aie ae Colney} Electronic instramentf ‘ ‘strictly According to the Revised ed Syllabus of \ | Mumbai University - 2007 Course | | Electronic Instrumentation aaa Senate’. III (Electrons & emacs, Uday A. Bakshi M.E.(Electrical) Formerly Lecturer in Department of Electronics Engg. Vishwakarma Institute of Technology Pune Ajay V. Bakshi B.E.(Electronics) Formerly Lecturer in Deptt. of E & To Maharashtra Academy of Engineering Pune Price Rs. 270/- Visit us at: www.vtubooks.com @ Ca \ Technical Publications Pune” 4 inna ob scosanoumacemenstmsaconm@ et Electronic Instrumentation ISBN 9788184314465 Al rights reserved with Technical Publications. No port ofthis bock should be reproduced in any form, Electronic, Mechanical, Photocopy or ary information storage ond retrieval system without prior permission in writing, from Technical Publications, Pune. Published by : Technical Publications Pune® ‘#1, Amit Residency, 412, Shaniwar Peth, Pune - 411 030, Indi. Printer : ‘Alert DTPintes Sena, 10/3 Sinhaged Road, Ame = 411047Table of Contents 1.1. Introduction .............++ 1.2 Classification of Transducers... 1.2.1 Active and Passive Transducer 4.2.1.4 Active Transducers 1.2.1.2 Passive Transducers 2... . 1.2.2 According to Transduction Principle. ..... . 4.2.2.1 Capacitive Transduction. 1.2.2.2 Electromagnetic Transduction. . 1.2.2.3 Inductive Transduction... we ee 1.2.2.4 Piezoelectric Transduction . 1.2.2.5 Photovoltaic Transduction 1.2.2.6 Photoconductve Transduction . . 1.2.3 Analog and Digital Transducers..........06000008 1.23.1 Analog Transducers . 1.2.3.2 Digital Transducers. 1.2.4 Primary or Secondary. . pivensete: 1.2.5 Transducer and Inverse Transducer 1.3 Characteristics of Transducers 1.4 Transducer Selection Factors .. 1.5 Passive Transducers .... 1.6 Resistive Transducers .... 1.7 Potentiometric Resistance Transducer .. 1.7.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Resistance Potentiometers 1.8 Resistance Pressure Transducers 1.8.1 Diaphragms 1.8.2 Capsule 1.8.3 Bourdon Tube.1.8.4 Bellows. a . 1.8.5 Pressure Measurement using Resistance Pressure Transducers 1.9 Resistance Position Transducers . 1.10 Strain Gauges... 4.40.1 Principle of Operation and Construction of Strain Gauges. 1.10.2 Derivation of Gauge Factor 1.10.3 Types of Strain Gauges . . 1.10.4 Basic Forms of Resistance Wire Strain ages 1.10.5 Desirable Characteristics of Resistance Wire Strain Gauge . . 1.10.6 Semiconductor Strain Gauge ........... 1.10.7 Comparison of Metal Gauge with Semiconductor Strain Gauge ....... 1,10.8 Rosette Strain Gauges . 1.11 Inductive Transducer .1-27 1.44.1 Transducer Based on Principle of Change in Self inductance with Number of Tums 1 - 28 1.11.2 Variable Permeability Inductive Transducer 1-29 1.11.3 Variable Reluctance Inductive Transducer. . 21-29 1.11.4 Eddy Current Type Inductive Transducer. . 1.12 Linear Variable Displacement Transducer | er(LvOT) 1.12.1 Construction and Working of LVDT . 1.12.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of LVDT 1.13 Capacitive Transducer... 1.13.1. Variation in Capacitance .. . 113.2 Capacitance Type Level Meter . 1.13.3 Capacitive Pressure Transducer ... 4.43.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of cacti Transducers. 4.14 Temperature Sensors 1.15 Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) 1.15.1 Construction of RTD 1.15.2 Advantages of RTD 1.15.3 Disadvantages of RTD 1.16 Active Transducers .. 1.17 Thermistors.... 1.17.1 Construction of Thermistor 1.17.2 Resistance Temperature Characteristics ........ .1.17.3 Voltage Current Characteristics. 4.17.4 Current Time Characteristics. ...... 2.0.0.0. 0c cece eee eee eect sence nen ee 124M 1.47.5 Advantages 1.17.6 Limitations . 1.17.7 Applications 1.17.8 Comparison between Resistance Themometer and Thermistor................ 1°45 1.17.9 Signal Conditioning Circuit . . 1,18 Thermocouples .... 1.18.1 Thermoelectric Phenomena . . 1.18.2 Construction of Thermocouple . . . 1.182.1 Materials used for Thermocouples... 1. ee ee ee 1-48 1.18.3 Thermoelectric Laws . 1.18.4 Thermopiles ... . 1.18.5 Advantages and Limitations of Thermocouple 1.18.6 Desirable Characteristics of Thermocouple 1.19 Piezoelectric Transducers. 1.19.1 Basic Piezoelectric Pressure Transducer 1.19.1.1 Advantages and Limitations of Piezoelectric Pressure Transducer 1.19.2 Applications of Piezoelectric Transducer 1.20 Photoelectric Transducers. 1.20.1 Photoemissive Transducers . 1.20.1.1 Vacuum Phoiotube . . 1.20.1.2 GasFilled Phototubes . . . . ‘ 1.20.1.3 Photomuttiplier Tube... 2. 1... 1.20.2 Photoconductive Transducers ..... 1.20.2.1 Photoconductive Cell... . 1.20:2.2 Photodiodes . . . 1.20.3 Photovoltaic Transducers. 1.20.3.1 Photovoltaic Cell. % 1.20.3.2Phototransisor. . 2... 1.20,3.3 Appications of Phototransistor . . Review Questions ..: University Questions ...ope 2.1 Introduction -1 2.2 Cathode Ray Tube (eR). .2-2 2.2.4 Electron Gun. 2-2 2.22 Deflection System. 2-3 2.2.3 Fluorescent Screen ............ 102 2.2.4 Glass Tube. 2-6 2.2.5 Base 2-7 2.3 Basic Principle of Signal Display. 2.4 Block Diagram of Simple Oscilloscope .. 2.44 CRT seh 2.42 Vertical Amplifier. 2.423 Delay Line. . 2.4.3.1 Lumped Parameter Delay Lina. 2.4.3.2 Distributed Parameter Delay Line 2.44 Trigger Circuit. 2.4.5 Time Base Generator 2.46 Horizontal Amplifier 24.7 Power Supply 2.5 Front Panel Controls of Simple C.R.O. 2.5.1 Basic Controls 2.5.2 Vertical Section. 2.5.3 Horizontal Section ..........0cc eee eee eerste een ee nee e een nen nenes 2.5.4 Z-Axis Intensity Control . 2.6 Time Base Generator. 2.6.1 Why Sweep Generator is Called Time Base Generator ? 2.6.2 Requirements of Time Base. 2.6.3 Basic Principle of Time Base Generator.......... 2.6.4 Time Base Block Diagram 2.6.5 Trigger Generators . 2.6.6 Sweep Modes. . . 2.6.7 TTL Trigger Mode, 2.7 Intensity and Velocity Modulation ET A EL 2-482.8 Bandwidth 2.9 Dual Trace Oscilloscope 2.9.1 Altemate Mode...... 2.9.2. Chop Mode . 2.9.3 Electronic Switch 2.9.4 Front Panel Controls of Dual Trace Oscilloscope. 2.9.5 Multiple Trace Oscilloscopes 2.10 Dual Beam Oscilloscope. 2.10.1 Multiple Beam Oscilloscopes... 2.10.2 Comparison of Dual Trace and Dual Beam Oscilloscopes. 2.11 Analog Storage Oscilloscope 2.11.1 Mesh Storage 2.14.2 Phosphor Storage. 2.11.3 Comparison of Mesh and Phosphor Storage . 2.12 Disadvantages of Analog Storage Oscilloscope 2.13 Digital Storage Oscilloscope. 2.13.1 Block Diagram 2.13.2 Modes of Operation . 2:13:5 Aoqulaiion Melhods 3.50.02. sen vanassidieecsesct eres eee 2-41 2183 Real The Qing. ss 2-42 2.133.2Random Repetitive Samping ... . . 2-42 2.13,3.3 Sequential Repettive Sampling. . . 2-43 2.13.4 Sample Rate and Bandwidth . 2.13.5 Trigger Circuits in D.S.O. .. 2.13.6 Triggering Modes . 2.13.7 Special Functions . 2.13.8 Automatic Measurements. . 2.13.10 Advantages of D.8.0.. o 12-49 2.13.14 Applications of D.S.0. soe 2-50 2.13.12 Specifications of 0.S.0. seve 2°612.14 Digital Read Out Oscilloscope 2.15 Sampling Oscilloscope. 2-53 2.15.1 Sampling Time Base . 2.15.2 Block Diagram of Sampling Oscilloscope 2-56 2.15.3 Advantages. 2-57 2.16 High Frequency (HF) Oscilloscope 2-57 2.16.1 Characteristics of HF Oscilloscope. . . 2-58 2.17 C.R.O. Measurements 2.17.4 Voltage Measurement . : 2.47.2 Curent Measurement o.oo 2D 2.17.3 Period and Frequency Measurement....... 2... ..00.c00s0sssseeeeeeeeeees 2-59 2.18 Lissajous Figures 5 2.18.1 Measurement of Phase Difference 2-61 2.18.2 Measurement of Frequency. ......sssseseeseesesessseeseeseesneseereses 2.19 Plug-in Units for C.R.O. ... 2.20 Diode and Transistor Testing using C.R.O. 2.21 Applications of C.R.O. 2.22 Probes for C.R.O. 2.22.4 Direct Probes (1 : 1) 2.22.2 High Impedance Probes (10 X) 2.22.3 Active PTODES oes esse 2B 2.22.5 High Voltage PrObeS. ..........cssseccseccseseeceseveesseesseeeeuees 2-74 2.22.6 Differential Probes . 2.23 Probe Specifications . 2.24 Powerscope 2.24.1 Block Diagram 2.24.2 Various Controls in Powerscope Examples with Solutions... $: Review Questions ......:csssssssssesssessssesssstets esses 2° BGA SS 8s 1) 10 850), 3.2 Wave Analyzer. 3.2.1 Frequency Selective Wave Analyzer 3.2.2 Heterodyne Wave Analyzer... 3.2.3 Applications of Wave Analyzer... 3.3 Introduction to Spectrum Analysis 3.4 Spectrum Analyzer. 3.4.1 Frequency Resolution, 3.4.2 Sensitivity. . 34.3 ae Desensitization 3.4.5 Harmonic Mixing in Spectrum Analyzer 3.4.6 Methods to Determine Dynamio Range 3.5 Real Time Spectrum Analyzer 3.6 Applications of Spectrum Analyzer 3.7 Logic Analyzer .... 3.7.1 Block Diagram of Logic Analyzer . 3.7.2 Operating Controls of a Typical Logic Analyzer . . 3.7.3 Applications and Features of Logic Analyzer... 3.8 Distortion Analyzer. 3.8.1 Fundamental Suppression Distortion Analyzer . 3.8.2 Heterodyne Harmonic Distortion Analyzer 4.8.4 Transient Intermodulation Distortion... 2... sete eee 9D 4.8.5 Standing Wave Ratio Meter...........ssssscssceseussesseseeesesesseees 3-30 3.8.6 SWR Meters : Measurement of Standing WaveRalio.........................8 3-32 3.8.6.1 Simple Bridge Type VSWR Meter... 3-33 3.9 Digital FFT Analyze: 3.9.1 Block Diagram 3.10 Network Analyzer. 3.11 Scattering Parameters (S Parameters). 3.11.4 Defintion of Scattering (S) Parameters... .3.11.2 Transmission and Reflection . i 3.12 Elements of Network eee Suter 3.12.4 Signal Source ...... 3.12.2 Signal Separation Device . .. 3.12.3 Receiver . 3.12.4 Displays. 3.13 Measurement Accuracy-Uncertainty and Random Errors 3.14 Scalar Network Analyzer (SNA). 3.15 Vector Network Analyzer (VNA).. Examples with Solutions Review Question: 4.1 Introduction 4.1.1 Advantages of Electronic Measurement. . 4.2 Functional Elements of an Instrument 4.2.1 Primary Sensing Element. 4.2.2 Variable Conversion Element. 42.3 Variable Manipulation Element 4.2.4 Data Transmission Element 42.5 Data Presentation Element. 4.3 Q-Meter.. 4.4 Working Principle of Q-Meter. 4.5 Practical Q-Meter. 4.6 Different Connections in Q-Meter 46.1 Direct Connection. 466.2 Series Connection 4.6.3 Parallel Connection 4,7 Sources of Error... 4.8 Transmission Line Impedance Measurement by Q-Meter... 4.9 Ammeter and Voltmeter 4.10 Basic D.C. Ammeter 4.11 Multirange Ammeters.. 4.12 The Aryton Shunt or Universal Shunt4.12.1 Precautions to be Taken while using an Ammeter 4.13 Requirements of a Shunt 4.14 Basic D.C. Voltmeter. 4.15 Multirange Voltmeters 4.15.1 Practical Multirange Voltmeter. 4.16 Sensitivity of Voltmeters. 