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B.E. / B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION, NOV 2015, R- 2013

PART A – (10x2 = 20 marks)
1.What is the need for Calibration?
Calibration is used,
To adjust the output to correct zero settings and the maximum value.
To determine error by comparing the instrument output and standard output.

2.Write the broad classification of transducers.

On the basis of transduction form used
 As primary and secondary transducers
 As active and passive transducers
 As analog and digital transducers.
 As transducers and inverse transducers

3.Define precision and resolution.

Precision is the degree of closeness with which a given value may be repeatedly
measured.
When the input to a transducer is increased slowly from some non-zero arbitrary
value, the change in output is not detected at all until a certain input increment is
exceeded. This increment is defined as the resolution.

4.Sketch the typical ramp response of I order transducers.

5.Write the important merits and limitations of thermistors.

 Thermistors are compact, rugged and inexpensive and have good stability.
 The Response time of thermistors can vary from fraction of second to minutes
depending on the size of detecting mass and thermal capacity of the thermistor.
 The upper operating limit of thermistor is dependent on physical changes (or)
the material.
6.Write the principle of piezo resistive sensor.
If a metal conductor is stretched or compressed, its resistance changes on account
of the fact that both length and diameter change. Also there is a change in the
value of resistivity of the conductor when it is strained and this property is called
“PIEZORESISTIVE EFFECT”.

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7.Sketch the equivalent circuit for LVDT.

8. Compute the capacitance of displacement measurement system with 3 parallel

plates. Each plate is of area 5 cm x 5 cm and the gap between the plates is 0.25 mm.

Capacitance of Transducer C = 2C’=2Єow/d

= 2x8.85x10-12x5x10-2/0.25x10-3
= 3.54 nF
9.List the major advantages of fibre optic sensors.
Fibre optic sensors could be classified as a separate group of sensors, as although such
sensors are in their prime. These are considered for sensing different types of variable
such as temperature, liquid level, fluid flow, acoustic parameter and so on.

10.Write any two applications for MEMS sensors.

It is used in development of Resonant sensors.
It is used in Micro total analysis system of gases, chemicals etc.

PART B – (5 x 16 = 80 marks)

11.(a) (i) Discuss the causes and remedies for different classes of errors. (10)

Types of errors:
 Gross Error
 Systematic Error
 Random Error

Gross Error: This class of errors mainly covers human mistakes in reading instruments
and recording and calculating measurement result.
 The responsibility of the mistake normally lies with the experimenter.
 The experimenter may grossly misread the scale.
For example One may, read the temperature as 31.5°C due to oversight while the actual
reading may be 21.5°C.
Gross errors can be avoided by adopting two means:
 Great care should be taken in reading and recording the data.
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 Two, three or even more readings should be taken for the quantity under
measurement.
 Gross errors may be of any amount and therefore their mathematical
analysis is impossible.
Systematic Error:
These type of errors are divided into three categories:-
i.Instrumental Error
ii.Environmental Error
iii.Observational Error
1. Instrumental Error:
These errors arise due to three main reasons:
 Due to inherent short comings in the instrument.
 Due to measure of the Instruments.
 Due to loading effects of Instruments.
Inherent short comings of Instruments:
 These errors are inherent in instruments because of their mechanical structure.
 They may be due to construction, calibration or operation of the instruments or
measuring devices.
 Errors may be caused of friction, hysteresis or even gear backlash loss of
controlling torque.
These errors are reduced using the following methods:
i) The procedure of measurement must be carefully planned.
ii) Correction factors should be applied after determining the instrumental
errors.
iii) The instrument may be re-calibrated carefully.
Misuse of Instruments:
The errors caused in measurements are due to the fault of the operator than that of
instrument.
Improper practices of holding instrument may cause these errors.
Loading effects:
The capability of the system to faithfully measure, record or control the input signal
(measured)in undistorted from is called the “loading effects”.
The loading effect arises the Instrumental errors.

