Learning Objectives:
exactly so the correct medication and its dosage can be
At the end of the topic, the student should be able to:
1. Recognize the format and components of
traditional prescriptions, e-prescriptions, and
typical institutional medication orders;
2. Differentiate the structure and contents of
prescriptions and medication orders;
3. Interpret correctly standard abbreviations and
symbols on prescriptions and medication orders;
4. Apply knowledge of basic pharmaceutical Latin in
interpreting common abbreviations and symbols
used in prescriptions and medication orders; and
5. Evaluate a prescription and medication order by
identifying errors, omissions, and error-prone
abbreviations, symbols, and dose designations
Parts of Prescriptions and Medication Orders
Medications are ordered by a physician either on a
written prescription for the patient to take to a pharmacy for
dispensing, or as a medication order in a patient medical
record.  Types of Drugs
By definition, a prescription is an order of medication
issued by a physician, dentist, or other properly licensed
medical practitioner. A prescription designates a specific
medication and dosage to be prepared by a pharmacist
and administered to a particular patient.
A prescription may be written on preprinted prescription
form (traditional prescriptions) or transmitted to a pharmacy
by computer (e-prescription), telephone, or facsimile (fax).
A typical pre-printed prescription form contains the
traditional symbol ℞ (meaning "recipe," "take thou," or
"you take"), name, address, telephone number, and other
pertinent information regarding the prescriber. Blank areas
are used by the prescriber to provide patient information,
the medication desired, and directions for use.
In hospitals and other institutions, the forms are somewhat
different and are referred to as medication orders. A
medication order may be written (paper) or transmitted
electronically.
A prescription or medication order for an infant, child, or an
elderly person may include the age, weight, and/or body
surface area (BSA) of the patient. This information is
applicable in dose calculation.
In whatever setting, the order must be read and interpreted
provided for patient safety. Before dispensing the
prescription or medication order, the pharmacist’s
responsibility is to evaluate the prescription or medication
order for appropriateness. This includes ensuring the
correct drug, dose and dosage form, frequency, route of
administration, duration of therapy, and indication.
Additionally, the patient’s profile is evaluated for
therapeutic duplication, drug allergies, drug–disease state
interactions, and drug–drug interactions, and laboratory
data are reviewed, if available. This process helps ensure
that the benefits of the therapy are maximized and the
potential for harm is minimized.
A prescription may call for a pre-fabricated dosage form
(e.g., tablet) or it may call for multiple components and
require compounding by a pharmacist. We will discuss
prescriptions for pre-fabricated dosage forms in the
succeeding section. In the meantime, prescriptions
requiring compounding include the name and quantities of
each ingredient, the form into which they are to be
prepared (e.g., syrup, capsules), and directions for patient
use. A separate discussion for drug dosage forms will be
conducted in the laboratory component of this course.
 Prescription (or Ethical) Drugs
These are pharmaceutical products or drug preparations
that are to be dispensed only upon written order of a
validly-registered licensed physician, dentist, or
veterinarian for the management or treatment of a
condition or disease.
 Non-prescription (or Over-the-Counter) Drugs
These are pharmaceutical products or drug preparations
that can be dispensed even without the written order of a
validly-registered licensed physician, dentist, or
veterinarian for the prevention or symptomatic relief of
minor or self-limiting ailments.
 Dangerous Drugs
These refer to either prohibited drugs or regulated drugs,
which require a special prescription form, the use of which
is monitored by the Dangerous Drugs Board
Generic Prescribing
In the Philippines, a medication needs to be prescribed
using its generic name pursuant to the provisions
of Republic Act No. 6675 (also known as the "Generics Act
of 1988"). A generic name  (or generic terminology) is
