnetic torque developed opposes the rotation i.e.
T e and ω are in opposite direction whereas in a motor T e and ω are in same direction.
3. In case of the generator, electromagnetic torque developed T e and the fraction of torque T f
are in the same direction whereas in the motor T e and T f are in opposite direction.
Constructional Features and Principles of Rotating Machines.
Basic types of rotating machines
Dynamically induced emf

Rotating machines

Constructional features.
Construction and principle of Rotating Machines
(a) Salient-pole structure in which the coil windings are concentrated around
protruding poles

A simple, two-pole, single-phase salient-pole

synchronous generator
(b) Cylindrical structure in which the windings are distributed in slots cut into
a cylindrical magnetic structure
Elementary two-pole cylindrical-rotor field winding.

DC MACHINE
Structure of typical salient-pole machines: (a) dc machine and (b) salient pole synchronous machine
Elementary two-pole machine with smooth air gap (cylindrical machine) : (a)
winding distribution and (b) schematic representation.

Flux density distribution in electrical machines.

Three phase generator – winding types.

Types of winding
Types of Rotating Machines
The field & the armature sides can be placed on the stator or rotor sides
depending on the machine type:
(a) DC machines
(rotor is cylindrical, stator is salient-pole)
– Field is on stator
– Armature is on rotor

(b) Induction machines

(both stator and rotor are cylindrical)
– Field is on stator
– Armature is on rotor

(c) Synchronous machines

stator is cylindrical, rotor is either salient-pole or cylindrical)
– Field is on rotor
– Armature is on stator
Voltage Generation in Rotating Machines
Voltages are generated across armature windings:
(i) by rotating armature winding mechanically through the
magnetic field created by field winding
(ii) by rotating magnetic field past the armature winding
(iii) by the designing the magnetic circuit so that reluctance
varies with the position of rotor
Schematic view of a simple,
two-pole, singlephase synchronous
generator. (a) Space distribution of
flux density and
 (b) corresponding waveform of the
generated
voltage for the single-phase generator

Space distribution of the air-gap flux density

in a idealized, four-pole synchronous generator.

Schematic view
of a simple, four-pole,
Single-phase synchronous
generator

MMF Waveforms in Rotating Machines

(a) Schematic view
of flux produced
by a
concentrated,
full-pitch
winding in a
machine with a
uniform air gap.

(b) The air-gap

mmf produced
by current in
this winding.
The mmf of one phase of a distributed two-pole,
three-phase winding with full-pitch coils.

The air-gap mmf of a distributed winding on the rotor

of a round-rotor
generator.
Production in Rotating Machines
MMF space vectors of a simplified two-pole machine

Torque is produced by the

tendency
of the
rotor and stator
magnetic fields to
align.
Note that these
figures are drawn with
δsr positive, i.e., with the rotor
mmf wave Frleading that of
the stator Fs.

EXAMPLES

Ex1: Figure on the right shows the two-pole revolving inside a

smooth stator which carries a coil of 110 turns. The rotor
produces a sinusoidal space distribution of flux at the stator
surface; the peak value of the flux-density wave being 0.85T
when the current in the rotor is 15A. The magnetic circuit is
linear. The inside diameter of the stator is 11cm, and its
axial length is 0.17m. The rotor is driven at a speed of 50
r/sec.
a. The rotor is excited by a current of 15A. Taking zero time as
the instant when the axis of the rotor is vertical, find the
expression for the instantaneous voltage generated in the
open-circuited stator coil.
b. The rotor is now excited by a 50-Hz sinusoidal alternating
current whose peak value is 15A. Consequently, the rotor
current reverses every half revolution; it is timed to be at its
maximum just as the axis of the rotor is vertical (i.e. just as
it becomes aligned with that of the stator coil). Taking zero
time as the instant when the axis of the rotor is vertical, find
the expression for the instantaneous voltage generated in the
open-circuited stator coil. This scheme is sometimes
suggested as a dc generator without a commutator; the
thought being that if alternative half cycles of the alternating
voltage generated in part (a) are reversed by reversal of the
polarity of the field (rotor) winding, then a pulsating direct
voltage will be generated in the stator. Discuss whether or
not this scheme will work.
Elementary generator
for Problem 1.
(Fitzgerald, 6th ed.)

