FP_JUNE.
DECTOR DATA 26/5/04 12:11 PM Page 55
Roger Barrett
Apollo Fire Detectors Limited
1 Types of product
Automatic fire detection systems are now
an established part of modern life. Many
types of detector are used, but their
objective is always the same: to give early
warning of fire so that action can be taken
to preserve life and property. There may be
a desire for the earliest possible warning,
but this must be balanced against the
probability of false alarms, which will
reduce a system’s credibility and ultimately
reduce its effectiveness.
In simple terms, fire detectors operate by
sensing one or more products of
combustion – heat, smoke, gas and
radiation – and comparing their levels, or
changes in level, with those known to
represent a hazardous condition. The
relative amounts of these products will vary
widely with different fire types, hence the
need for different detector types.
June 2004 FEJ & FP
Fire Protection DATA
Fire detectors
2 Types of system
a) Smoke detectors the smoke particles in a light beam. All use
solid-state lamps (LEDs) and are equally as
The vast majority of smoke detectors in use
reliable as ionisation detectors.
today are point detectors, which sense the
fire products at a single point. In In a typical design, the light from the LED is
professionally installed systems, point projected across the measuring chamber.
detectors normally plug into ceiling- The chamber allows smoke to enter but
mounted bases to simplify installation and minimises the effects of ambient light. A
servicing. Generally, different types from the photo-receiver is arranged inside the
same manufacturer are designed to be chamber behind an arrangement of baffles,
interchangeable. which prevents any direct light from the
LED from reaching the sensor. When smoke
Point smoke detectors fall into two main
types: ionisation and optical scatter. The
ionisation type accounts for the majority of
enters the chamber, a small fraction of the
light is scattered onto the sensor. The
sensor output is thus related to the smoke
installed detectors. In domestic
density.
environments, almost all smoke alarms
installed are of the ionisation type. In many applications, optical and ionisation
smoke detectors are functionally
Although these two smoke detectors work
interchangeable. Their response to typical
on different principles, they are covered by
smouldering fires is very similar. However,
a single European standard, EN 54: Fire
their different operating principles give rise
detection and fire alarm systems: Part 7:
to bigger differences in other types of fire.
2000: Smoke detectors. Point detectors
using scattered light, transmitted light or Ionisation detectors are very sensitive to hot
ionisation. Each is a good general-purpose flaming fires that generate many very small,
detector. However, their different operating invisible particles. Optical detectors are
principles give them different response sensitive to the larger, visible particles
characteristics in some circumstances. produced in relatively small numbers in
overheating and smouldering. In simplistic
Ionisation chamber smoke detector
terms, the ionisation detector tells us how
The ionisation detector uses a small rapidly the fire is burning, while the optical
radioactive source to ionise the air inside a detector tells us how much the visibility has
measuring chamber. The chamber is metal, deteriorated.
or other conductive material, and is
Optical beam smoke detectors
perforated to allow smoke into the chamber.
Smoke entering the chamber will cause the If the area to be protected is a large open
current flowing through the chamber to space then an optical beam smoke detector
reduce, according the density of the smoke can often be used to replace a number of
particles. The change in chamber point smoke detectors. These detectors
characteristics is converted to a voltage and operate by projecting a beam of light,
used to indicate the smoke density. normally infrared, across the protected area
Modern ionisation detectors are very
compact and reliable. However, their use is
declining rapidly because of a general move
away from the use of radioactive sources,
and an increase in regulations governing
the transportation and storage of such
sources.
Optical smoke detector
Another type of smoke detector is the
optical or photoelectric detector. This senses
smoke by measuring the light scattered by
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F i r e P r o t e c t i o n
and measuring the amount of obscuration
caused by smoke entering the beam.
Because they effectively sum the
obscuration contributions from each
element of the beam length, they are
classed as line detectors. Their smoke
sensitivity is comparable to that of a point
smoke detector. Their performance is
covered by European standard, EN 54: Fire
detection and fire alarm systems: Part 12:
2002: Smoke detectors – Line detectors
using an optical light beam.
Aspirating smoke detectors
Aspirating smoke detectors can be the best
choice in some applications. Rather than
fitting the detector directly into the space to
be protected, these detectors have one
remotely mounted detector. The detector
enclosure is connected to the space to be
protected by pipework and air is drawn
through the pipework to the detector. Within
the protected area, the pipe can have
multiple inlet (sampling) points and acts in