Environmental Errors:
These errors are due to conditions external to the measuring device including
conditions in the area surrounding the instrument.
These may be effects of temperature, pressure, humidity, dust, vibrations or of
external magnetic or electrostatic fields.
The corrective measures employed to reduce these undesirable effects are:
Arrangements should be made to keep the conditions as nearly as constant as
possible.
Employing techniques which eliminate the effect of these disturbances.

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In case it is suspected that external magnetic or electrostatic field can affect the
readings of instruments, magnetic (or) electrostatic shields may be provided.

Observational Errors:
 There are many sources of observational errors.
 As an example, the pointer of a voltmeter rests slightly above the surface of
the scale. It is also known as “PARALLAX ERROR”. [Error due to observer’s eye]
 The parallax errors arise on a account of pointer and the scale not being in
the same plane.
 Observational errors in measurement involving timing of an event.
 One observer may tend to anticipate the signal and read too soon, but
different observers may produce different results.
 Modern electrical instruments have digital display of output which
completely eliminates the errors on account of human observational.
Random (Residual) Errors:
 The quantity being measured is affected by many happenings throughout the
universe.
 We are aware of and some of the factors influencing the measurement, but about
the rest, we are unaware.
 The happenings or disturbances about which we are unaware are lumped together
and called “Random (or) Residual.
Hence the errors caused by their happenings are called Random or Residual errors.
11.(a) (ii) Write short notes on the significance of odds and uncertainty. (6)

odds and uncertainty:

The probability of occurrence can be stated in term of odds.
odd is the number of chances that a particular reading will occur when the error
limit is specified.
For example:
If the error limits are specified as ±0.6745σ, the chances are that 50% of the
observations will be between the above limits.
In other words, we say that odds are 1 to 1.
The odds can be calculated as
odds
Probability of occurrence =
odds  1
The odds that the observation lies between ±σ limits are,
odds
 0.6828 (or) odds are 2.15:1
odds  1
Probability of deviations to lie between +σ and – σ limits is 2 0.3414  0.6828

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Probability and odds:

Deviation Probability Odds

±0.6745σ 0.5000 1 to 1
±σ 0.6828 2.15 to 1
±2σ 0.9546 21 to 1
±3σ 0.9974 256 to 1
Uncertainty:
“Uncertainty distribution as the error distribution”
Propagation of uncertainties:
The uncertainty analysis in measurements when many variables are involved is
done on the same basis as is done for error analysis when the results are expressed as
standard deviations or probable errors.
Suppose X is a function of several variables.
X  f  x1 , x2 , x3 ,........xn 
Where x1 , x2 , x3 ,........xn are independent variables with the same degree of odds.
Let ωx be the resultant uncertainty and  x1 , x2 , x3 ,........ xn by the uncertainties in

the independent variables x1 , x2 , x3 ,........xn respectively.

The uncertainty in the result is given by
2 2 2
 x   x   x 
x     x1  
2
  x2  ................ 
2
  xn
2


 1x 
 2x 
 nx

11.(b) (i) Explain anyone calibration method. (6)

Instrument calibration is one of the primary processes used to maintain instrument

accuracy. Calibration is the process of configuring an instrument to provide a result
for a sample within an acceptable range.

Static Calibration:
It refers to a procedure where an input either constant or slowly time varying is
applied to an instrument and corresponding output is measured while other inputs
are kept constant at some value. Instruments are so constructed that the signal
conversion they perform have the property of irreversibility or directionality. This
implies that a change in an input quantity will cause a corresponding change in the
output. The functional relationship between the output quantity and input quantity is
referred to as static calibration and valid under the stated constant conditions of all
other inputs.
Some applications involve the measurement of quantities that are either constant or
vary slowly with time. Under these circumstances it is possible to define a set of

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criteria that gives a meaningful description of quality of measurement.These criteria

are called static characteristics.
All the static performance characteristics are obtained in one form or another by a
process called static calibration.
The main static characteristics are
Accuracy, Sensitivity, Reproducibility
Drift, Static error, Dead zone
In an actual situation there may be many variables affecting an instrument.
In static calibration all other variables except the one in focus is varied to get the error
in reading. All other variables are constant while carry out the calibration.
The input – output relation obtained by this way comprise a static calibration valid
under the stated constant condition of all other inputs. This procedure may be
repeated by varying the other inputs in turn. In this way a family of static input –
output relation is obtained.