the the identification of drugs and medicines by their
scientifically and internationally recognized active
ingredients or by their official generic name as determined
by the Bureau of Food and Drugs (now, Food and Drug
Administration) of the Department of Health. Likewise,
generic drugs are those which are not covered by patent
protection and which are labeled solely by their
international non-proprietary or generic name. In contrast,
a brand name is the proprietary name given by the
manufacturer to distinguish its product from those of
competitors.  should be:
Implementing rules and regulations for generic prescribing
and generic dispensing are listed in the Administrative
Order No. 62, series of 1989. Generic prescribing refers
to prescribing of drugs or medicines using their generic
name(s) or generic terminology. Generic dispensing, on the
other hand, refers to dispensing the patient’s/buyer’s
choice from among generic equivalents; i.e., the
medications have same active ingredient/s, same dosage
form, and same strength of the drug.
To further promote generic prescribing and generic
dispensing, the new Republic Act No. 9502 (also known as
the "Universally Accessible Cheaper and Quality Medicines
Act of 2008") amended Section 6 ("Who Shall Use Generic
Terminology") of RA 6675:
There shall appear prominently on the label of a generic
drug the following statement: THIS PRODUCT HAS THE
SAME THERAPEUTIC EFFICACY AS ANY OTHER
GENERIC PRODUCT OF THE SAME NAME. SIGNED:
BFAD.
You will discuss more about generic prescribing and
generic dispensing in your other courses: Dispensing
1 and Dispensing 2.
Components of Prescriptions and Medication Orders
The five major components are the superscription (the Rx
or ℞ symbol), inscription (the medication
prescribed), subscription (instruction/s to the
pharmacist), signa (instruction/s to the patient), and
the signature of the prescriber. Aside from these parts, a
prescription also has to contain the preprinted name of the
physician or group of physicians, the address and phone
number. This should also include the patient’s name,
address, date of the prescription, and the patient’s age if
the patient is a child. Dating prescriptions is important
because prescriptions must be filled within 12 months of
writing, except with controlled substances or scheduled
medications. Furthermore, the refilling of the prescription is
dependent on the date. Medication orders typically contain
similar information that would be included on a prescription.
Medication Verification and Evaluation of Errors and
Omissions
It is the responsibility of the pharmacist to ensure that each
prescription and medication order received is correct in its
form and content, is appropriate for the patient being
treated and is subsequently filled, labeled, dispensed, and
administered accurately. In essence, each medication
 Therapeutically appropriate for the patient
 Prescribed at the correct dose
 Dispensed in the correct strength and dosage
form
 Correctly labeled with complete instructions for
the patient or caregiver
 For the patient in a hospital or other health care
facility, each medication must be administered to
the correct patient, at the correct time, and by the
correct rate and route of administration
Medication Verification
Medication verification is the term used when there is a
process in place to assure the above categories. It is
performed initially through the careful reading, filling
(including calculations), checking, and dispensing of the
prescription or medication order. The process often is
enhanced by technologies, as the computer matching of a
drug package bar code with the prescription order and/or
by matching the drug’s bar code to a patient’s coded wrist
band in a patient care facility (termed bedside medication
verification).
Errors and Omissions
To ensure such accuracy, the pharmacist is obliged to
review each prescription (both traditional and e-
prescription) and medication order in a step-by-step
manner to detect errors and omissions. If there is any
question regarding a prescription or medication order, the
pharmacist must seek clarification from the prescriber.
Among the items that the pharmacist should check for the
correct reading and interpretation of a prescription or
medication order are as follows: Tamper-Resistant Prescriptions and e-Prescriptions