4.16.1 Precautions to be Taken while using a Voltmeter 4.16.2 Requirements of a Multiplier 4.17 Electronic Voltmeters... 4.17.4 Advantages of Electronic Voltmeters. 4.18 Considerations in Selecting the Voltmeter. 4.18.1 Input impedance . . 4,182 Voltage Ranges... . 4.18.3 Decibels.......... 4.18.4 Sensitivity Versus Bandwidth . 4.19 Basic Electronic Voltmeter (Transistor Voltmeter) .. 4.19.1 Advantages . 4.20 Differential Voltmeter 4.20.1 AC. Differential Voltmeter 4.21 A.C. Voltmeter using Rectifiers . 4.21.1 First Rectifying and then Amplifying AC. Signal . 4.21.2 First Amplifying and then Reclifying A.C. Signal 4.22 Basic Rectifier Type A.C. Voltmeter. 4.23 A.C. Voltmeter using Half Wave Rectifier 4.24 A.C. Voltmeter using Full Wave Rectifier. 4.25 Average Responding Voltmeter 4.251 Advantages ...... 4,252 Disadvantages. ....... 4.26 Peak Responding Voltmeter 4.26.1 Advantages 4.26.2 Disadvantages 4.27 True R.M.S. Responding Voltmetet4274 Advantages. 4.27.2 Nonthermocouple Type True RMS Voltmeter . 4.273 Quas-R.MS. Detection. 4.28 Analog Electronic Multimeter 4.28.1 Use of Multimeter for D.C. Voltage 4.28.2 Use of Multimeter as an Ammeter. ¥ aveps 4.28.3 Use of Multimeter for Measurement of A.C. Voltag@.........0ssecceceeeerneeee 4-69 4.28.4 Use of Multimeter for Resistance Measurement Examples with Solutions..... Review Questions... Chapter -5 Standard D.C. and A.c. d : i 5.1 Introduction ..... 5.2 D.C. Power Supplies. 5.2.1 Block Diagram of D.C. Power Supply 5.2.2 Factors Affecting Load Voliage .. . 5.2.3 Power Supply Performance Parameters. 5.23.1 Load Reguiaion ... . .. oa 5.23.2 Line Regulation or Source Regulation. . . 5.2.3.3 Output Resistance. A 5.2.3.4 Voltage Stablity Factor (Si)... 5.2.3.5 Temperature Stability Facior (Sr) 5.236RippleRejecion .... 2... 6. 5.23.7 Total Change in Output Voltage... . 5.3 Safe Operation of Power Supplies. 5.3.1 Additional Features of Power Supplies. 5.4 Specifications of D.C. Power Supply 5-10 5.5 Power Supply Connections....... 5-10 5.6 Guidelines to be Followed for Proper Operation of Power Suppl} 5-11 5.7 Batteries 5.8 Classification of Cells. 5.9 Important Factors for Selection of Battery 5.10 Standard A.C. Sources (Signal Generators). 5.11 Requirements of Laboratory Type Signal Generato5.12 Basic Standard Signal Gene. “tor (Sine Wave Generator) 5.12.1 Basic Theory of Oscillator. 5.12.3 Types of Oscillations S423 |ABI>1 2... S1232|ABI=1... . 5A233|ABI<1 5.13 Audio Frequency (A.F.) Signal Generators. 5.13.1 Wien Bridge Oscillator 5.13.1.4 Wien Bridge Oscilztor using Op-amp 5.13.2 RC Phase Shift Oscillator 5.13.3 RC Feedback Network... ees. e cece 5.13.4 RC Phase Shift Oscilator using Op-amp 5.13.5 Advantages. 5.13.6 Disadvantages 5.14 Conventional Standard Signal Generator 5.14.1 Principle of Working 5.14.2 Block Diagram .. . 5.14.3 Advantages. . 6.14.4 Disadvantages . 5.14.5 Applications 5.15 Modern Laboratory Type Signal Generator 5.15.1 Block Diagram . 5.15.2 Advantages, . 5.15.3 Disadvantages 5.16 Comparison between Standard and Modern Signal Generator 5.17 Audio Frequency (A.F.) Sine and Square Wave Generator. 5.17.1 Front Panel Controls. 5.17.2 Specifications ........ 5.18 Square Wave and Pulse Generato 5.18.1 Pulse Characteristics and Terminology . 5.18.2 Requirements of Pulse Generator . 5.19 Laboratory Type Sauare Wave and Pulse Generator 5.19.1 Specifications . . 5-38 AAS ISAS TE LN ES.5.20 Function Generator. 5.20.1 Block Diagram . . 5.20.2 Features of Function Generator. .... . 5-40 5.20.3 Specifications of Function Generator . 5-40 5.21 Frequency Synthesized Signelc Generators . 5-44 5.21.1 Direct Synthesis . . 5-41 5.21.2 Indirect Synthesis. 5-43 5.21.3 Applications of Frequency Synthesizer . 5.22 Random Noise Generator 5.22.1 Block Diagram 5.22.2 Applications . 5.23 Sweep Generator. 5.24 Wideband eter Generator. 5.24.1 Advantages. . ‘ 5.4 2Disadvantages.. eoxswanes somawenves BIBL . 5.25 Swept Frequency Generis using ig Halaarns Frequengy \ Generator... 5.26 Sweep Gerietator for jeniire Frequency Bani 5.26.1 Block Diagram . 5.26.2 Advantages. .... . 5.26.3 Disadvantage .... 5.27 Marker Generator. 5.27.1 Block Diagram . . 5.28 Sweep Marker Generator Review Questions... Measurement Test Systems and Computer ControlledTest Measurement 6.1 Introduction ..... 6.2 Manual Test Systems . 6.3 Automatic Test System... 6.4 Typical Automatic Test Syster 6.4.1 Testing of an Audio Ampiifier.. .. 6.4.2 Testing Of a Radio Receiver... . 6.5 Microprocessor Based Instruments PAE ee EE6.8.1 Block Diagram .. Sr cere ga a eas cereals 6.6 Computer Controlled Test Systems 6.6.1 IEEE 488 Standard....... 6.6.1.1 Bus Stuctre of GPIB... 6... So loictes CEU MAAR is eo ca ew RE eo wow OKO 6.6.1.3 Data Byte Transfer Lines. oe oe we os 6.6.1.4 Sequence of Operations. 0... ee eee eee 6.6.1.5 Electrical Characteristics of GPIB. 6.7 Instruments used in Computer Controlled jnatrameritalic 6.8 Digital Control Description .. 6.9 Microprocessor Based Measurements Review Questions University Questio1 Cha ter = 7 Digital to Analog Converters (DAC) and — Analog to Digital Converters (ADC) 7.1 Introduction .... 7.2 Digital to Analog Converter .. 7.3 Transfer Characteristic of DAC 7.4 Digital to Analog Conversion Techniques... 7.4.1 Binary Weighted Resistor DAC .. 7.4.2 Inverted R/2R Ladder DAC. . . 7.4.3 RU2R Ladder DAC. ......... 7.5 Performance Parameters of DAC .. 7.5.1 Resolution, 7.5.2 Accuracy. 7.5.3 Monotonicity 7.84 Conversion Time . 7.5 Setting Time. . 7.5.6 Stability, 7.6 Sources of Errors in DAC. 7.8.1 Linearity Error. 7.6.2 Offset Error. 7.6.3 Gain Error. .7.7 Analog to Digital Converters (ADC)....... 7.7, Transfer Characteristics of ADC. 7.7.2 Resolution........... 7.7.3 Quantization Error 7.74 Conversion Time . 7.8 Analog to Digital Conversion Techniques 7.9 Single Slope ADC. 7.10 Dual Slope ADC.. 7.11 Successive Approximation ADC. 7.12 Flash ADC.... 7.13 Comparison of ADC Techniques Review Questions...... University Question. 8.1 Introduction... 8.2 Digital Voltmeters .. 8.3 Advantages of Digital Voltmeter 8.4 Performance Parameters of Digital Voltmeter: 8.5 Basic Block Diagram of DVM.. 8.6 Classification of Digital Voltmeters. 8.7 Successive Approximation Type DVM. 8.7.1. Advantages ... 8.7.2 Disadvantages. 8.8 Servo Potentiometric or Continuous Balance Type DVM 8.9 Ramp Type DVM .. 8.9.1 Linear Ramp Technique 8.9.2 Staircase Ramp Technique 8.10 Dual Slope Integrating Type DVM 8.11 Voltage to Frequency Converter Type inearene DVM 8.11.1 Interpolating integrating DVM . 8.12 Potentiometric Integrating Type DVM. 8.13 Comparison of Various Techniques... 8.14 Microprocessor Based Ramp Type DV! ORaaRRONN a= 222M OO oo8.14.1 Operation 8.14.2 Expression for the Voltage V, 8.14.3 Advantages. 8.144 Disadvantage ..........6.5 -41 - A Digi 8.153- Land 4-4 Digit. 8.16 Resolution and Sensitivity... 8.17 General Specifications of DVM... 8.18 Automation in Digital Instruments 8.18.1 Automatic Polarity indication . 8.18.2 Automatic Ranging 8.18.3 Automatic Zeroing 8.19 Specifications of Digital Meters 8.19.1 Display Digits and Counts . .. 8.192 6 - fi Display 8.19.3 Resolution. . 8.19.4 Sensitivity 8.19.5 Accuracy. . a 8.19.6 Uncertainty ...........e00 8.19.7 Repeatability......... 8.19.8 Speed and Settling Time . 8.20 Digital Multimeters .. 8.21 Specifications of Digital Multimeter 8.22 Frequency Counter. 8.22.1 Analog Frequency Meter . 8.23 Principle of Digital Frequency Courtér. 8.24 Digital Frequency Counter 8.25 Period Measurement... 8.25.1 Multiple Period Averaging . .. 8.26 Time Interval Measurement .. 8.27 Frequency Ratio Measurement. 8.28 Universal Counter 8.29 Measurement Errors 8.29.1 Gating Error8.29.2 Time Base EMor.... 2.0.00. ce eee esc ese ece eee eens sees eeeeeeeeen eras 8.29.3 Trigger Level Error........... 8.30 Miscellaneous Digital Instruments 8.30.1 Digital Tachometer 8.30.2 Digital pH Meter . 8.30.3 Digital Phase Meter . se 8.30.4 Digital Phase Meter using smcscscaact: " = 8.30.5 Digital Capacitance Meler ...........cecceseccesseceesssececsessenensees 8-51 8.30.6 Digital Readout Bridges ........ 8-52 8.30.7 Microprocessor Controlled Bridges . Review Questions .. 9.1 Introduction .. 9.2 Objectives of Data Acquisition System 9.3 Analog Data Acquisition Systet 9.4 Digital Data Acquisition System .. 9.5 Single Channel Data Acquisition System. 9.6 Multichannel Data Acquisition System. 9.6.1 Multichannel Analog Multiplexed System. .... 9.6.2 Multiplexing Outputs of Sample/Hold Circuit 9.6.3 Multiplexing after A/D Conversion . .. 9.7 PC Based Data Acquisition System 9.8 Data Loggers .... 9.8.1 Block Diagram 9.9 Multiplexing 9.9.1 Digital to, eoovnvnoe OReiannanae oo ° 3 © s ialog Multiplexing o 3 9.9.2 Analog to Digital Muttiplexing Review Questions . University Questions10.2 Data Transmission Methods 10.3 Basic Telemetry System. 10.4 Types of Telemetry Systems . 10.5 Land Line Telemetry System .. 10.5.1 Voltage Telemetering System 10.5.2 Current Telemetering System. 10.5.3 Position Telemetering System 10.5.4 Advantages of Land Line Telemetry System . 10.5.5 Disadvantages of Land Line Telemetry System. 10.6 Radio Frequency (R-F.) Telemetry System 10.6.1 Modulation Methods in RF. Telemetry System . 10.7 Frequency Modulation (F.M.) Telemetry System. 10.8 Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) Telemetry .. 10.9 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) Telemetry System .. 10.10 Comparison of FM, PAM, PCM Telemetry System: 10.11 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)..... 