BIOLOGY UNIT 5

Describe the role of calcium ions in the sliding filament theory of muscle contraction.

 Calcium ions bind to troponin ‘

 Causes the shape of troponin to change
 Moves tropomyosin away
 Allows the myosin head to bind to actin

Explain the role of a tendon in the movement of an arm.

 Tendon connects muscle to the bone

 Tendon is non-elastic
 When muscles contact, bones move

The part of the brain that is involved in the control of the heart rate is- medulla oblongata

Explain how an increase in altitude from 4000m to 6000m will cause changes in breathing.

 Lower availability of oxygen in higher altitudes

 Increased anaerobic respiration
 This increases the carbon dioxide concentration and stimulate the respiratory center
 This sends more impulses to the intercostal muscles and hence the diaphragm contracts more frequently

Explain why the resting heart rate changes as the altitude increases from 6000m to 8000m.

 Lower availability of oxygen in higher altitudes

 Oxygen concentration of the blood will fall
 Increase in heart rate requires to provide tissues with sufficient energy

Explain why the speed of conduction in a myelinated neurone with a diameter of 1.5mm is faster than in a non-
myelinated neurone with the same diameter.

 Myelin sheath insulates the axon

 There are nodes of Ranvier between the myelin sheaths on the axon
 Action potentials can be only created in the nodes of ranvier due to myelination
 Therefore, the action potentials jump from one node of ranvier to another and this is called saltory conduction
 In non- myelinated neurons action potentials should be created all along the neurone.

Describe the role of calcium ions in muscle cells, in contraction.

 Calcium ions are released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum

 They bind to troponin molecules and causes its shape to change exposing the myosin binding sites.
 Due to this, myosin heads can now bind to actin and cause contraction of the muscle since the actin is pulled
past the myosin.

A spirometer can be used to measure the breathing rate. Describe how the data obtained from a spirometer could be
used to compare the median breathing rates of Andean men and North American men.

 Collect traces from each group of Andean men and north American men
 For each individual trace, count the number of breaths taken
 Divide the number of breaths taken by the time taken
 Find the median value for each group
One symptom of Parkinson’s disease is the loss of muscle control. Suggest how exposure to pesticides might cause a
loss of muscle control.

 Pesticides are absorbed through the skin

 Blood carries the pesticides to the brain
 Pesticides kill the dopamine secreting neurons in the brain
 This inhibits the release of dopamine

Explain how people with Parkinson’s can be treated.

 L dopa should be given to them

 L Dopa can cross the blood brain barrier
 L dopa is converted into dopamine in the brain
 Dopamine binds to receptors on the post synaptic membrane and action potentials can be generated.

Describe the role of sinoatrial node (SAN) in the control of the heart rate.

 Receives impulses from the cardiac center

 Acts as a pacemaker
 Produces waves of depolarization which spreads across the atria and then received by the AVN

Describe the role of the hypothalamus in controlling the temperature during exercise

 Thermoreceptors detect an increase in the core body temperature during exercise

 This sends impulses to the hypothalamus to decrease the temperature
 Hypothalamus send impulses to the effector muscles to vasodilate.
 This dilates the blood vessels and bring more blood to the surface hence increasing heat loss.

Using your knowledge of photoreceptors, suggest an explanation for the results of this experiment.

 In the light PR is converted into PFR

 Greater the red light intensity the more PFR produced
 In the dark PFR converts back into PR
 PFR stimulates germination
 If PFR is produced too soon, it converts back into PR before seed is ready to respond

After stopping exercise, the oxygen consumption of the alligator increases. Explain why the oxygen consumption of an
alligator increases after a short period of activity.