 Prescriber information Tamper-Resistant Prescriptions

 Date of the order and its currency to the request
for filling To prevent unauthorized copying, modification, or
 Patient identification information and, if pertinent counterfeiting of prescriptions, tamper-resistant pads have
to dose determination, the patient's age, weight, been developed. The tamper-resistant qualities of these
and/or other parameters prescription forms are accomplished through the use of:
 Drug prescribed, including dose, preparation
strength, dosage form, and quantity
 security paper;
 Clarity of any abbreviations, symbols, and/or
 erase-resistant paper;
units of measure
 thermochromic ink (which results in the
 Clarity and completeness of directions for use by
appearance of the word "VOID" on photocopies);
the patient or caregiver
and/or
 Refill and/or generic substitution authorization
 imbedded holograms
(not applicable in the Philippines)
 Need for special labeling, such as expiration
date, conditions for storage, and foods and/or
other medications not to take concomitantly
 A listing of the ingredients and quantities for Electronic Health Record
orders to be compounded
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
Once the prescription or medication order is filled and the v=n1L4nKdYr6E#action=share
label prepared, before dispensing, the pharmacist should
make certain of the following:
An electronic health record (EHR) is a digital version of a
 The filled prescription or medication order patient's paper chart. EHRs are real-time, patient-centered
contains the correct drug, strength, dosage form, records that make information available instantly and
and quantity. Placing a medication's indication (or securely to authorized users. 
use) on the prescription label has been shown to
be of benefit in understanding of the use of their An EHR can contain a patient's: 
medication for some patients, particularly older
patients and those taking multiple medications.  medical history;
 The pharmacy-imprinted serial number on the  diagnoses;
label matches that on the order.  medications;
 The label has the name of the correct patient and  treatment plans;
physician; the correct drug name, quantity, and
 immunization dates;
strength; the name or initials of the pharmacist
 allergies; 
who filled the order; and the number of refills
remaining. Additional label information and/or  radiology images; and
auxiliary labels may be required.  laboratory and test results

It is important that the instructions for use by the patient be
clearly understood. This may require that the pharmacist
add words of clarity to the labeled instructions.
To appreciate the significance of medication verification in
the professional duty of a pharmacist, watch The
Pharmacist on
Netflix: https://www.netflix.com/ThePharmacist. Watch its
official trailer below:
Integrated EHR systems allow doctors, nurses,
pharmacists, and other health care providers to
appropriately access, and securely share a patient's vital
medical information electronically—with the intent of
improving the speed, quality, safety, and cost of patient
care. In the hospital and in other institutional settings, these
systems include computerized physician order entry
(CPOE) by which a physician can order medications and
provide other instructions for a patient's care.
 with times, thus, making it suitable for use in medical fields.
Many of the abbreviations and acronyms in prescriptions
e-Prescribing/e-Prescriptions have Latin origins. An understanding of the Latin origin of
many pharmaceutical terminologies will somehow help you
to be more familiar with such.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=aJ2jUO59wps#action=share
Examples
Electronic prescribing (e-prescribing) is the computer-to-
computer transfer of prescription information between 1. M. ft. ung. Mixandmakeanointment.
authorized prescribers, pharmacies, intermediaries, and
payers under nationally accepted standards. In the 2. Ft. supp. no. xii Make12suppositories.
inpatient or outpatient setting, a medication order for a
patient is entered into an automated data entry system as a 3. M. ft. cap. d.t.d. no. xxiv Mixandmakecapsules
personal computer or a hand-held device loaded with e-
prescribing software and sent to a pharmacy as an e- Examples
prescription. When an e-prescription is received in the
pharmacy, then, it is printed out.
1. Caps. i. q.i.d. p.c. et h.s. Take 1 capsule 4 times a day
after each meal andatbedtime.
https://youtu.be/kRb-Nj63l4E
2. Gtt. ii o.d. q.d. a.m. Instill 2 drops in the right eye every
day in the morning.
Benefits of e-Prescriptions
3. Tab. ii stat; tab. 1 q. 6 h. x 7 d.
Among the advantages cited for e-prescriptions over
traditional paper prescriptions are: PracticeExercises Interpret the following Subscriptions
from prescriptions.
 reduced errors due to prescription legibility;
1. M. et ft. susp. 1 g/tbsp. Disp. 60 mL
 concurrent software screens for drug allergies
and drug interactions;
 integrated information exchange between health 2. M. et ft. caps. DTD xlviii
care providers; 
 reduced incidence of altered or forged 3. M. ft. iso. sol. Disp. 120 mL.
prescriptions; 
 efficiency for both prescriber and pharmacist; 4. Ft. cap. #1 DTD no. xxxvi N.R.
and 
 convenience to the patient, whose prescription 5. Disp. supp. rect. no. xii
would likely be ready for pick-up upon arrival at
the pharmacy. Interpret the following Signas from prescriptions.