Example 1 solution
Part a) The flux per pole is

The electrical frequency of the generated voltage will be 50Hz. The peak voltage will be
Because the space fundamental winding flux linkage is at peak at time t=0 and because voltage is
equal to the time derivative of the flux linkage we can write

Where the sign of the voltage depends upon the polarities defined for the flux and the stator coil and
ω = 120π rad/sec

Part b)
In this case the Φ will be of the form

Where Φo = 0.0159 as found in part a) The stator coil flux linkage will be

And the generated voltage will be

This scheme will not work since the dc component of the coil flux will produce no voltage

Ex2: Figure on the right shows a cross section of a machine

having a rotor winding f and windings a and b whose axes
are in quadrature. The self-inductance of each stator
windind is Laa and of the rotor is Lff. The air gap is uniform.
The mutual inductance between a stator winding depends on
the angular position of the rotor and may be assumed to be
of the form
Maf= M cos θ0 and Mbf= M sin θ0
where M is the maximum value of the mutual inductance.
The resistance of each stator winding is Ra.
a. Derive a general expression for the torque T in terms of the
angle θ0, the inductance parameters, and the instantaneous
currents ia, ib and if. Does this expression apply at standstill.
When the rotor is revolving?
b. Suppose the rotor is stationary and constant direct currents
Ia = I0, Ib = I0, If = 2I0 are supplied to the windings in the
directions indicated by the dots and crosses in the figure. If
the rotor is allowed to move, will it rotate continuously or
will it tend to come to rest? If the latter, at what value of θ0.
c. The rotor winding is now excited by a constant direct
current If while the stator windings carry balanced twophase
currents
The rotor is revolving at synchronous speed so that its
instantaneous angular position is given by θ0 = ωt – δ, where
δ is a phase angle describing the position of the rotor at t = 0.
The machine is an elementary two-phase synchronous
machine. Derive an expression for the torque.
d. Under the conditions of part (c), derive an expression for
the
instantaneous terminal voltages of stator phases a and b.
Elementary cylindrical-rotor,
two-phase synchronous machine
for Problem 2
(Fitzgerald, 6th ed.)

Example 2 solution

This expression applies under all operating conditions.

Part b)

Provided there are any losses at all, the rotor will come to rest at
for

Part c)
Part d)

Ex3: Figure on the right shows the cross section of a salient-pole

synchronous machine having two identical stator windings a
and b on a laminated steel core. The salient-pole rotor is
made of steel and carries a field winding f connected to sp slip
rings.
Because of the nonuniform air gap, the self- and mutual
inductances are functions of the angular position θ0 of the
rotor. Their variation with θ0 can be approximated as:
Laa= L0 + L2 cos 2θ0, Lbb= L0 - L2 cos 2θ0 and Mab= L2 sin 2θ0
where L0 and L2 are positive constants. The mutual
inductance between the rotor and the stator windings are
functions of θ0
Maf= M cos θ0 and Mbf= M sin θ0
where M is also a positive constant. The self inductance of the
field winding, Lff is constant, independent of θ0 .
Consider the operating condition in which the field winding
is excited by direct current If and stator windings are
connected to a balanced two-phase voltage source of
frequency ω. With the rotor revolving at synchronous speed,
its angular position will be given by θ0 = ωt.
Under this operating condition, the stator currents will be
of the form
a. Derive an expression for the electromagnetic torque acting on
the rotor.
b. Can the machine be operated as a motor and/or a generator?
c. Will the machine continue to run if the field current If is
reduced to zero?

Schematic two-phase, salientpole

synchronous machine for
Problem 3.
(Fitzgerald, 6th ed.)

Example 3 solution

4) A 220 V dc shunt motor has an armature resistance of 0.4Ω. The armature current at starting must
not exceed 40A. If the number of sections is 6, calculate the values of resistor steps to be used in this
starter.

Solution Given,
Number of sections (n)= 6
Resistance in the armature circuit at the starting instant, R1 = V/Imax = 220/40 =
5.5 Ω
Ratio of maximum current to Minimum current during starting, Imax/Imin = Y =
(R1/Ra) 1/n = (5.5/0.4) 1/6 = 1.689
Resistance, R2 = R1/Y =5.5/1.689 = 3.25 Ω
Resistance, R3 = R2/Y = 3.25/1.689 = 1.92 Ω
Resistance, R4 = R3/Y = 1.92/1.689 = 1.136 Ω
Resistance, R5 = R4/Y = 1.136/1.689 = 0.67 Ω
Resistance of 1 st section, r1 =R1-R2 =5.5-3.25=2.25 Ω
Resistance of 2 nd section, r2 =R2-R3 =3.25-1.92=1.33 Ω
Resistance of 3 rd section, r3 =R3-R4 =1.92-1.136=0.784 Ω
Resistance of 4 th section, r4 =R4-R5 =1.136-0.67=0.466 Ω
Resistance of 5 th section, r5 =R5-Ra =0.67-0.4=0.27 Ω

Generated EMF in full pitch, and short pitch.