11.b. (ii) The following 10 observations were recorded when measuring a voltage.
41.7, 42.0, 41.8, 42.0, 42.1, 41.9, 42.5, 42.0, 41.9, 41.8. Find: (10)
(1) Mean
(2) Standard Deviation
(3) Probable error
(4) Mode.
Solution:
41.7  42  41.8  42.0  42.1  41.9  42.0  41.9  42.5  41.8
i) mean X 
10
419.7
  41.97V
10
ii) The standard deviation
d1  0.27 d12  0.0729
d2  0.03 d22  0.0009
d3  0.17 d32  0.0289
d4  0.03 d42  0.0009
d5  0.13 d52  0.0169 .
d6  0.07 d62  0.0049
d7  0.03 d72  0.0009
d8  0.07 d82  0.0049
d9  0.53 d92  0.2809
d10  0.17 d102  0.0289

 d2 0.441
S   0.22V
n 1 9
iii) Probable error of one reading r1  0.6745 S  0.6745  0.22  0.15V

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r1 r1 0.15
iv) Probable error of mean     0.05V
n 1 9 9
v) Range = 42.5 – 41.7 = 0.8V

12. (a) (i) Compare the Accuracy and Precision of Instruments. (6)
Accuracy:

 It is the closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the true

value of the quantity being measured.
 The accuracy of a measurement means “Conformity to truth”.
 The accuracy may be specified in terms of inaccuracy or limits of error.
It can be expressed in the following ways.
1. Point accuracy
2. Accuracy “as Percentage of scale Range”
3. Accuracy “as Percentage of true value”
Point accuracy:
 This is the accuracy of the instrument only at one point on its scale.
 The specification of this accuracy does not give any information about
the accuracy at all other points.
Accuracy as “Percentage of scale Range”:
 When an instrument has uniform scale, its accuracy may be expressed in
terms of scale range.
 For Example: The accuracy of a thermometer having a range of 500°C may
be expressed as ±0.5 percent of scale reading (or) range.
 This means that the accuracy of the thermometer when the reading is 500°C
is ±0.5 percent which is negligible.
 But when the reading is 25°C, it is the 20% of the scale range, the error is
500
high as  0.5  10% and therefore specification of accuracy in this
25
manner is highly misleading.
Accuracy as “Percentage of True value”:
The best way to conceive the idea of accuracy is to specify it in terms of the true
value of the quantity being measured. (i.e.) within ±0.5 percent of true value

Precision:

 It is a measure of the reproducibility of the measurements. (i.e.) given a

fixed value of quantity
 Precision is a measure of the degree of agreement within a group of
measurements.
 ‘Precise’ means clearly or sharply defined.
It composed of two characteristics:

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(i) Conformity and (ii) Number of significant figures.

S.No Accuracy Precision

1. It is a measure of degree of It is a measure of degree of
closeness between the measured closeness among the measured
and true value. values.
2. The accurate instrument is always For a precise instrument it cannot
free from error. be concluded whether it is error free
or not.
3. The accurate instrument will be Precise instrument need not be
precise for sure. accurate.
4. Accuracy is specified using Point Precision is specified using
accuracy, as Percentage of scale conformity and number of
Range, as Percentage of true value significant figures

12. (a) (ii) Obtain the step response of first order instrument and explain the
procedure for estimating the static and dynamic parameters that can
be obtained from the above response curve. (10)

Step Response of First order system:

C(s) K

R(s)  s  1

Q r (t )  1
1
R(S)=
S

1 A B
C ( s)   
s 1   s  S 1   s

A 1 B  

 1    
C ( s)  K   
 s 1 s 

C (t )  K 1 e 
t

for t  0

At t   , C    1  e1  0.632
t  2 , C  2   1  e2  0.864

t  5 , C  5   1  e5  0.993  1

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Time constant of a first order system is defined as the time taken by the response to
reach 63.2% of its final steady state value.