10.12 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) 10.13 Phase Shift Keying (PSK) Review Questions University Questioraa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa 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You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electronic Instrumentation 2-33 Oscilloscopes The oscilloscope has two vertical deflection plates and two separate channels A and B for the two separate input signals. Each channel consists of a preamplifier and an attenuator. A delay line, main vertical amplifier and a set of vertical deflection plates together forms a single channel. ‘There is a single set of horizontal plates and single time base circuit. ‘The sweep generator drives the horizontal amplifier which inturn drives the plates. ‘The horizontal plates sweep both the beams across the screen at the same rate. ‘The sweep generator can be triggered internally by the channel A signal or channel B signal. Similarly it can also be triggered from an external signal or line frequency signal. This is possible with the help of trigger selector switch, a front panel control. Such an oscilloscope may have separate timebase circuit for separate channel. This allows different sweep rates for the two channels but increases the size and weight of the oscilloscope. The dual beam oscilloscope with separate time base circuits is shown in the Fig. 2.30. ‘Channel A Vertical plates ‘ Seit Vertcat plates a2 Horizontat > pales Fig. 2.30 Dual beam CRO with separate time bases 2.10.1 Multiple Beam Oscilloscopes Multiple beam oscilloscope has a single tube but several beam producing systems inside. Each system has separate vertical deflecting pair of plates and generally a common time base system. ‘The triggering can be done internally using either of the multiple inputs or extemally by an external signal or line voltages.Electronic Instrumentation 2-34 Oscilloscopes 2.10.2 Comparison of Dual Trace and Dual Beam Oscilloscopes Dual trace CRO Dual beam CRO One electron beam is used to generate two traces. ‘Two electron beams are used, One vertical amplifier is used. The two signals are not displayed simuttaneousiy in real time but appears to be displayed simultaneously. ‘Same beam is shared between the two signals honce difficult to switch quickly between the traces. Two vertical amplifiers are used. The two signals are displayed simultaneously. Two separate beams are used hence easy to switch between the traces. As two signals are displayed separately, the signals may have different frequencies. The two signals must have same frequency or their frequencies must be integer multiples of each other. ‘The size and weight is less. The size and weight is more. Canno. + operated at fast speeds hence two separate rast transient signals can not be grabbed. Can be operated at very high speed hence two seperate fast transient signals can be easily grabbed. The cost is less due to single beam. The cost is more due to two beams. | ‘The two differont modes of operation are The two diferent types are using double gun | alternate and chop. tube or split beam using single electron gun. 2.11 Analog Storage Oscilloscope The conventional cathode ray tube has the persistence of the phosphor ranging from a few millisecond to several seconds. But some times it is necessary to retain the image for much longer periods, upto several hours. It requires storing of a waveform for a certain duration, independent of phosphor persistence. Such a retention property helps to display the waveforms of very low frequency. Mainly two types of storage techniques are used in cathode ray tubes which are : i) Mesh storage and ii) Phosphor storage 2.11.1 Mesh Storage Basically mesh storage consists of a dielectric material deposited on a storage mesh. This is called storage target. It is placed between the deflecting plates and the phosphor screen. The writing beam ie. normally focused electron beam charges the dielectric material of storage target positively where hit. Now the low velocity electrons are bombarded on storage target from the flood gun. The positively charged storage target material allows these electrons to pass through, to the phosphor screen. Thus the image stored with the help of storage mesh gets reproducedElectronic Instrumentation 2-35 Oscilloscopes on the screen. Thus the storage technique has both storage target and a phosphor display target used for storing and displaying the image. The construction of storage cathode ray tube is shown in the Fig. 2.31. Flood gun Electron — Phosphor sereen Storage mesh writitg Collector mesh * Verizal Horizontal deflecting deflecting Celinating electrode plate plate Fig. 2.31 Mesh storage CRT In addition to the standard CRT, this CRT consists of dielectric material deposited on + storage mesh, a collector mesh, a flood gun and a collimator. The dielectric material such as magnesium fluoride is deposited in a thin layer on the storage mesh. This is called storage target. This technique uses the principle of secondary emission. An electron gun producing an electron beam is called the writing gun. When the target is bombarded by the stream of primary electrons, an energy transfer takes place. This separates other electrons from the surface of the target. This process is called secondary emission. The number of secondary electrons depends on the velocity of the primary electrons, the intensity of the electron beam, the chemical composition of the target and the condition of its surface. The ratio of secondary emission current and primary beam current is called the secondary emission ratio denoted as, The writing gun produces a beam of electrons which contains the information of signal. This beam hit the storage surface, with secondary emission ratio much greater than unity. Thus the areas where electron beam hit, loose the electrons due to secondary emission. Thus the write beam deflection pattern is traced on the storage surface as a positive charge pattern. Since the insulation of the dielectric material is adequate to prevent charge migration for a “considerable length of time and thus the pattern is effectively stored. Now to make this pattern visible, special electron gun known as flood gun is switched on even after many hours. The collimator elecrodes act like focusing electrodes and thus adjust the electron paths. The collimator electrodes constitute a low voltage electrostatic lens system. Most of the electrons are stopped and collected by the collector mesh. But the electrons can pass through the positively charged areas of the storage target while the areas where the image is not stored are negatively charged and electrons repel from those areas. ThusElectronic Instrumentation 2-36 Oscilloscopes: the electrons near stored postive charge only can pass through to the postaccelerator region and finally upto the display target phosphor. These electrons hit on the phosphor screen, producing the image which is stored. The display of image remains as long as the flood guns are on. The display of stored charged pattern on a mesh storage is shown in the Fig. 2.32. Collimates ‘8 oe org ec acceleratorelectode electrons Sea og — Faceplate -a splay of $e = -a aan ne se Phosphor splay iid mens Storage ‘target Cotlecidtmesn~ St Fig. 2.32 Display of stored charge pattern on a mesh storage CRT The function of collimator is to align the flood electrons so that they approach the storage surface perpendicularly. To erase the pattern on the storage mesh, a negative voltage is applied to neutralise the stored positive charge. For erase cycle the ERASE button is provided. For typical CRT, the normal storage mesh voltage is +3.3 V while potential of storage surface is -10 V. To erase the trace, when erase button is pressed, storage mesh potential ‘becomes equal to collector mesh which is about 156 V. When the erase button is released, the storage mesh potential falls to 33 V. This level remains constant for 100 msec. During this time the surface is charged back to 0 V. Then the storage mesh is raised to 13.3 V and due to capacitive coupling, surface ERASE ERASE potential raises to + 10 V. ‘The storage surface decays again to 0 V ina time less than 200 msec. After this time, the storage mesh is again retumed to + 3.3 V while the storage surface goes to its normal potential -10 V. This completes the erase cycle. The mesh and surface potentials during the erase cyde are shown in the Fig. 2.33. ee Storage surface Fig. 2.33 Erase cycleElectronic Instrumentation 2-37 Oscilloscopes 2.11.2 Phosphor Storage In this technique of storage, the tube used is a bistable storage tube. The same material is used for both the storage target and the display phosphor. Infact the thin phosphor layer acts as storage target as well as the display target hence the name bistable tube. The target structure of bistable storage tube is shown in the Fig. 2.34. Giess envelope Conductive backplate ‘Stattered phosphor panicles, Fig. 2.34 Target structure of bistable storage tube The material used for both storage and display targets is P1 phosphor to achieve good secondary emission characteristics. The boundry migration of stored charge should be eliminated which is achieved by having scattered phosphor particles. The layer may be more than one particle thick which allows a phosphor viewing in a continuous manner. But beyond a particular threshold thickness, the storage is not possible. The controlling electrode is the conductive backplate. This is the thin layer of metal film deposited inside the faceplate. This deposition is done before the phosphor material depositon. The storage characteristics is controlled by the voltage applied to the conductive backplate. Below 100 V is the level required for erasing while above 200 V is for uniform writing on the target. The bistable nature of the tube means that the trace is either stored or it is not ie. the brightness is thus on or off. For this purpose, the split screen version is used. Two independent conductive plates are depositive, one covering the upper half portion of CRT while other the bottom half portion of CRT. The upper half is operated at about 150 V while the lower half at about 50 V. Hence the upper portion acts as a storage tube while the lower half as a standard refreshed phosphor display. ‘The schematic view of a bistable phosphor storage tube is shown in the Fig. 2.35. wating, Collimating Toorage elecitodes target layer (Condvetve) Fig. 2.35 Bistable phosphor storage tubeElectronic Instrumentation 2-38 Oscilloscopes The flood guns are switched on to provide a stream of low energy electrons towards the screen. These electrons have low energy and they cannot penetrate phosphor and are gathered due to collimator. The screen becomes negatively charged until it reaches at a potential where it repels all further flood gun electrons. When writing gun is switched on, its electrons have very high energy required to cause the secondary emission from the areas traced on the screen. The trace is therefore at high positive potential. This is stored due to low leakage of the phosphor. The low energy electrons from flood gun are now attracted to the positive areas of the screen and pass through the phosphor to reach the metal film at the back. While passing through the phosphor, they cause it to glow, displaying the area traced out by the writing gun electron beam i. stored image. The erasing of stored waveform is possible by applying a negative voltage to the metal film due to which the electrons are repelled back. 2.11.3 Comparison of Mesh and Phosphor Storage The two storage techniques can be compared as below : ts | Mesh Storage | Phosphor Storage 1. | Based on the dielectric material deposited on | Gased on the principle of bistable storage a storage mesh. nature of the tube. 2. | Storage target and display target are different, | Storage and display target is same. 3. | There is no possibilty of reduction in the light | It is susceptible to light output reduction with output with use. the use, 4._|_ Variable persistence is possible Variable persistence is not possible. 