the same way as an array of point smoke
detectors.
The sampling points can be much less
obtrusive than normal point detectors and
the pipework can be concealed above the
ceiling – a benefit in heritage premises. In
addition, the centralised detector can be
made much more sensitive than an ordinary
point detector. This can be used to
advantage in clean environments, such as
computer rooms, where the earliest
possible detection is required.
Video smoke detection
A more recent innovation is the video
smoke detection system, which can protect
a complete volume, rather than simply
measuring at ceiling level. Since humans
can visually recognise smoke, it is feasible
that a closed-circuit television camera,
coupled to a computer, can do a similar job.
These systems are, however, still in their
infancy and are used only for special
applications. Potentially, they can be very
useful for the protection of areas with high
ceilings, where the smoke does not have
sufficient energy to reach high-level
detectors.
b) Heat detectors
In some areas, such as kitchens, it is not
possible to use smoke detectors because
the atmosphere contains smoke in normal
conditions. In these cases, heat detectors
are normally used. Heat detectors operate
by sensing the temperature of the air
around the detector. Most are point
detectors, usually interchangeable with
smoke detectors. Several sensing
technologies are used, ranging from simple
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D a t a
bi-metallic thermostats to semiconductor
temperature sensors. Most modern
detectors use thermistors.
Point heat detectors
The European standard, EN 54: Fire
detection and fire alarm systems: Part 5:
2000: Heat detectors – point detectors,
classifies point heat detectors according to
the highest ambient temperature in which
they can be used without risk of false
alarm. The classes run from A to G and are
suitable for maximum ambient
temperatures that range from 50°C (A1 and
A2) to 140°C (G). Unlike smoke detectors,
there is no ‘one size fits all’ approach.
To complicate things further, EN 54: Part 5
has optional ‘sub-classes’ indicated by d) Flame detectors
suffixes ‘R’ and ‘S’. These indicate the well
A rather special type of risk is that involving
known ‘rate-of-rise’ and ‘fixed temperature’
highly flammable materials, particularly
types, respectively. Rate-of-rise types are
flammable liquids. This risk requires a very
useful when the ambient temperature varies
fast response – much faster than could be
over wide limits but varies only slowly, for
provided by smoke or heat detectors. In
example, in an unheated warehouse. Fixed
these cases, flame detectors are preferred.
temperature types are useful where rapid
They can sense the ultraviolet or infrared
temperature changes are normal, for
radiation from a flaming fire from a distance
example, in boiler rooms and kitchens.
and can give a response in a fraction of a
Line heat detectors second after the appearance of the flame.
Because flame detectors are generally very
While most heat detectors are point types, costly, they are normally only used where
line types are also used. The most common the potential loss is high. Flame detectors
of these is the heat-sensitive cable, which are covered by European standard EN 54:
can be useful for protecting cables trays or Fire detection and fire alarm systems: Part
machinery. The more sophisticated line type 10: 2002 Flame detectors – Point detectors.
uses an optical fibre whose properties
e) Multisensor detectors
change with temperature. This type is
significantly more expensive than the heat The use of two or more sensors within a
sensitive cable but has the advantage that single detector has become more common
the location of a hotspot in the fibre can be as manufacturers look for ways to reduce
determined to within a few metres. false alarms. If each sensor responds to a
different fire product, the outputs can be
c) Combustion gas detectors
combined and compared, to give greater
In recent years, attention has turned to gas confidence in the final alarm signal. These
sensors for fire detection applications. detectors are known as multisensor
Although many gases are produced in fires, detectors. The most common combination
only carbon monoxide (CO) has been used at present is smoke and heat, but other
successfully for fire detection. The CO fire combinations are possible.
detector typically uses an electrochemical
Multisensor detectors often use
cell to sense the level of CO in the air
sophisticated processing to improve their
around the detector. Since CO is produced
performance even further. The processing
by the incomplete combustion of carbon-
can measure and compensate for drift in
based materials, this type of detector can
the sensor output, which would otherwise
give early warning of such fires.
change the detector sensitivity. This
Although a CO detector is good in processing can be done in the detector
smouldering fires, its response to flaming itself or in the control panel.
fires and to overheating phenomena can be
poor. This limits its applications, although it
can be useful as a supplement to a smoke
detector. In some life safety applications, CO
detectors can be used instead of heat
detectors, but CO units should not be
viewed as replacements for smoke
detectors.
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F i r e P r o t e c t i o n D a t a