The time constant is indicative of how test the system tends to reach the final
value.A large time constant corresponds to a slow system response and a small
time constant represents a fast system response.
12.(b) Obtain the mathematical expression for output of the over damped and under
damped second order transducer. [16]
13. (a) (i) Compare the merits, limitations and typical ranges of operation of RTD
with thermocouple. [6]
Thermocouples are inexpensive, rugged, and have a fast response time but are less
accurate and the least stable and sensitive. Thermocouples also read only relative
temperature difference between the tip and the leads while RTD's and thermistors
read absolute temperature. RTD's are the best choice for repeatability, and are the
most stable and accurate. However they have a slow response time and because
they require a current source they do have a low amount of self heating.

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13. (a) (ii) Describe the functioning and typical application for piezoresistive type
of sensor. [10]
PIEZORESISTIVE SENSOR:

 If a metal conductor is stretched or compressed, its resistance changes on

account of the fact that both length and diameter change. Also there is a change
in the value of resistivity of the conductor when it is strained and this property
is called “PIEZORESISTIVE EFFECT”.
 Bonded semi conductor gauges are used mainly in transducers; however they
may find occasional application in stress analysis if they available strain is very
small.
 They are made by slicing small sections from specially processed silicon
crystals and are available in both N and P type.
 The P – type gages increase resistance with applied tensile Spain while the N-
type decrease resistance.
 Their main feature is very high gage factor as much as 150.
 Equation shows the most of this gage factor must come from
piezo resistance effects where as dimensional change explains most of the gage
factor of metallic gages.
 Transducers based on semiconductor gages are often called “PIEZORESISTIVE
EFFECT”.
 Unfortunately, high gage factor is accompanied by high temperature
sensitivity, non-linearity and mounting difficulties.
 Solutions for these problems exist, and they can be accepted in the transducer
manufacturing environment but they are difficult to live with in routine stress
analysis.

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13. (b) (i) Discuss the construction and signal conditioning circuit for strain gauges.
(8)
Strain gauge in tension increase resistance , in compression decrease resistance.

13.b. (ii) Explain the working principle of anyone type of hot-wire anemometer. (8)
Refer Q.No.13.a.(ii) April 2015 answer key.

14. (a) Explain the operation, Equivalent circuit and transfer function for LVDT.
(16)

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OR
14.(b)(i)Discuss single and double element displacement type of capacitive sensor. (8)
Variable Distance Displacement Sensors

A capacitor displacement sensor, made from two flat coplanar plates with a
variable distance x apart, is illustrated in Figure 6.23. Ignoring fringe effects, the
capacitance of this arrangement can be expressed by:

where
ε= the dielectric constant or permittivity
εr= the relative dielectric constant (in air and vacuum εr≈1)
ε0= 8.854188 ×10–12F/m, the dielectric constant of vacuum
x= the distance of the plates in m
A= the effective area of the plates in m2

The capacitance of this transducer is nonlinear with respect to distance x , having a

hyperbolic transfer function characteristic. The sensitivity of capacitance to changes in
plate separation is

Equation indicates that the sensitivity increases as x decreases. Nevertheless, from

Equations it follows that the percent change in C is proportional to the percent change
in x. This can be expressed as:

This type of sensor is often used for measuring small incremental displacements
without making contact with the object.
Variable Area Displacement Sensors:
Alternatively, the displacements may be sensed by varying the surface area of
the electrodes of a flat plate
capacitor, as illustrated in Figure. In this case, the capacitance would be

Where w = the width

Wx = the reduction in the area due to movement of the plate

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Then, the transducer output is linear with displacement x . This type of sensor
is normally implemented as a rotating capacitor for measuring angular displacement.
The rotating capacitor structures are also used as an output transducer for measuring
electric voltages as capacitive voltmeters.