5. | Grey scales or half tones are possible. Halftones are not possible. 6. | Continuous persistence control is possible. Continuous persistence control is not possible. 7. | The material used for storage target and Tne same material mostly P1 phosphor is display target is different used for both storage as well as display | target és T 8. | Relatively long CRT life. Relatively short CRT life T 9. | Comparison of previous waveform and present | Comparison of previous waveform and present | waveform is not possible. waveform is possible due to split screen | feature. 2.12 Disadvantages of Analog Storage Oscilloscope The disadvantages of analog storage oscilloscope are, i) The waveform can be preserved for finite amount of time only and eventually the waveform will be lost. ii) As long as image is required to be stored, the power must be supplied to the tube.Electronic Instrumentation 2-39 Oscilloscopes iii) The trace obtained from the storage tube is not fine as compared to the conventional oscilloscope tube. iv) The writing rate of storage tube is less than that of conventional cathode ray tube. This limits the speed of the storage tube. v) The storage cathode ray tube is very much expensive than conventional cathode ray tube. vi) The storage cathode ray tube requires additional power supplies. vii) Only one waveform can be stored in storage tube. If two traces are to be compared, they are required to be superimposed on the same screen and must be displayed together. viii) The stored waveform cannot be reproduced on the external device like computer. 2.13 Digital Storage Oscilloscope The digital storage oscilloscope eliminates the disadvantages of the analog storage oscilloscope. It replaces the unreliable storage method used in analog storage scopes with the digital storage with the help of memory. The memory can store data as long as required without degradation. It also allows the complex processing of the signal by the high speed digital signal processing circuits. In this digital storage oscilloscope, the waveform to be stored is digitized and then stored in a digital memory. The conventional cathode ray tube is used in this oscilloscope hence the cost is less. The power to be applied to memory is small and can be supplied by small battery. Due to this the stored image can be displayed indefinitely as long as power is supplied to memory. Once the waveform is digitized then it can be further loaded into the computer and can be analysed in detail. 2.13.1 Block Diagram The block diagram of digital storage oscilloscope is shown in the Fig. 236. As done in all the oscilloscopes, the input signal is applied to the amplifier and attenuator section. The oscilloscope uses same type of amplifier and attenuator circuitry as used in the conventional oscilloscopes. The attenuated signal is then applied to the vertical amplifier. The vertical input, after passing through the vertical amplifier, is digitized by an analog to digital converter to create a data set that is stored in the memory. The data set is processed by the microprocessor and then sent to the display. To digitise the analog signal, analog to digital (A/D) converter is used. The output of the vertical amplifier is applied to the A/D converter section. The main requirement of A/D converter in the digital storage oscilloscope is its speed, while in digital voltmeters accuracy and resolution were the main requirements. The digitized output needed only inElectronic Instrumentation 2-40 Oscilloscopes the binary form and not in BCD. The successive approximation type of A/D converter is most oftenly used in the digital storage oscilloscopes. Verical ampitier address Vertical deflecion amplifier ‘aflection ampltier Fig. 2.36 Block diagram of digital storage oscilloscope The digitizing the analog input signal means taking samples at periodic intervals of the input signal. The rate of sampling should be at least twice as fast as the highest frequency present in the input signal, according to sampling theorem. This ensures no loss of information. The sampling rates as high as 100,000 samples per second is used. This requires very fast conversion rate of A/D converter. Key Point : Hence, generally flash analog to digital converters are used, whose resolution decreases as the sampling rate increases. If a 12 bit converter is used, 0.025 % resolution is obtained while if 10 bit A/D converter is used then resolution of 0.1 % (1 part in 1024) is obtained. Similarly with 10 bit A/D converter, the frequency response of 25 kHz is obtained. The total digital memory storage capacity is 4096 for a single channel, 2048 for two channels each and 1024 for four channels each. The sampling rate and memory size are selected depending upon the duration and the waveform to be recorded. Once the input signal is sampled, the A/D converter digitizes it. The signal is then captured in the memory. Once it is stored in the memory, many manipulations are possible as memory can be read out without being erased.Electronic Instrumentation 2-41 Oscilloscopes 2.13.2 Modes of Operation The digital storage oscilloscope has three modes of operation : 4) Roll mode it) Store mode iii) Hold or save mode. 2.13.21 Roll Mode This mode is used to display very fast varying signals, clearly on the screen. The fast varying signal is displayed as if it is changing slowly, on the screen. In this mode, the input signal is not triggered at all. The stored signal is rolled slowly from right to left across the screen. 243.2.2 Store Mode This is most commonly used and called refresh mode. In this mode, the input initiates a trigger circuit. This initiates the memory write cycle. The digital data is transferred to the memory. When the memory is full, the write cycle stops. Using digital to analog converter, the memory data is converted to analog and then displayed on the screen. . When the next trigger occurs ’the memory is refreshed. 2.43.2.3 Hold or Save Mode This is called automatic refresh mode. When new sweep signal is generated by time base generator, the old contents get overwritten by new one. If a particular signal is to be stored then by pressing hold or save button, overwriting can be stopped and previously saved signal is locked. Single shot events, such as the waveform of an explosion are transient in nature and very quickly lost. The observer cannot see such events, unless the waveform is photographed or stored. Such events can be stored in memory of digital storage oscilloscope and reading the memory rapidly and repetitively the continuous waveform can be obtained. 2.13.3 Acquisition Methods In the digital storage oscilloscope, it is necessary to capture the digital signal and store it. Depending upon the particular application, there are three different acquisition methods used in the digital storage oscilloscopes. These three methods are: . Real time sampling. . Random repetitive sampling. . Sequential repetitive sampling. eyeElectronic Instrumentation 2-42 Oscilloscopes 2.13.31 Real Time Sampling This is the most straight forward method of digital signal capturing, In this method, in response to single trigger event, the complete record of nm samples is simultancously captured on each and every channel. From these samples recorded in a single acquisition cycle, the waveform is displayed on the screen of digital storage oscilloscope. Three important features of this method are, 1. The display and analysis of waveform can be carried out at later stage while| the signal gets recorded in memory at an earlier stage. 2. It is very easy to capture the signals that happen before the trigger event. 3._A truly simultaneous capture of multiple signals is automatic. This method can be used in a continuously repeating mode but each waveform displayed is captured from a single acquistion cycle. The larger memory and fast sampling rate plays an important role in the real time sampling. The higher sampling rate is required to capture long time interval signal capturing. This is possible due to large memory. The signal fluctuations occurring entirely between samples will not be captured in the sample record. The sampling theorem helps to select the proper sampling rate. It states that if a signal is sampled greater than twice the frequency of highest frequency component in signal then the original signal can be reconstructed, exactly from the samples. Half the sampling frequency is called Nyquist limit or Nyquist critical frequency. This is denoted as fc. Any signal component having a frequency higher than f. gets falsely translated to another frequency somewhere between d.c. and f. by the act of sampling. This is called aliasing. A sigr ' of frequency f<+ A will be aliased to fA for A CRO. input Cable G, Sz == equivaient Gq = 20 pF Compersation capacitance capacitor C.R.O. input impedance Fig, 2.57 High impedance (10 X) probe The arrangement of various elements can be further simplified by representing it in a bridge fashion as shown in the Fig; 2.58. ToCRO Fig. 2.58 The compensating capacitor is adjusted so as to get balanced bridge condition. Ri Xecine ce) = RinX(cy) RiCy = Rin(Cr+Cin) Thus the points A and B will be equipotential. Thus the probe acts as a potential divider consisting of Ry and Rin across the input. Thus the attenuator factor is (Ri +Rin)/Rin =10 and hence probe is called 10 X probe.Electronic Instrumentation 2-68 Oscilloscopes Thus the effective input resistance increases by factor 10 while the input capacitance decreases by a factor 10. The only limitation of the probe is that the signal attenuation takes place. The probe capacitance must be adjusted correctly. This adjustment is generally checked by displaying square wave. For wrong adjustment, the display of square wave gets affected adversely. 