https://youtu.be/h9gwAOL7UJE 1. Instill 2 gtts o.u. bid x 7 days

Problems with e-Prescriptions
2. Take 1-2 tabs p.o. q4h prn pain
https://youtu.be/HoWKlcliHTA
3. Apply crm top to aa qid prn itchiness
Introduction to Pharmaceutical Latin
4. Take 1 cap po pc
Many English words, such as are commonly used, are
5. Instill 1 gtt a.s. q2h ATC wa ud
derived from Latin, as well as a large number of medical
and scientific terms. The Italian, French, Spanish, and
Portuguese languages are taken from the same source.
Because Latin is a “dead” language, it is seldom changing
Latin: The Eternal Language 

https://youtu.be/6ZJ0fzr1ajg

https://youtu.be/_6eYkDhH61Y

The Latin Alphabet

Vowels in Latin
Vowel
a a
e e
i Í or j
o ō or ŏ
u  ū
y i or j
Sound Latin Example (
ad (up to), aqua (water), tabletta (tablet)
ex modo prescripto (as directed), et (and)
fiat (make), pulvis (powder), maior (major)
ōs  (bone), ŏs (mouth)
cum (with), capsula (capsule), emulsum (emulsion)
syrupus (syrup)

https://youtu.be/LwtgvwJljto

Unusual Consonants in Latin

Consonant Sound
c s acetum, picis, colocynthis, caecum, coelum, cibos
c sh species, glaciale
c k camphora, oculus, nocte
ch k charta
g j vegetabilis, digitalis, hydrargyrum
g g gargarisma, gummifer, glycyrrhyza

https://youtu.be/0oWWOJW3948

Latin Diphthongs
Diphthong Sound
ae e or é aurio laeva (left ear), guttae (drops)
au au auris (ear), aurio dextra (right ear)
ei ei
eu eu leukemia, prescriptio seu ordinario
oe e or ö oedema, pharmacopoea

Latin Numbers

https://youtu.be/8sY8ykRXAZs

Latin Nouns
Latin nouns have three genders (i.e., masculinum, feminimum, and neutrum); five basic cases, which determine what function
the noun serves in the sentence (i.e., nominativus, genetivus, dativus, accussativus, and ablativus); and
two numerals (singularis and pluralis). The Latin language also has five declensions (groups of nouns that form their cases the
same way; i.e., use the same suffix).

 Cases

1. Nominativus (nominative) - subject

2. Genetivus (genitive) - possession (e.g., of + noun)
3. Dativus (dative) - indirect object (e.g., for + noun)
4. Accusativus (accusative) - direct object
5. Ablativus (ablative) - by, with, or from + noun
6. Vocativus (vocative) - used only in addressing/calling someone

 Declension

A declension is a group of nouns that form their cases the same way, i.e., use the same suffix. In what declension a noun is
defined we recognize by the suffix of the Genetivus.

1. First Declension - suffix: –ae

2. Second Declension - suffix: –i
3. Third Declension - suffix: –is
4. Fourth Declension - suffix: –us
5. Fifth Declension - suffix: –ei

Some examples of the first and second declension will be discussed in the synchronous lecture.
The amounts of the ingredients in a prescription, although commonly represented by symbols, are regularly in the accusative
case, since they are the direct object of the verb recipe (take).

1. of waters 2. pills (nom.) 3. drops (acc.) 4. by wax 5. with myrrh

SecondDeclension

a. masculinum (masculine gender) and have a suffix –us (or–er) in nominativus, and the suffix–iin genetivus; or b. neutrum
(neuter gender) and have a suffix –um in nominativus and the suffix–iin genetivus − e.g. calamus (reed), magister (teacher), puer
(boy), cibus (food, meal), extractum (extract), syrupus (syrup), linimentum (liniment), emplastrum (plaster), vinum (wine)

The accusative case is also used with the prepositions ad (to), ante (before), in (in, into, on), post (after), per (by),
and contra (against).

https://youtu.be/TaUkjl-VHig

Roman Numerals, Abbreviations, and Symbols in Prescriptions and Medication Orders

Use of Roman Numerals in Prescriptions

Roman numerals commonly are used in prescription writing to designate quantities, as the (1) quantity of medication to be
dispensed and/or (2) quantity of medication to be taken by the patient per dose.