3 Design and installation issues 5 Relevant standards

It is essential to select the appropriate
detector for the application and to install it
in the most effective position. The design of
a fire detection system must take into
account many factors. The detector type
must be appropriate to the particular fire
risk and to the environment in which it is
installed. There will always be a
compromise between detection capability,
unwanted alarms and cost.
For most applications there are well-defined
rules for the use of fire detectors. These
rules are based on years of experience and
research and they are published in Codes of
Practice. In the UK, the definitive document
is BS 5839: Part 1: 2002: Fire detection and
alarm systems for buildings. Code of
practice for system design, installation,
commissioning and maintenance.
Although the Codes of Practice are adequate
for most designs, their prescriptive approach
is not always suitable. This is particularly
true in buildings of unconventional design or
construction, where a performance-based
system design, using the disciplines of fire
engineering, is commonly adopted. Such
designs are the province of the professional
fire engineer. While they may include some
novel or even radical configurations, they
must always recognise the fundamental
principles of detector operation.
EN 54: Fire detection and fire alarm
systems: Part 7: 2000: Smoke detectors.
Point detectors using scattered light,
transmitted light or ionisation
EN 54: Fire detection and fire alarm
systems: Part 5: 2000: Point heat detectors
EN 54: Fire detection and fire alarm
systems: Part 10: 2002: Flame detectors –
Point detectors
EN 54: Fire detection and fire alarm
systems: Part 12: 2002: Smoke detectors –
Line detectors using an optical light beam
BS 5839: Part 1: 2002: Fire detection and
alarm systems for buildings. Code of
practice for system design, installation,
commissioning and maintenance

4 Maintenance and testing

An installed detection system is relatively
complex, and to retain its effectiveness it
must be serviced regularly. Routine testing
is also necessary to find any previously
unrevealed failures. Because of the
specialist nature of the fire detection
system, it is generally recommended that
professional fire alarm service organisations
be used for this work.
Detectors are the most sensitive and critical
parts of the system and must be in good
working order if the system is to perform its
function. To this end, BS 5839: Part 1
recommends that detectors should be
functionally tested at least annually.
Although many modern detectors
incorporate internal monitoring and self-
checks, physical damage, blocking by
obstructions or clogging of smoke inlets by
dust is still possible. These effects are only
satisfactorily revealed by a physical
inspection and test.
The overall reliability of a fire detection
system is highly dependent on the reliability
of the detectors used. It is advisable that all
detectors have undergone type testing to
demonstrate compliance with the relevant
British or European standards. It is
recommended that, wherever possible,
detectors that are certified by a recognised
certification body should be used. Third-
party certification, and the presence of the
certification body’s quality mark, helps to
guarantee the quality and reliability of the
detector.

Published by Fire Prevention & Fire Engineers Journal

Bastille Court, 2 Paris Garden, London SE1 8ND

June 2004 FEJ & FP

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