2.22.3 Active Probes For connecting fast rising and high frequency signals the active probes are used. These probes are very useful for small signal measurements as their attenuation factor is very small. The probe consists of active element like FFT source follower circuit and BJT as emitter follower circuit along with a coaxial cable termination. The block diagram of this probe is shown in the Fig. 2.59. Fig. 2.59 Block diagram of active probe The circuit diagram alongwith the component values is shown in the Fig. 2.60. +10V = tv Fig. 2.60 Active probe FET is used as an active element to amplify the signal. The voltage gain of FET source follower is unity but it provides a power gain due to which the input impedance increases. The output impedance of FET source follower is very low, this eliminates the loading effect Instead of connecting cable directly to C.RO. from FET stage, one more stage of BJT emitter follower is introduced. This emitter follower drives the cable and helps in solving the problems of improper impedance matching.Electronic Instrumentation 2-69 Oscilloscopes Advantages of this probe are : i) No signal attenuation so small signals can be measured. ii) Provides high input impedance reducing the loading effect. iii) The capacitance of such probes is very low of the order of 2 to 3 pF. iv) High frequency, fast rise time signals can be clearly measured. A need of d.c. supply makes such probes more bulky, expensive than passive probes. Another limitation of these probes is that these can handle the signals which are typically less than a few volts only. 2.22.4 Current Probes This probe provides a method of inductively coupling the signal to the C.R.O. input, thus the direct electrical connection to the test circuit is not necessary. This probe can be clamped around a wire carrying an clectrical current without any physical contact to the probe. Thus the magnitude of current with a frequency range from d.c. to 50 MHz can be measured using this probe. A magnetic core with a removable piece is used as the coupling clement for the current probe. The wire carrying the current to be measured is inserted in the center of the magnetic core and acts as a primary of a transformer. The core is a ferrite U shaped core and multitum coil of approximately 25 turns is wound on one leg of this core. This works as secondary of the transformer. Because of the electromagnetic induction principle, whenever current flows through primary, the em.f. gets induced in the secondary. This is fed to the CRO. input via termination circuitry. The probe is shown in the Fig. 2.61. Vi Current in to be Rj, TOCRO. measured 50a Fig. 2.61 Transformer based current probe When d.c. current flows through the wire, it will not appear at the secondary. In addition to this, flux in core may increase causing the saturation of the core which is undesirable. This provides inaccurate measurements. To avoid this problem Hall device which is Hall effect sensor and a feedback amplifier is added to the probe. The Hall effect is the generation of an emf. across the breadth of a conductor when a current flows along its length and magnetic field is applied at right angles to both these directions.Electronic Instrumentation 2-70 Oscilloscopes Consider a conducting plate carrying current I as shown in the Fig. 2.62. B b + ‘ r Va Fig. 2.62 The thickness of the conducting plate is t and it is placed in a magnetic field of B Wb / m? perpendicular to the plane of the plate. A voltage gets induced across terminals a-b denoted as Vi; called voltage due to Hall effect. Mathematically it is given by, Vu = Ru () volts where Ry = Hall coefficient of conductor in m' /coulomb Vu = Hall voltage in volts. Hall effect is predominantly found in semiconductors rather than metals, The Hall effect sensor and a feedback amplifier are included in a Hall effect probe as shown in the Fig. 2.63. Movable piece toalow clamping of wire Hall device r _— Feedback bo ED ampiior TOC.RO. Cable Ferrite. core Wire carrying current to be measured Fig. 2.63 Current probe using Hall effect ‘The Hall effect sensor is placed in magnetic core structure of the current probe . The advantage of Hall effect sensor is that any magnetic field present in Hall sensor causes current to be induced in the secondary windings of the current transformer. This counteracts the magnetic field introduced due to current to be measured. Thus Hall sensor assures that static flux in the core is zero. The amount of current in secondary required to counteract primary flux is directly proportional to the magnitude and direction of current to be measured. With the help of terminating resistor counteracting ‘ urrent can be made to appear as d.c. voltage at the C.R.O.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electronic Instrumentation 2-74 Oscilloscopes ideally should be rejected. The ratio by which the differential probe rejects the common mode signals is called common mode rejection ratio (CMRR). It is defined as the ratio of differential gain Aq to the common mode gain A, of the probe and ideally A, 0. Hence ideally CMRR = =. curr = 4! and ideally [Ac Practically it is expressed in dB. © Key Point : Higher the value of CMRR, better is performance of probe. At higher frequencies, CMRR decreases hence it is defined at specific frequency. Higher the value of this frequency at which CMRR is specified, better is the performance of the probe. 9. Time Delay : The probe shows some time delay or a phase shift which varies with signal frequency, as signal passes through probe to C.R.. This is also called propagation delay. Key Point : Longer the probe cable, higher is the value of propagation delay. 10. Maximum Voltage Rating : The safe voltage which can be applied to the probe without its breakdown is called its maximum voltage rating. It is expressed in terms of dic. voltage including peak a.c. derating with frequency. 11. Voltage Derating with Frequency: The maximum voltage rating decreases as frequency increases. Thus it is necessary to derate the working voltage limit with frequency. Thus voltage derating with frequency curve is given in the datasheet as shown in the Fig. 2.67. Such specification is very important for high frequency probes. Input voltage Volts 800 600 Voltage derated as frequency increases 400 200 = = a ; Frequency Hz 10 10 10 10 Fig. 2.67 Voltage derating with frequency curveElectronic Instrumentation 2-75 Oscilloscopes 2.24 Powerscope The powerscope has almost unlimited range of applications in the power control field and other high voltage areas. Its features are wide range of measurement capability, compact design, light weight and high degree of operator and equipment safety. 2.24.1 Block Diagram The input signal is attenuated by a factor of 20 by the input attenuators. The basic amplifier attenuator provides a sensitivity of 50 mV/cm. It is changed to 100 mV/cm and 200 mV/em by the gain switching. Further reduction in sensitivity is provided by the differential compensated attenuators. The input stage consists of matched pair of FETs operating as source followers, driving a pair of emitter followers giving a current gain required to drive a main amplifier. The vertical deflection system provides calibrated deflection factors from about 50 mV/div to 200 V/div, for both the channels. D.C. mode bandwidth is D.C. to 15 MHz and A.C. mode bandwidth is 2 Hz to 15 MHz covered in 12 ranges. Variable control can extend the range to approximately 500 V/div. The trace is switched between the two channels at a rate of 100 kHz in CHOP mode and alternating between sweeps in ALT mode. In CHOP mode, additional blanking is 1 _Y¥ Output [>| amplifier MagXI0 Xn x output Amplifier L ve Ya bist 20—LattenuatorH{~| sy 120V12V 8V -2v Power ‘supply Fig. 2.68 Block diagram of powerscopeElectronic Instrumentation 2-76 Oscilloscopes provided to eliminate the switching transients. ALT or CHOP mode gets automatically selected by time/div control. Triggering circuit provide stable sweep triggering which extends beyond the bandwidth of the vertical deflection system. The horizontal deflection system has calibrated sweep rates from 0.5 s/div to 0.2y1s/div. X10 magnifier extends fastest rate to 20 ns/div. Variable sweep control provides cantinuous reduction of sweep rate. Triggering is automatic or level, selected from internal/external or line sources. TLV. signals can be filtered using T.V. synchronous circuit. The signals are used to look LINE or FRAME pulses easily and hence it is very useful in T.V. troubleshooting applications. XY mode and Z-modulation are added features. The calibrator output provides calibration check and probe compensation facility. The output signals from Y, and Yp are connected to storage C.RO. To eliminate the effects of variations in line voltage, the regulated d.c. power supplies is used. 2.24.2 Various Controls in Powerscope The major controls are provided on the front panel while few auxiliary functions are provided on the rear panel. Vertical deflection controls : ‘These controls are identical for both the channels. Y shift : Controls vertical position of trace. Y input : Input banana connectors for Y deflection signals. : Selects vertical sensitivity. Variable : Provides continuous adjustment of sensitivity. Input coupling : Selects the method of coupling signal to the input of the vertical amplifier. The methods are, AC : Signal is capacitively coupled to vertical system. D.C. is blocked. GND : Input to amplifier is grounded. D.C. : All components are passed to vertical amplifier. MRR : Adjusts the CMRR Balance : Preset control for minimising trace shift. Vertical display : Selects the channels displayed as Y;, ¥2 or dual.