In prescriptions, capital or lowercase letters may be used. Dotting the lowercase "i" or placement of a horizontal line above the "i"
with the dot atop serves to avoid misinterpretation. A "j" may be used as the final "i" in a sequence (e.g., viij). Additional
examples can be found in your textbook.

When Roman numerals are used, the tradition of placing the numerals after the term or symbol generally is followed (e.g.,
capsules no. xxiv; fluid ounces xij).

Use of Abbreviations and Symbols

Although reduced by the transition to e-prescribing, the use of abbreviations remains on prescriptions and medication orders. As
mentioned before, many prescription abbreviations are derived from the Latin through its historical use in medicine and
pharmacy, whereas others have evolved through prescribers' use of writing shortcuts. A list of some of these abbreviations is
presented in Table 4.3 of your textbook. You can also supplement this with those in the Glossary of Latin Abbreviations Used in
the Prescriptions here: https://bit.ly/3gN1SIz. 

Unfortunately, medication errors can result from the misuse, misinterpretation, and illegible writing of abbreviations and through
the use of ad hoc, or made up, abbreviations. The use of a controlled vocabulary, a reduction in the use of abbreviations, care in
the writing of decimal points, and the proper use of leading and terminal zeros have been urged to help reduce medication
errors.

Error-Prone Abbreviations, Symbols and Dose Designations

Abbreviations and symbols are common in prescriptions and medication orders. As a result, the Joint Commission (formerly
the Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations , or JCAHCO) requires healthcare organizations to develop
an approach to standardizing abbreviations, acronyms, and symbols, as well as to create a list of those that should not be used.
You can access the Official "Do Not Use" list by the Joint Commission by clicking this link: https://tinyurl.com/y4hchgpl.

Likewise, the Institute for Safe Medication Practices (ISMP) has published a comprehensive list of symbols, abbreviations, and
dose designations that lead to harmful medication errors called ISMP’s List of Error-Prone Abbreviations, Symbols, and Dose
Designations. Aside from the list that is uploaded for your reading, you may also access the recommendations of ISMP
at https://tinyurl.com/y2kjef64.

Among the specific recommendations to help reduce medication errors arising from poorly written, illegible, or misinterpreted
prescriptions and medication errors are the following:

 A whole number should be shown without a decimal point and without a terminal zero (e.g., express 4 milligrams as 4
mg and not as 4.0 mg).
 A quantity smaller than one should be shown with a zero preceding the decimal point (e.g., express two tenths of a
milligram as 0.2 mg and not .2 mg).
 Leave a space between a number and the unit (e.g., 10 mg, and not 10mg).
 Use whole numbers when possible and not equivalent decimal fractions (e.g., use 100 mg and not 0.1 g).
 Use the full names of drugs and not abbreviations (e.g., use phenobarbital and not PB).
 Use USP designations for units of measure (e.g., for grams, use g and not Gm or gms; for milligrams, use mg and not
mgs or mgm).
 Spell out "units" (e.g., use 100 units and not 100 u or 100 U since an illegible U may be misread as a zero, resulting in
a 10-fold error, i.e., 1000). The abbreviation I.U., which stands for "International Units" should be spelled out, so it is
not interpreted as I.V., meaning "intravenous."
 Certain abbreviations that could be mistaken for other abbreviations should be written out (e.g., write "right eye" or "left
eye" rather than use o.d. or o.l., and spell out "right ear" and "left ear" rather than use a.d., or a.l.).
 Spell out "every day," rather than use q.d.; "every other day," rather than q.o.d.; "four times a day," rather than q.i.d.;
and "three times a week," rather than t.i.w. to avoid misinterpretation.
 Avoid using d for "day" or "dose" because of the profound difference between terms, as in mg/kg/day versus
mg/kg/dose.
 Integrate capital or "tall man" letters to distinguish between "look-alike" drug names, such as hydrOXYZINE and
hydrALAZINE, and DIGoxin and DESoxyn.
 Amplify the prescriber's directions on the prescription label when needed for clarity (e.g., use "Swallow one (1) capsule
with water in the morning" rather than "one cap in a.m.").
Examples Translate the following Latin words/phrases 5. Before meals
in English.
6. Let myrrh be given.
1. syrupos