 Once exercise stops the lactate produced during anaerobic respiration gets accumulated in the blood
 This lactate should be converted back into pyruvate and for this oxygen is required
 Oxygen is used in aerobic respiration
 Oxygen is used to oxidize reduced NAD to produce water and NAD

Describe the role of Krebs cycle in the production of ATP

 Krebs cycle produces reduced NAD

 Electrons from this is transferred to electron transport chain
 Oxidative phosphorylation occurs
 Some ATP is produced by substrate level phosphorylation

Critical window- a period of time in which a particular stimulus is needed for development. Example- period when rats
must be exposed to low oxygen concentrations for development
Describe the role of the ventilation center in controlling the breathing response to a short period of low oxygen
concentration.

 Stretch receptors control the resting breathing rate

 Chemoreceptors detect a decrease in the pH of the blood (increase in concentration of CO2)
 This sends impulses to the ventilation center
 Ventilation center sends impulses to the diagram and the intercostal muscles
 Increasing frequency of contraction of breathing
 Increasing the rate and depth of breathing

Explain the role of IAA in the effect of light on these coleoptiles.

 IAA moves away from the light

 H bonds between cellulose molecules are broken down
 The cells elongate
 IAA causes coleoptiles to bend towards the light

Describe the role of ATP in the response of rod cells to light.

 ATP provides energy

 Synthesis of rhodopsin
 Rejoining retinal to opsin
 Converting trans-retinal to cis retinal
 Used to pump sodium ions

Describe how ATP is produced in the mitochondria.

 ATP is produced in the mitochondria by oxidative phosphorylation. The reduced NAD and reduced FAD which
are products of glycolysis and Krebs’s cycle releases hydrogen atoms. These hydrogen atoms are split into
electrons and protons. The electrons released are passed along the electron transport chain releasing energy at
each level. The electron transport chain is located in the inner mitochondrial membrane of the mitochondria.
The released energy is used to actively pump hydrogen ions from the matrix to the inner membrane space.
Therefore, a high concentration and a chemical gradient of hydrogen ions is created in the inner membrane
space. The concentration and electrochemical gradient causes the hydrogen ions to return back to the matrix
through ATP synthase along the concentration gradient. The movement of hydrogen ions across the membrane
is called chemiosmosis. This process results in the conversion of ADP into ATP.

Cell membrane contains transporter proteins that enable thyroxine to enter the cell. This results in a change in the
activity of transcription factors. Suggest how thyroxine is able to increase the secretion of adrenaline from cells in the
adrenal gland.

 Thyroxine binds to the receptors

 Enters into the nucleus
 Activated transcription factors
 Increased protein synthesis
 Synthesis of more adrenaline

Explain how you would use a spirometer trace to find the breathing rate of a person

 Record the time taken for the trace to form

 Count the number of peaks
 Divide the number of peaks by the time taken to produce the trace
State two factors that determine how quickly an animal becomes habituated.

 Time between each stimulus

 Duration of the stimulus
 Strength of the stimulus

Explain the role of acetylcholine in the transmission of a nerve impulse.

 Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter which is present in the pre synaptic neurone

 This transmit the nerve impulse across synapses
 Because action potential cannot cross the gap
 Released from the pre synaptic neurone, diffuses across the synapse, binds to receptors
 Initiate action potential in the post synaptic neurone

Pesticides are chemicals that are sprayed onto crop plants to protect them from being damaged by insects. Some
pesticides are inhibitors of acetylcholinesterase. Acetylcholinesterase is an enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine.
Suggest how these pesticides could affect the nervous system of the insects and the person spraying the plants.

 Acetylcholine is needed to release acetylcholine from receptors on post-synaptic membrane

 Continuous action potentials in the post-synaptic cell
 Pre synaptic cell will run out of acetylcholine

Suggest how plants can be genetically modified to be resistant to damage by insects.

 Find a suitable gene that confers resistance to insects

 Such as insect enzyme inhibitor, toxin, tough cell membrane component
 The gene would have been isolated from an insect resistant plant
 By using a vector, introduce this particular gene into the plant
 Testing plants for the presence of this gene.

Suggest how the heart rate could be decreases during hibernation.