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electronic Instrumentation Oscilloscope: Calibrator controls : IV cal : Square wave output of 1 V peak to peak with approximately 1 KHz repetition rate. Mains : Tums instruments power on and off. CRT controls Brilliance : Controls brightness of display. Focus : Provides adjustment for optimum display definition. Astig : Used in conjunction with focus control to obtain a well defined display. Trace ROT : Screw driver adjustment to align the trace with the horizontal graticule lines. Rear panel controls : Z MOD : Input connector for intensity modulation of the CRT display. Signal outputs : Single ended output for Yj and Y2 channels Examples with Solutions imp Example 2.3: Rise time of CRO. is 10 nsec. Rise time observed on CRO. of signal is 13 nsec. Calculate actual rise time of signal. Solution : For a CRO, Tw = (in)? +(Tro)? Given : Tr = 18 ns, To = 10 ns 13x10~9 = (Ts)? +(10x10-°)* Ts = 83ns .. Actual rise time nm> Example 2.4: Calculate rise time of signal, if rise time of input amplifier is 10 nsec and abserved rise time on C.R.O. is 15 nsec. Solution : For a CRO. Tra = (Ts)? +(Tro)* Given : Tr = 15 ns, Tro = 10 ns (1510-9) = (Ta)? +(10x10-9)* Tr = 11.18 ns .. Actual rise timeElectronic Instrumentation 2-79 Oscilloscopes mum Example 2.5 :, Rise time of a signal measured on 20 MHz CR.O. is 30 nsec. Find out the actual rise tinte of the signal. ‘Solution : B.W. = 20 MHz, T,q = 30 ns 0.35 BW. = Th To = <_< 175 ns 20x10 Now Tra = VCs)? +o)? 3010-9 = (Tes)? +(175x10-9)* Ts = 2437 ns .. Actual rise time ‘mp Example 2.6: Estimate the bandwidth of C.R.O., as the signal with 15 us rise time. signal of 12 us rise time is observed Solution : T,; = 12 ps, Tq = 15 ps Ta = (Ts)? +(Tio)? 15x10-§ = J(12x10-6)* +(Tr) Tro = 9us BW. = &s. 035 = 38.88 kHz Tro 9x10-6 sum Example 2.7: Signal rise time observed on C.R.O. of 25 MHz B.W. is 35 ns. Find out the actual rise time of the signal. Solution : B.W. = 25 MHz, Trg = 35 ns 035 _ 0.35 Te = OOP Oe tine B.W.” 25xa06 Now Tet = (Tes)? +(Tro)? 35x10-9 = (Tra)? +(14x10-9)? Trs = 32078 nsElectronic Instrumentation 2-80 Oscilloscopes ym Example 2.8 : Using 10.1 probe with CRO following observations were made : i) INPUT signal was 1 V.P.P square wave. ii) Output signal ie. on C.RO. was 0.1 VPP square wave. If compensating capacitance is 2 pF find out input impedance of C.R.O. Solution : The 10: 1 probe is shown in the Fig. 2.69. R, > — cRO Cable input Ra 5 cy 2F = Fig. 2.69 It is known that, Ry = 9 Rin for 10: 1 probe And RiCi = Rin Cin 9 Rinx2 = Rin Cin Cin = 18 pF «» Input capacitance of CR.O. ‘mp Example 2.9 : Calculate the sampling rate for 1 kHz and the 10 kHz signal if the time base setting is adjusted to display 10 cycles on the screen Solution ; For 1 kHz signal, to display 10 cycles, Number of cycl Time period of sampling = Saas =—!0_ 210 see. ; 1 1 Sampling frequency = Saag = {gy = 100 samples/sec For 10 kHz signal, . . 10 Sampling period = = eo Fox 103 1 Sampling frequency = ————; = 1000 samplesisec. ‘mp Example 2.10: Calculate the amplitude and r.m.s. value of the sinusoidal voltage, the waveform of which is observed on C.R.O. as shown in the Fig. 2.70. The vertical attenuation selected is 2 mV/div.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electronic Instrumentation 2-83 Oscilloscopes Fig. 2.72 Solution : It can be observed that, Number of vertical tangencies = 2 ‘Number of horizontal tangencies = 5 fy 5 Now, z-3 5 fy = 3 By Sit ke fy = 25 kHz This is the unknown frequency. mp Example 2.14 : Calculate compensating capacitance for 10 : 1 probe with input impedance of C.R.O. equal to 1 MOQ. parallel with 35 pF capacitance. Solution : The probe is shown in the Fig. 2.73. 1MQ 25 pF Input R, ° WW —)- CRO. J - Cable 1 capacitance too, Compensating capacitor Input impedance of C.R.O. Fig. 2.73 Ri+Rin In such a probe, attenuation factor is and given by 10 as it is 10 X probe.Electronic Instrumentation 2-84 m= 6 R= OR While balance equation with compensating capacitor is, RG = Rin (Qt G s+ Neglecting C, RC = RinCin c, = RinCin _ Gin - 35 - 5.59 pr R99 This is the required compensating capacitor. Review Questions Draw and explain the structure and main components of conventional cathode ray tube. Why phosphor screen is provided with an aluminium layer ? State the various phosphors having different persistence and colours. State their application areas State the various characteristics of P31 phosphor. Draw the block diagram of general purpose C.R.O. Explain the functions of various blocks. Draw and explain the black diagram of the vertical amplifier used in oscilloscopes. Explain the function of delay line in oscilloscopes. Which are the two types of delay lines ? State and explain various front panel controls of simple C.R.O. What is z-axis intensity control ? 10. What is the role of a time base generator ? What are the basic.time base requirements ? 11. Draw and explain the block diagram of time base used in normal C.R.O. 12. Explain the following modes of operation of time base generator i) Free run mode ii) Auto mode SPN ae Awe Single sweep mode 13, Draw the block diagram of a trigger generator. Explain the various controls associated with it, 14, What is the use of ACS and ACF controls ? 15. Which are the typical trigger sources ? Explain their significance. 16. Explain the use of following vontrols : )INT ii) EXT iii) LINE18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23, m4. 25. 26. 7. 28. 29. 31 32. 37. Oscilloscopes ii) Mixed sweep ifi) Switched or alternate sweep What is TTL trigger mode? Explain its advantages. Draw and explain the block diagram of i) Dual trace oscillescope i) Dual beam oscilloscope Describe the following modes available in a dual trace ascilloscepe : BD ALTERNATE mode if) CHOP mode Draw and explain the operation of an electronic switch Which are the various front panel controls of a dual trace oscilloscope? Describe the following storage techniques used in storage oscilloscopes : i) Mesh storage {i) Phosphor storage Compare the mesh and phosphor storage techniques. What is secondary emission ? How it is useful in a storage oscilloscope ? Explain with suitable diagram the erase cycle in a mesh storage oscilloscope. State the limitations of analog storage oscilloscopes. Draw and explain the block diagram of digital storage oscilloscope. Explain the modes of operation of digital storage oscilloscope. State the advantages of digital storage oscilloscope. State the limitations of conventional C.R.O. when used for high frequency signal. What is high frequency oscilloscope ? State its characteristics. Write a nole on sampling oscilloscope. Explain the sampling time base used in the sampling oscilloscopes. Draw and explain the block diagram of the sampling oscilloscope. State the advantages of sampling oscilloscope. Explain the construction and the features along with the application areas of the following C.R.O. probes : i Direct probe ii) Isolation probe iti) High impedance probe iv) Active probe ») Current probe vi) High voltage probe vii) Differential probe viii) Hall effect probeaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Signal Analyzers 3.1 Introduction Any complex waveform is made up of a fundametal and its harmonics. It is often required to measure the amplitude of each hormonic or fundamental individually. An ideal linear amplifier produces sine wave output when sinusoidal signal is applied at the input of it. But due to nonlinear characteristics of the active devices, different types of distortions are introduced in the output waveforms. It is also required to measure total harmonic contents. By using different types of signal analyzers, we can carry out signal analysis of either random or periodic signals in the frequency domain. Such analysis is provided by a wave analyzer, distortion analyzer, spectrum analyzer and digital Fourier analyzer. 3.2 Wave Analyzer Any periodic waveform can be represented as the sum of a dic. component and a series of sinusoidal harmonics. Analysis of waveforms includes the determination of amplitude, frequency and phase angle of the harmonic components. A wave analyzer is an instrument designed to measure relative amplitudes of a single frequency components in a complex waveform. A basic wave analyzer is shown in the Fig. 3.1. Indicating meter Primary detector Fig. 3.1 Basic wave analyzer @- 1)Electronic Instrumentation 3-2 Signal Analyzers It consists of a primary detector which is a simple LC circuit. It is adjusted for resonance at the frequency of the particular harmonic component to be measured. The full wave rectifier is used to obtain the average value of the input. The indicating meter is simple d.c. voltmeter, calibrated to read peak value of the sinusoidal input voltage. The LC circuit passes only the frequency for which it is tuned. It rejects all other frequencies. There are two types of wave analyzers : i) Frequency selective wave analyzer ii) Heterodyne wave analyzer 3.2.1 Frequency Selective Wave Analyzer This is used in the measurements in the audio frequency range ie. from 20 Hz to 20 kHz. This analyzer has a filter section with a very narrow passband which can be tuned to the frequency of interest. ‘The block diagram of frequency selective wave analyzer is shown in the Fig. 3.2. R - Is vatied for frequency control C- is varied frequency multiplication Fig. 3.2 Frequency selective wave analyzer The waveform to be analysed is passed through an adjustable attenuator. This acts as a range multiplier and permits a large range of signal amplitudes to be analyzed without loading the amplifier. The meter range switch is available on the front panel. The driver amplifier feeds the waveform to a high Q filter.3-3 Signal Analyzers This filter consists of cascaded arrangement of RC resonant sections and filter amplifiers. The capacitor is used for range changing and the potentiometer is used to change the frequency within the selected passband. The closed tolerance polystrene type capacitors are generally used. The entire AF range is covered in decade steps by the switching capacitors in the RC section. The final amplifier stage supplies the selected signal to the meter circuit and to an untuned buffer amplifier. The function of buffer amplifier is to drive the output devices, such as the recorders, electronic counters etc. The analyzer input must have low input distortion. The bandwidth of the instrument is very narrow, typically about 1% of the selected band. The meter has several voltage ranges as well as decibel scale marked on it. It is driven by an average reading rectifier type detector. 3.2.2 Heterodyne Wave Analyzer This is RF range analyzer works on the principle of mixing i.e. heterodyning. Hence it is known as heterodyne wave analyzer. In this type of wave analyzer the input signal is heterodyned to a higher intermediate frequency (IF) by an internal local oscillator. Tuning the local oscillator shifts the various signal frequency components into the passband of the IF amplifier. The output of the IF amplifier is then rectified and applied to the metering Greuit. Heterodyne wave analyzer is shown in the Fig. 33. Untuned Signal input [input [MHz First |MHz| attenuator| mixer! 