14.b. (ii) Describe the operation of capacitor microphone. (8)

Capacitive Microphone:

 Sound waves are in fact, pressure waves or fluctuations of the pressure of air
around the normal pressure of 1 atm.
 Capacitive microphone is used to reproduce the pressure fluctuations
faithfully.
 The range of frequencies involved is from 20Hz to 15KHz.
 The capacitive microphone membranes should be sensitive to the fluctuating
components only and special provision must be made to equalize the pressure
on either side of the membranes. So as to prevent it from bursting due to
atmospheric pressure variations.
 The constructional features of the capacitive microphone are shown in figure.
 It consists of a very thin metallic membranes kept under radial tension.
 The capillary tube or hole connecting the chamber behind the membranes
atmospheric is intended to equalize the pressure on either side of the
diaphragm.
 The capillary path and the volume of microphone chamber act as a low pass
filter allowing the slow variations of atmospheric pressure but preventing the

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pressure fluctuations of sound waves from appearance on the backside of the

membrane.
 At any instant, the membranes is subjected to pressure fluctuation of the front
side only.
 The fixed plate of the capacitor is held rigidly inside the chamber and is
provided with holes so as to allow the air to pass freely from the space between
the electrodes to the other side of the chamber.
 These holes are known as damping holes.
 The damping effect of the holes helps in controlling the amplitude of the
vibration of the membrane at frequencies near about its undamped natural
frequency.
 Normally, the capacitive microphone is designed to have flat frequency
response from 10Hz to 20KHz.
 The capacitance variations develop output voltage across the high resistance R.
A high impedance amplifier amplifies the voltages.
 They are measure the noise level of machinery and for analysis and diagnosis
of vibration problems of machinery.
15. (a) Describe with block diagram, Explain the features of smart sensors and
compare them with conventional sensors. (16)
Smart Sensors:

 A sensor producing an electric output when combined with interface electronic

circuit is said to be intelligent sensor (or) smart sensors.
 The interfacing electronic circuits can perform.
 Both sensors and actuators are used as intelligent components of
instrumentation systems.
The block diagram of one such intelligent equipment is shown in figure.

An intelligent field device possesses the following prosperities:-

 Automatic ranging and calibration through a built – in digital system.

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 Auto – acquisition and storage of calibration constant in local memory of the

field device.
 Auto – configuration and verification of hardware for correct operation
following internal checks.
 Auto correction of offsets, time and temperature drifts.
 Self tuning control algorithms, Fuzzy logic control is being increasingly used
now.
 Control programme may be locally stored or downloaded from a host system
and dynamic reconfiguration performed.
 Auto linearization of non – linear transfer characteristics.
 Control is implementable through signal bus and a host system.
 Condition monitoring is also used for fault diagnosis which in turn, may
involve additional sensors, digital signal processing and data analysis
software.
 Communication through a serial bus.
The smart sensor is intended to sense as well as do the sensing – related processing
within itself. Further, it communicates the response of the host system so that
efficiency and accuracy of information distribution are enhanced with cost
reduction.Advanced processing technologies have now replaced earlier ones used
for developments of smart sensors.
15.(b) (i) Discuss briefly on fibre optic sensors and write their merits. (8)
Fibre Optic Sensors:
Fibre optic sensors could be classified as a separate group of sensors, as although
such sensors are in their prime. These are considered for sensing different types of
variable such as temperature, liquid level, fluid flow, acoustic parameter and so
on.
Optical fibres are divided into two groups:
 Active - The fibre is exposed to energy source that affects the measurement
and a consequent change in optical propagation in the fibre is detected and
related to measured.
 Passive - Light transmitted through a fibre called input fibre, is first modulated
by conventional optical sensor an this intensity – modulated light is
propagated through a second fibre called the output fibre and then detected
and corrected with the measured.
 A fiber optic sensor is a sensor that uses optical fiber as the sensing element.
 According to the spatial distribution of the measurand (the quantity to be
measured), FOS can be classified as...
Point sensors: the measurement is carried out at a single point in space, but
possibly multiple channels for addressing multiple points. Examples are
Fabry-Perot sensors and single Fibre Bragg Grating (FBG) sensors.
Integrated sensors: the measurement averages a physical parameter over a