 The impulses are sent to the cardiovascular control Centre to decrease the heart rate
 The cardiovascular center sends nerve impulses through the parasympathetic nervous system
 To the SAN
 The SAN then decreases the frequency of contractions

HOMESTASIS- MAINTAINING STEADY INTERNAL BODY

CONDITIONS

Explain how glycogen is hydrolyzed.

 By breaking up 1,4 and 1,6- glycosidic bonds by

using a water molecule.
Explain how transcription factors cause the changes in the levels of some of these hormones in the bloodstream.

 Hormones are proteins

 The genes need to be switched on before hormones can be synthesized
 Transcription factors bind to specific region on DNA
 So that RNA polymerase binding can be controlled
 Synthesis of insulin can be stopped
 Transcription factor can switch off genes.

Describe how light is detected in mammals.

 The light sensitive pigment rhodopsin in the rod cells

 Absorb light energy
 This stimulate the conversion of cis-retinal into trans-retinal
 Rhodopsin splits into opsin and retinal
 Rod cells becomes less permeable to sodium ions
 Resulting in hyperpolarization/ generator potential
 If stimulus is large enough an action potential is formed in the bipolar cell
 Nerve impulse travel along the optic nerve to the brain

Explain why the oxygen uptake in active muscles increases during endurance exercise.

 The endurance exercise requires ATP

 To release the energy for the detachment of myosin head from the actin
 More ATP made by oxidative phosphorylation
 Oxygen is needed as a terminal electron acceptor
 So that electron transport chain can continue to function
 And reduced NAD can be oxidized.

Antioxidants are widely used as ingredients in dietary supplements. However, clinical trials have failed to clearly
express an advantage of these dietary supplements. Suggest how a clinical trial should be designed to investigate the
advantage of using antioxidants in dietary supplements.

 Carry out the experiment on a large number of people.

 All the people are on the same diet
 One group receives the antioxidant
 One receives the placebo
 Double blind trials
 Long term study
 Monitoring incidence of heart disease

Explain why plant shorts grown in the dark are taller than plant shoots grown in the light.

 In the dark, Pfr will slowly convert into Pr. Therefore, there will be more Pr. The decreasing concentration of Pfr
causes an increase in the levels of IAA in the plant shoot. This means more IAA is present, so can diffuse to
nearby cells and make walls flexible to allow elongation of cells causing the shoots to grow taller.
Describe the roles of glycolysis and the krebs cycle in the synthesis of ATP.

 Glycolysis involves 2 steps; phosphorylation and oxidation. Phosphorylation is where a glucose molecule
combines with 2 inorganic phosphate molecules to form phosphorylated 6C sugar. This is then broken down into
2 3C sugars. This 2 triose phosphate are oxidized to 2 pyruvate molecules leading to the production of 2 reduced
NAD and ATP (net gain of 2 ATP). This whole process takes place in the cytoplasm of the cell.
 Krebs cycle- in this acetyl co enzyme A reacts with a 4C forming a 6C compound which is citrate. Reduced NAD is
formed. Then citrate is decarboxylated and dehydrogenated leading to the formation of a 4C compound, 2
reduced NAD and 1 reduced FAD. The whole process of krebs cycle happens twice. The reduced NAD and
reduced FAD are used for the synthesis of ATP in oxidative phosphorylation where they both get oxidized to
NAD and FAD. Therefore, this process releases hydrogen atoms. This atoms are broken down into electrons and
protons. The electrons are passed along the electron transport chain where it loses energy. This energy is used
to pump hydrogen ions along the electrochemical gradient to the matrix of the mitochondria through ATPase to
form ATP.

Name 3 structural proteins present in a sarcomere.

 Actin
 Myosin
 Troponin
 Tropomyosin

Explain how the distribution of these ions is maintained in the axon.