7 30-48 MHz] é Amplitude fst loscilator Jd Frequency Frequency range tuning 0-150 Hz Output meter calibrated in volts and db é é Bendwidth Meter range Fig. 3.3 Heterodyne wave analyzerElectronic Instrumentation 3-4 Signal Analyzers The operating frequency range of the instrument is from 10 kHz to 18 MHz in 18 overlapping bands, selected by the frequency range control of the local oscillator. The bandwidth is controlled by an active filter and can be selected at 200, 1000 and 3000 Hz. The input is applied first to the attenuator section. This gives the output frequency in the range of 0 to 18 MHz. The untuned amplifier amplifies this signal and gives it to the first mixer. The first mixer, heterodynes the input with the frequency from local oscillator. This oscillator has frequency range 30-48 MHz. The output of the first mixer is difference frequency of 30 MHz. The IF amplifier, amplifies this signal to give to second mixer. The second mixer, heterodynes this signal with 2 30 MHz frequency crystal oscillator. Thus at the output of second mixer, the zero difference frequency is obtained. The active filter having controlled bandwidth and symmetrical slopes of 72 dB per octave, then passes the selected component to the meter amplifier and detector. The output from the meter detector is then used to obtain final indication on the output meter which is having a decibel calibrated scale. Such an output from detector may be applied to a recording device. 3.2.3 Applications of Wave Analyzer The wave analyzer can be used in the following applications : i) To measure the harmonic distortion of an amplifier. The contribution of each harmonic to the total distortion also can-be determined. ii) It can be used to separate and display about 50 harmonics. ifi) To measure relative amplitudes of single frequency components in a complex waveform. iv) To obtain ‘fine spectrum analysis to display various discrete frequencies and resonances related to the motion of machines. Hence ways and means can be found out to eliminate such sources of sound and vibrations causing resonances. v) To measure the amplitude in the presence of noise and other interferring signals. vi) To measure the signal energy with the well defined bandwidth. vii) To carry out complete harmonic analysis. 3.3 Introduction to Spectrum Analysis The oscilloscope is the most common device used to display the signals, with time as x-axis, Such signals which require time as x-axis to display them are called time domain signals, Sometimes it is equally important to display the signal in the frequency domain Such frequency domain display of the signal consists of the information of energy distribution ‘of the signal. The analysis of such a frequency domain display of the signal is called the spectrum analysis of the signal.Electronit strumentation 3-5 Signal Analyzers The Fig. 34(a) shows the signal which is time and frequency dependent. The Fig. 34(b) shows the same signal as viewed in the time domain ic. B(t) while Fig, 3.4(c) shows the same signal as viewed in the frequency domain i.e. B(f). Amplitude frequency Amplitude - time t (a) (b) (ce) Fig. 3.4 Time and frequency domain displays The main signal consists of two frequency components f, and 2f;. In the time domain, a single display with a composite frequency {, + 2f would be seen on the oscilloscope. But in the frequency domain the components of the composite signal can be clearly seen. Thus the study of energy distribution across the frequency spectrum of a given signal is defined as the spectrum analysis. The instrument which graphically provides the energy distribution of a signal as a function of the frequency on its CRT is called spectrum analyzer. It provides a calibrated graphical display with the frequency on the horizontal axis and the signal component on the vertical axis. The sinusoidal components of which the signal is made up of, are displayed as the vertical lines against the frequency co-ordinates. From the height of eachElectronic Instrumentation 3-6 Signal Analyzers vertical line, the absolute amplitude of the component can be measured while from the horizontal location its frequency can be measured. The spectrum analysis of a signal provides the information about the following things : i) The measurement of frequency and its response. ii) The component levels. iti) Bandwidth. iv) Frequency stability. v) Harmonic and intermodulation distortion. vi) Spectral purity. vii) Modulation index and atteriuation. viii) Spurious signal generation. The spectrum analyzer provides information about all these things, by displaying the signal in the frequency domain. Based on the instrumentation limitations and the capabilities, the spectrum analysis is divided into two major categories as, i) Audio frequency (AF) analysis ii) Radio frequency (RF) analysis ‘The RF spectrum analysis covers a frequency range of 10 MHz to 40 GHz and is more important. It is used in the areas like radar, navigation, communication and industrial instrumentation frequency bands. 3.4 Spectrum Analyzer Based on the technique used, the spectrum analyzers can be classified as scanning type and nonscanning type. The scanning type analyzers use swept technique while the nonscanning type are called real time spectrum analyzers. Let us discuss the basic spectrum analyzer using swept technique. This analyzer uses a swept receiver of superheterodyne type hence this analyzer is also called swept superheterodyne spectrum analyzer. ‘The basic block diagram of such a spectrum analyzer is shown in the Fig. 3.5. The basic blocks of the swept superheterodyne spectrum analyzer are, 1. Wideband input mixer . Swept local oscillator driving wideband mixer . Resolution bandwidth filter, deciding intermediate frequency Detector and video filter Display repSignal Analyzers soyey1980 Aoydsip yum 209} ydamg ONO Electronic instrumentation eubis py JexIVi sojenueye JU anu oir eyidue apn 607 Fig. 3.5 Block diagram of swept superheterodyne spectrum analyzerElectronic Instrumentation 3-8 ‘Signal Analyzers The RF. input is applied to an input attenuator. The attenuator decides the level of the input signal so as to keep it within the operating range of other blocks of the instrument. Generally spectrum analyzers can handle 0 to 10 dBm. One dBm means decibel referred to 1 mW. Power handling range of input attenuator is 0.5 to 1 W and this limits the maximum input level, analyzer can handle without any damage. The input filter is used to reject unwanted signals. It suppresses the spurious signals. This is necessary because mixer responds to both sums and differences of frequencies. Mostly the filter is lowpass filter. The wideband input mixer multiplies the input signal from filter and the local oscillator signal. It provides two signals at the output which are proportional in amplitude to the input signal but having frequencies which are sum and difference of frequencies of the input signal and local oscillator signal. This is because input filters rejecting unwanted signals are difficult to realize in practice. Now care must be taken to identify which product is to be viewed. Intermediate frequency (LF.) section : This is the most important stage in analyzer where real analysis takes place. The stage function is to provide a wide selection of resolution bandwidth filters. These filters are described by their 3-dB bandwidth. These filters decide the resolving power of the analyzers. The narrower the filter, the closer two signals may be and still can be seen as sepearate responses. Generally the filters are tuned to a narrow band of 2 GHz and thus the input signals which are separated from the local oscillator frequency by 2 GHz only are converted to the intermediate frequency band. The output of filter is given to the log amplifier. It processes incoming signal in a logarithmic fashion. The logarithmic processing allows a large range of incoming signals to be measured and compared. The detector used in the analyzers is a linear envelope detector. This is exactly similar to the detectors used in A.M. radios. The detector receives a signal from log amplifier which is compressed one. This somewhat releases the large linear range requirement of a detector. The detector output is given to the video filter. These filters are used for post filtering or averaging the detector output. The bandwidth setting of video filter is same or larger than resolution bandwidth filter. If signal is alongwith noise, averaging is necessary. Averaging removes the random noise and pure signal remains. The output of the video filter is given to the C.RO. for display purpose. Another important block in working of analyzer is the swept local oscillator. The swept local oscillator puts a limit on the stability and spectral purity in many performance areas. The ideal local oscillator is exactly stable without frequency modulation. The stability of local oscillator is set using number of methods such as discriminator loops, phase locked loops and frequency lock loops. Even with very much frequency stable local oscillator, phase noise causes some instability. But this limitation can be advantageous in using the analyzer to measure phase noise of other devices.Electronic instrumentation 3-9 Signal Analyzers The various characteristics of a spectrum analyzer are : 3.4.1 Frequency Resolution The frequency resolution of a spectrum analyzer is its ability to separate signals closely spaced in the frequency. ‘Two factors determine the frequency resolution : i) The bandwidth or selectivity of the IF amplifier. ii) The frequency stability of the spectrum analyzer as determined by the drift, the residual FM and phase noise of the local oscillators. 3.4.2 Sensitivity The ability of the spectrum analyzer to measure the small signals as determined by its own internally generated noise is called its sensitivity. Broadband preamplifiers with low noise figures, lower than that of spectrum analyzer which can be used to improve the sensitivity. 3.4.3 Sweep Desensitization The sweep desensitization is an effect caused by scanning a spectrum analyzer too fast, which results in loss of amplitude, calibration, sensitivity and resolution. For avoiding the sweep desensitization the scan velocity in Hz/second must not exceed the square of the 3 dB bandwidth of the IF filter in Hz. 3.4.4 Dynamic Range The dynamic range of a spectrum analyzer is its ability to display the true spectra of large and small signals simultaneously. With signal levels within the dynamic range, the spurious signals causing the distortion will not appear on the display. 