Coil span: It is defined as peripheral distance between two sides of a coil.

Full pitched: If the coil span is equal to the pole pitch, then the armature winding is said to be full
pitched one.
Short pitched: If the coil span is less than the pole pitch, then the winding is referred to as short
pitched.

EMF generated in full pitched winding .

If the coil span and the pole pitch are equal, or say equal to the 180 degree electrical, the winding is
called full pitched winding. In this winding, one side of the coil is under N pole and the other is
under S pole. The induced emf differs by 180 degree in phase but the coil is connected in such a way
that emfs add up to give the resulting emf as in fig 1.1
Fig 1.1: full pitched coil.
EMF generated in short pitched winding.
If the coils is less than the pole pitch, or say less than 180 degree electrical, the winding is called
short pitched winding. In this winding, induced emf in each coil is not in phase. Hence, the resultant
emf is the phasor sum of induced emf in the coil side which is slightly less than their arithmetic sum.
This is shown in fig 5.20

Advantages of short pitched winding.

1. Waveform of the induced emf can be approximately made into a sine wave and losses due to
harmonics can be totally reduced or eliminated.
2. Conductor material, copper, is saved in the back and in the front due to less copper span.
3. Fractional slot winding or fractional coils can be used which in turn reduces losses due to the
tooth ripple.
4. Mechanical strength of the coil is increased.
Disadvantages of short pitched winding.
 The disadvantages of using short pitched winding is that total voltage around the coils
is somewhat reduced. In order to compensate for this reduction in generated EMF,
more number of turns and therefore more copper is required.

REFERENCES

DC machines and transformers (for GTU)

 MMF of Simple and Multiple Coils Carrying Current

Mmf of single coil.

 Assume a cylindrical rotor machine with a small air gap.
 The stator is wound for 2 poles with a single N turn coil carrying a current of I amps.
 The MMF produce by the single coil is NI.
 This MMF created a flux and each flux lines crosses the air gap radially twice.
 Half of the MMF is used to create flux from stator to rotor and other half is used to create
flux from rotor to stator.

 In the developed diagram shown the stator is laid down with the rotor on the top of it.
 The shape of the MMF is seen to be rectangular.
 +NI/2 is consumed in setting up flux from rotor to stator and –NI/2 is consumed in setting
stator to rotor.
 MMF produced by the coil changes between +NI/2 and –NI/2 abruptly.
 Using fourier analysis, the fundamental component of MMF can be found as,
Fa=4NIcos$/Pie X2
Fa=4NI/2XPie
MMF of distributed winding.
 Consider a 2 pole, cylindrical rotor with,
M=slots/pole/phase=5
N=slots/pole=5*3=15
 The distributed winding for phase A, occupying 5 slots per pole is shown.

 Let Nc=turn in a coil.

 Ic=conductor current.
 M.M.F in 1 slot =2NcIc
 As the No. of slots are odd, half of the ampere conductors produce South Pole and remaining
half produce North Pole on stator.
 At each slot, MMF wave has step jump of 2Ncic.
 Half of this total MMF is used to set up flux from rotor to stator and remaining half is used to
create flux from stator to rotor.
 Now F1 the peak of fundamental waveform has to be determined.
Lets
 Tp =series turns per parallel path of a phase.
 A=Number of parallel paths.

Ampere turn per parallel path=Tpxic

Ampere turn per phase =A[Tpxic]
Total current in one phase,I=AxIc
Ampere turn/phase=Tpxia
Ampere turn/pole=(Tp xIa)/p
 Using fourier analysis, the equation for mmf
wave is given by,
Fa=(4Tp xIa)cos0/(PieXp)
 Because of short pitched and distributed
winding, the mmf gets reduced by a factor kp
and Kd .
Example
A 3-phase, 400kVA. 50 Hz, star-connected alternator (synchronous) generator running at 300 rpm is
designed to develop 3300V between terminals. The armature consists of 180 slots. Each slot having
one coilside with eight conductors. Determine the peak value of the fundamental mmf in AT/pole
when the machine is delivering full-load current.

3 nP
Fpeak  Fm f 
2 120

S P
m  
qp S

sin mn / 2
Kb(nth harmonic ) 
m sin n / 2

3 4 2  Nph( series ) 
  Kw I
2   P 