 The axon membrane has pumps and channels

 Sodium ions move out of the cell and potassium ions move into the cell
 Membrane is permeable to potassium ions
 Membrane is impermeable to sodium ions

Part of the brain which controls the body temperature is- hypothalamus

Explain the change in heat loss by evaporation after eating ice.

 heat loss decreases after eating ice

 ice reduces core body temperature
 reduced temperature detected by hypothalamus
 nerve impulses from hypothalamus
 sweat glands inhibited
 less evaporation of water

carbondioxide produced
respiratory quotient =
oxygen used
prolonged exposure to cold temperatures causes hypothermia. Hypothermia lowers the core body temperature which
reduces the rate of metabolic processes such as chemiosmosis. Explain how hypothermia reduces the synthesis of ATP
by chemiosmosis.

 if temperature is lowered, the activity of enzymes are lowered.

 The decrease in temperature results slow rate of breathing and heart rate. The less supply of oxygenated blood
to cells then pyruvate cannot enter the krebs cycle then accumulation of 4C compound occurs and less reduced
NAD produced. Therefore less protons enter the electron transport chain so less diffusion of protons through
ATPase then less ATP produced by chemiosmosis
Explain how nicotine increases the risk of developing atherosclerosis.

 Nicotine increases the heart rate so nicotine increases the blood pressure.
 Increase in blood pressure can cause damage to the endothelial lining of the artery
 This will lead to the accumulation of white blood cells and cholesterol in the damaged area
 Leading to the formation of atheroma that leads to the Harding of arteries

Explain how chemiosmosis and production of ATP will be affect if the krebs cycle is inhibited

 Krebs cycle is the process which produces reduced NAD and reduced FAD. these release hydrogen atoms that
are split into protons and electrons. These protons are needed foe chemiosmosis to happen. Therefore when
the krebs cycle is inhibited, there will be no reduced NAD and reduced FAD produced for chemiosmosis in the
electron transport chain because fewer H+ ions are in the intermembrane space therefore less steep
concentration gradient. This leads to less diffusion of H+ ions through ATPase and hence the production of ATP
will be reduced

Explain how fMRI scanning could be used to investigate if habituation occurs when the same sound is used.

 fMRI scan shows activity of auditory cortex

 fMRI measures the uptake of oxygen
 the active areas of the brain receive more blood and hence more oxygen
 oxyhemoglobin involved
 more active area appears white in color
 if habituation occurs the brain activity falls with repeated stimulus

Habituation occurs when the calcium ions in the presynaptic membrane becomes less responsive

Describe how the resting potential is maintained in a neurone

 sodium ions move out of the axon and potassium ions move into the axon
 membrane is impermeable to sodium ions therefore they cannot diffuse into the neurone
 there are pumps and channels in the neurone membrane
 potassium ions diffuse out along concertation gradient because membrane is permeable to potassium ions

Explain why two healthy parents can produce a child with krabbe disease.

 Both parent should be carriers

 Child inherits recessive allele from each parent
 Child is homozygous recessive

Scientists have genetically modified yeast cells to produce pyrethrin. Suggest how yeast cells could be genetically
modified to produce pyrethrin.

 gene for pyrethrin synthesis removed from flower

 using restriction enzymes
 this gene is then carried by a vector such as a gene gun into the yeast cell
 the gene is then joined to the DNA of yeast by DNA ligase
 culturing yeast cells to produce pyrethrin
the article claims that stimulants such as cocaine can affect the mental alertness of athletes. Cocaine blocks the
reuptake of the neurotransmitter dopamine. Suggest how cocaine might affect the mental alertness of an athlete.

 Since cocaine blocks the reuptake of the neurotransmitter, the neurotransmitter remains in the synapse
 This neurotransmitter binds with the receptors on the post synaptic membrane of the neurone
 Due to this the sodium ion channels open and sodium ions diffuse into the post synaptic membrane
 Leads to the formation of action potentials
 There will be frequent action potentials produced since the neurotransmitter is no taken up by the pre synaptic
knob
 Therefore there will be an increase in mental alertness

Habituation- process of learning where there is reduced response to a repeated stimulus over a period of time

This anesthetic drug works by binding to channel proteins in the axons of neurons. These neurons normally transmit
impulses that the brain interprets as pain. Explain how this anesthetic drug prevents the patient feeling pain.