2. emulsorum
DosageForms
3. vinis
1. Acidum Ac. Acid
4. Addeacetum.
2. Aqua Aq. Water
5. Recipeaquam et vinum.
3. Creta Creta Chalk
6. Linimentumdetur.
4. Decoctus Decoct. Decoction
Translate the following English words/phrases into
Latin. 5. Emplastrum Emp. Plaster

1. of syrup 6. Extractum Ext. Extract

2. plasters (nom.) 9. Infusio Inf. Infusion

3. of liniments 10. Linimentum Lin. Liniment

4. Take squill and vinegar. 11. Lotion Lotio Lotion

12. Mistura Mist. Mixture
13. Oleum Ol. Oil
14. Pilula Pil. Pill
15. Pulvis Pulv. Powder
16. Saccharum Sacch. Sugar
17. Solutio Sol. Solution
18. Spiritus Spts. Spirit
19. Suppositorium Supp. Suppository
20. Syrupus Syr. Syrup
21. Tabletta Tab. Tablet
22. Tinctura Tr. Tincture
23. Unguentum Ung. Ointment
24. Vinum Vin. Wine
Pharmaceutical Calculations
the area of study that applies the basic principles
of mathematics to the preparation and safe and
effective use of pharmaceuticals
Scope of Pharmaceutical Calculations
encompasses calculations performed by
pharmacists in traditional as well as in
specialized practice settings and within
operational and research areas in industry,
academia, and government
• Chemical and physical properties of drug
substances and pharmaceutical ingredients
• Pharmaceutical productd evelopment
• Prescriptions and medication orders including
drug dosage, dosage regimens, and patient
adherence to medication treatment plans
• Biological activity and rates of absorption, bodily
distribution, metabolism, and excretion
• Statistical data from basic research and clinical
drug studies
Numbers and Numerals
Number - a total quantity, or amount, of units
Numeral - a word or sign, or a group of words,
signs, expressing a number
Kinds of Numbers
1. Natural (orwhole) number,orinteger, e.g., 549
2. Fraction, or subdivision of a whole number,
e.g., 4/7
3. Mixed number, consisting of a whole number
plus a fraction, e.g., 3 7/8
Kinds of Numbers
1. Abstract (or pure) number – a number taken
by itself, without application to anything concrete
2. Concrete (or denominate) number – a number
that designates a quantity of objects or units of
measure, such as 4 grams, 8 ounces, or 12
grains
“Numbers of different denominations have no
numeric connection with each other and cannot
be used together in
anydirectarithmeticaloperation.”
Types of Numerals
1. Arabic (Decimal) System – any number can be
expressed with only 10 figures: a zero and nine
digits (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) in which different
values are assigned to the digits according to the
place they occupy in a row; the central place in
the row is identified by a decimal point
2. Roman System – uses a few letters of the
alphabet in a simple “positional” notation
indicating adding to or subtracting from a
succession of bases extending from 1 through 5, Two or more letters express a quantity that is the
10, 50, 100, and 500 to 1000 sum of the values remaining after the value of
each smaller letter has been subtracted from that
Review of a following greater letter.
1. Write numbers 1 to 10 in Roman numerals.
Roman Systemof Notation - used in pharmacy
2. Write numbers 10, 20, …, 90, 100 in Roman only occasionally in prescriptions:
numerals.
1. To designate the number of dosage units
3. Write numbers 200, 300, …, 900, 1000 in prescribed (e.g., capsulesno.C)
Roman numerals. 2. To indicate the quantity of medication to be
administered (e.g.,teaspoonfulsii)
4. Write 19, 49, 99, 499, and 999 in Roman 3. In rare instances in which the common or
numerals. apothecaries’ systems of measurement are used
(e.g.,grainsiv).
Review
Interpret the quantity in each of these phrases • On prescriptions, physicians tend to use