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certain spatial section and provides a single value. An example is a

deformation sensor measuring strain over a long base length.
Quasi-distributed or multiplexed sensors: the measurand is determined at a
number of fixed, discrete points along a single fibre optical cable. The most
common example are multiplexed FBG's.
Distributed sensor: The parameter of interest is measured with a certain
spatial resolution at any point along a single optical cable. Examples include
systems based on Rayleigh, Raman and Brillouin scattering.
MERITS OF FIBRE OPTICAL SENSORS
Completely passive: can be used in explosive environment.
Immune to electromagnetic interference: ideal for microwave environment.
Resistant to high temperatures and chemically reactive environment: ideal for harsh
and hostile environment.
Small size: ideal for embedding and surface mounting.
High degree of biocompatibility, non-intrusive nature and electromagnetic immune:
ideal for medical applications like intra-aortic balloon pumping.
It can monitor a wide range of physical and chemical parameters.
It is potential for very high sensitivity, range and resolution.
Complete electrical insulation from high electrostatic potential.
Remote operation over several km lengths without any lead sensitivity: ideal for
deployment in boreholes or measurements in hazardous environment.
Multiplexed and distributed sensors are unique in that they provide measurements at
a large number of points along a single optical cable: ideal for minimizing cable
deployment and cable weight, or for monitoring extended structures like pipelines,
dams etc.
15.(b). (ii) With neat diagram explain the application for MEMS and Nano sensors. (8)
MEMS Pressure Sensors

MEMS pressure microsensors typically have a flexible diaphragm that deforms in the
presence of a pressure difference. The deformation is converted to an electrical signal
appearing at the sensor output. A pressure sensor can be used to sense the absolute air
pressure within the intake manifold of an automobile engine, so that the amount of
fuel required for each engine cylinder can be computed. In this example,
piezoresistors are patterned across the edges of a region where a silicon diaphragm
will be micromachined. The substrate is etched to create the diaphragm. The sensor
die is then bonded to a glass substrate, creating a sealed vacuum cavity under the
diaphragm. The die is mounted on a package, where the topside of the diaphragm is
exposed to the environment. The change in ambient pressure forces the downward
deformation of the diaphragm, resulting in a change of resistance of the piezoresistors.
On-chip electronics measure the resistance change, which causes a corresponding
voltage signal to appear at the output pin of the sensor package .

Nano – Sensors:

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 Micro – electronics naturally leads to nano – electrons for realizing nano-

devices which are expected to create an impact in the enhancement of energy
conversion, controlling of pollution, production of food and improvement in
the condition of human health.
 While progressing towards the development of fast and miniaturized memory
structures, gaint magnetic resistance structures (GMR) have been produced
using Thomson effect.
 The GMR structure consist of layers of magnetic and non magnetic metal films
where in the critical layers have thickness of the order of nanometers.
 They are used as extremely sensitive magnetic field sensors.
 The spin – polarized electrons are transported between the magnetic layers on
the nanometer length scale and this process, during operation, allows the
structure to sense magnetic field.
 These are already in use in sensing magnetic bits stored on computer discs.

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