 The drug binds to the sodium ion channels on the post synaptic membrane
 Therefore, the sodium ions cannot diffuse into the post synaptic knob
 Therefore, no depolarization
 No action potentials
 No impulses to the brain

The part of thr brain involved with the ability to see is the- cerebrum (occipital lobe/ visual cortex)

The part of the brain involved with the ability to coordinate movement and to control balance is- cerebellum

Explain how a sarcomere contracts

 A sarcomere consists of actin and myosin filaments. When a nerve impulse arrives at a neuromuscular junction,
the calcium ions are released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum into the sarcoplasm. The calcium ions then bind
to the troponin on the actin filament. This binding of calcium ions to the troponin leads to shift in position
exposing the myosin binding sites. The myosin head then binds to the myosin binding site releasing ADP and Pi.
Myosin head nods forward causing actin to slide over. The actin moves towards the H band and the Z band is
now contracted. ATP attaches to the myosin head and is hydrolyzed by ATPase forming ADP and Pi this process
detaches the myosin head from the myosin so that it returns to the original position hence the muscle is relaxed.

Explain what happens when there is a decline is T lymphocytes.

 When there’s a decline in T lymphocytes there’s no T helper cells and T killer cells. No T helper cells means
cytokines cannot be released and hence B cells cannot be activated. No B cells means no antibody production.
Therefore there will be more infected cells in the body

Explain how random errors in transcription can result in the production of an abnormal gene.

 Erros in transcription means a mutation is caused therefore this will lead to a different base sequence formed in
the mRNA. When translation occurs an abnormal polypeptide is firmed. So primary structure of protein changes.
Hydrogen bonds formed in different R groups. So secondary structure changes. Different di sulfide bridges
causes the final 3D structure of protein to be changed. So abnormal protein is formed

What is active transport?

It is the movement of molecules against the concentration gradient using ATP

Suggest why trials are needed?

To test for efficiency and to test for safety

Explain the change in blood lactate concentration with an increasing level of exercise

 Undergoes anaerobic respiration due to low levels of oxygen

 Therefore, only glycolysis takes place
 Glycolysis produces pyruvate
 Pyruvate converted into lactate

Suggest an explanation for the difference between the blood lactate concentration of the athlete and the non-athlete

 Increased oxygen supply to the athlete

 Increased cardiac output
 Increased ventilation rate

Explain the role of rhodopsin in reducing the permeability of the membrane of a mammalian rod cell.

 Bleaching of rhodopsin. In this process rhodopsin is broken down into opsin and retinal
 Cis- retinal is converted into trans-retinal
 Sodium ion channels close
 Sodium ion pump continues to pump sodium ions out

Epinephrine acts in the same way as peptide hormones that affect the activity of cells.
Explain how this would stimulate a cell to produce proteins.

 Binds to receptor on membrane

 Causes to create a secondary messenger inside the cell
 Protein kinase cascade
 Transcription factor
 Gene activation

Describe and explain the role of calcium ions and ATP in muscle contraction.

 calcium ions bind to troponin on the actin filament

 this causes a shape change in the filament
 thus exposing the myosin binding sites in the actin filament
 the myosin heads bind to the actin and leads to the contraction by sliding the actin over the myosin
 needs ATP to remove calcium ions
 ATP provides energy for changing shape of myosin
 ATP is required to break the cross bridges
 ATP for synthesis of neurotransmitter

Describe the role of the sinoatrial node (SAN) in controlling heart rate.
 it receives impulses from the cardiovascular center in the brain.
 Acts as a pacemaker
 Initiates contraction by waves of depolarization
 Which spreads across the atria
 Travels to the AVN