taken from prescriptions: capitals except for the letter i, which they dot for
the sake of clarity; they may use j for a final i.
1. Caps. no. xlv • Following the Latin custom, they put the symbol
2. Gtts. Ij for the denomination first and the Roman
3. Tabs. no. xlviii numeral second (e.g., gr iv).
4. Pil. no. lxiv • Dates are customarily expressed in capitals.
5. Pulv. no. xvi
6. Caps. no. lxxxiv PracticeExercises2-1
Interpret thequantities in the following
Roman System of Notation prescriptions:
ss = ½ ℞
Zinc Oxide parts v
I or i = 1
Wool Fat parts xv
V or v = 5
Petrolatum parts lxxx
X or x = 10
L or l = 50 Disp.℥iv
C or c = 100 Sig. Apply.
D or d = 500
M or m = 1000 PracticeExercises2-2
Interpret thequantities in the following
Two or more letters express a quantity that is the prescriptions:
℞
sum of their values if they are successively equal
Dilaudid gr iss
or smaller in value.
Ammonum Chloride gr xl
Syrup ad ℥vi
Sig. ʒ ss pro tuss.
Common and Decimal Fractions
CommonFractions - portions of a whole,
expressedat 1/3, 7/8, and so forth
1. Proper fraction – if the numerator is smaller
than the denominator; value is less than 1
2. Improper fraction – if the numerator is greater
than the denominator; value is greater than 1
Review
In preparing batches of a formula, a pharmacist
used ¼ ounce, 1/12 ounce, 1/8 ounce, and 1/6
ounce of a chemical. Calculate the total quantity
of chemical used.
Calculating with Common Fractions
 Multiplying the numerator increases the
value of a fraction, and multiplying the
denominator decreases the value, but
when both numerator and denominator
are multiplied by the same number, the
value does not change.
Example: Reduce the fractions ¾, 4/5,
and 1/3 to a common denominator.
 Dividing the numerator decreases the
value of a fraction, and dividing the
denominator increases the value, but
when both numerator and denominator
are divided by the same number, the
value does not change.
Example: Reduce 36/2880 to its lowest
terms.
Review
If 3 fl. oz. of a liquid mixture are to
contain 1/24 fl. oz. of ingredient A, 1/4 fl.
oz. of ingredient B, and 1/3 fl. oz. of
ingredient C, how many fluidounces of
ingredient D are required?
 Before performing any arithmetical
operation involving fractions, reduce
every mixed number to an improper
fraction.
 When performing an operation involving
a fraction and a whole number, express
(or at least visualize) the whole number
as a fraction having 1 for its
denominator.
Decimal Fractions - a fraction with a denominator
of 10 or any power of 10 and is expressed
decimally rather than as a common fraction
1. To convert a common fraction to a decimal
fraction: Divide the denominator into the
numerator.
2. To convert a decimal fraction to a common
fraction: Express the decimal fraction as a ratio
and reduce.
PracticeProblem2-4
1. How many 0.000065-gram doses can be made
from 0.130 gram of a drug?
2. The literature for a pharmaceutical product
states that 26 patients of the 2,103 enrolled in a
clinical study reported headache after taking the
product. Calculate (a) the decimal fraction and
(b) the percentage of patients reporting this
adverse response?

Scientific (Exponential) Notation

ExponentialNotation - very large or very small
numbers are expressed as powers of 10

Examples:
Express the following in exponential notation:
121
1,210,000
0.0121
0.00000121

Ratio, Proportion, and Variation

Ratio - the relative magnitude of two quantities
Proportion - the expression of equality of two
ratios:
a: b= c: d a : b :: c : d 𝑎 𝑏=𝑐 𝑑

Variation - inverse relationships, i.e., twice the

cause, half the effect