3.4.5 Harmonic Mixing in Spectrum Analyzer The harmonic mixing is used to extend the frequency range of the spectrum analyzer. In the spectrum analyzer, the input signal is generally mixed with the fundamental frequency of the first local oscillator signal. The Fig. 3.6 shows the block diagram of a spectrum analyzer with harmonic mixing. This increases the frequency range of 2 to 4 GHz to 10 GHz to above 12 GHz. The method includes switching of a diode gate, on and off by first local oscillator drive signal. An input signal is multiplied by the square wave which is made up of summation of the fundamental and all the harmonics of the base frequency. Thus the input signal is heterodyned (mixed) with the fundamental, second harmonic and thirdElectronic Instrumentation 3-10 ‘Signal Analyzers. harmonic ete. of the first local oscillator frequency. This is called harmonic mixing in a spectrum analyzer. Harmonic mixers respond to several input frequencies simultaneously hence to avoid the confusion, preselection filters are generally used. Bandpass broad band filters are used with higher order harmonic mixing modes. The most effective method is a tracking a narrow band filter which can be adjusted to track a desired harmonic mixing mode as the spectrum analyzer is tuned and scanned. Such a filter is called YIG filter consisting of one or more coupled yittrium-iron-gamet resonators. This filter used for the desired mixing mode is shown in the Fig. 3.6. Voltage - tuned local oscillator 2to4 GHz Sweep generator The mixing of various different frequency signals, generating the spurious signals is called intermodulation. If device is perfect linear and two signals are applied to it as the inputs, then the output consists of same two signals, without any additional signal. But if the device is nonlinear, which is so in practice, then the two signals interact with each other to produce different signals having frequencies other than the frequencies of the main two original signals. The output consists of many other signals than the two original signals. Thus if V;, is the input voltage, then such an output of a nonlinear device depends on the all powers of the input voltage Vj,, Mathematically such an output is represented as, Fig. 3.6 Harmonic mixing in spectrum analyzer Vo = Ko+KiVin +KViA +K3 Vint... (1) If the device is linear, the output consists of only first two terms and the output is undistorted. While. the nonlinear device produces the distorted output which consists of spurious unwanted signals. Let us study the effect of spurious signals if the input to the device is a sine function. Vin = AsinatElectronic instrumentation 3-11 Signal Analyzers kA? KV = KpA2sin20t = “25—[1-cos 2mt] Thus the second order term produces a constant term and other cosine function of the frequency twice as large as fundamental frequency. Such a distortion is called second harmonic distortion. Such a distortion may cause problems in some systems but not so severe. But if the input is the combination of two sine waves of different frequencies, then real trouble starts. Vin Asin@it+Bsinogt KVin K,[A sino :t+Bsinogt]” K,[A? sin? @ ;t+2ABsina;tsin o2t+ Bsin?a;t] The two terms of Sin? ;t and Sin?,t are the second order harmonic distortion terms. But the remaining term is having frequency which is the sum and difference of the two input signal frequencies. This is interaction of the two input frequencies and the effect is called second order intermodulation. This is not significant in the spectrum analyzers as frequency of the crossmodulation is far away than the desired frequency and easily removed by filtering. The problem becomes severe if one of the two input frequencies is low such that crossmodulation results into a frequency which is very near to the desired frequency. But effect of third order harmonic is very much distorting and significant in the spectrum analyzers. I Vin = Asino,t+Bsinagt 3 then K3VA = Kg[Asina;t+Bsinogt] = K3[A3 sin? o 1t+B? sin? @2t+3A 2Bsin? @ jtsin@) +3AB? sing jtsin? 7t] A2B 3AB2 = a] A° snd 0 t+8? in? 02t+39FPL-cosze ynsinoat + 7 sin @2t(1~cos202t) Thus there are sin? terms which is third harmonic distortion while two additional terms consist of the two new frequencies, which are twice one of the input frequency plus or minus the other input frequency. This is called third order intermodulation distortion. Such spurious signals can not be filtered in spectrum analyzer. Similarly there are higher order intermodulation distortion effect present in the nonlinear device. The third order effect is the strongest of all. The main characteristics of the spectrum analyzer which tries to compensate these effects is dynamic range. Infact such effects put the limit on the dynamic range of the spectrum analyzer.Electronic Instrumentation 3-12 Signal Analyzers 3.4.6 Methods to Determine Dynamic Range The dynamic range of the spectrum analyzer can be determined from the third order intermodulation distortion. First input is applied to the device with a level adjusted in such a way that it is only 3B above the internal noise generated by the spectrum analyzer. A second signal is also applied along with the first. The input levels of both are increased till the third order intermodulation is observed on the display as shown in the Fig. 3.7. Fig. 3.7 Third order intermodulation distortion The dynamic range is the difference between the original signal level 3 dB from the noise and the level of the two large signals when they generate the same level of spurious signals. In another method, the two signals at the same level are applied to generate the third order intermodulation. The level of the intermodulation product is referenced to the input ile. the intermodulation product at the output of the spectrum analyzer is equivalent to an input signal of a certain level. Now if the levels of two input signals are increased keeping both the signals at the same level then the third order intermodulation product increases three times the decibel increase of the two input signals. Thus the rate of increase of third order intermodulation is very high compared to the increase in the two input signals. Hence finally third order intermodulation achieves the same level as that of two input signals. This is shown in the Fig. 38. The point of intersection of the two levels is third order intercept point where level of spurious distortion signals is same as that of the input signals. This is the indication of the upper limit of the dynamic range of the analyzer. This is a theoretical point and device is never operated at this point in practice. But this point is useful in obtaining the dynamic range of the analyzer.Electronic instrumentation 3-13 Si Analyzers (.—— Third order intercapt point Level of both the input signals — Equivalent third order intermodulation level 0 40 -30-20 -10 0 10 20 30 Input fevel in dBm Fig. 3.8 It is given by the relation, P3 = 3Pq-2p ~@ Where P3 = Level of the third order intermodulation product in dBm. Pin = Power of the two input signals Ip = Power level of the third order intercept in dBm It is necessary that the third order intermodulation products must be the same as the minimum signal that is visible on analyzer which is just above the noise level. If intermodulation is equal to the noise level then, P3 = MDS = Minimum Detectable Signal (3) Thus MDS is noise level of analyzer in dBm. Equating (2) and (3), MDS = 3P)—-2p 2p = 3Pn-MDS 2Ip-2MDS = 3P,-MDS-2MDSElectronic Instrumentation 3-14 Signal Analyzers 2[Ip-MDS] = 3[Pin-MDS] ~ @ But the difference between minimum detectable signal and input which produces spurious signal equal to MDS is nothing but the dynamic range i.e. Pi, - MDS. From (4), 2 Dynamic range = Piy-MDS = [Ip -MDS] = OF Now MDS depends on the bandwidth of the IF filter in use and the noise figure of the analyzer. The noise level i.e. MDS is given by, BW MDS = — 114 dBm + 10 Log] ryqqz|+ NF = 6) Where BW Bandwidth of analyzer NF = Noise figure of analyzer im Example 3.1: What is the dynamic range of a spectrum analyzer with a third order intercept point of +25 dBm and a noise level of - 85 dBm ? Solution : The third order intercept is 25 dBm i.e. Ip is 25 dBm. Noise level i.e. MDS is - 85 dBm. 2 Dynamic range = 3[1p-MDS] 25 = 7(25--85)1 = 73.33 dB hump Example 3.2: Find the minimum detectable signal of spectrum analyzer with a bandwidth of 1.5 klix and noise figure of 20 dB. Solution : BW = 15kHz, NF =20dB MDS = = 114 dBm + 10 Log| spats |+ NF 115x103 110° u -114+ 10 voe| }2 =~ 122.24 dBmElectronic instrumentation 3-15 Signal Analyzers 3.5 Ri 1 Time Spectrum Analyzer The spectrum analyzer which presents the effect of changes in all the input frequencies, on its spectrum display is called real time spectrum analyzer. The block diagram of a real time audio spectrum analyzer is shown in the Fig. 3.9(a). It covers the frequency range from 50 Hz to 10 KHz. Electronic switch output ‘switch Irput ores soz] amplifier CRO. display ete. (24 channel) Fig. 3.9(a) Real time audio spectrum analyzer It is a multichannel analyzer, consisting of a set of stagger-tuned bandpass filters. These are connected through an electronic scan switch called output scanner to the CRO. The electronic switch sequentially connects the filter outputs to the CRO. The scan generator provides the horizontal deflection on CRO. The output of scan generator is a sawtooth output which is synchronized with the electronic switch.Electronic Instrumentation 3-16 ® ‘Signal Analyzers | | The Fig. 39(b) shows the example of display of a signal on this type of analyzer, | In this analyzer, the composite [ amplitude of the signal, within each | filter's bandwidth is displayed as a function of the overall frequency range I of the filter. Therefore the frequency 4 range of this type of analyzer is limited by the number of filters and their Fig. 3.9(b) Display of real time spectrum bandwidth. analyzer orostsor 115-23 kHz. These analyzers are only used in the audio frequency applications and can use as many as 32 filters. For good resolution the bandwidth of each filter is made narrow. The disadvantages of this type of spectrum analyzer are complexity, poor resolution, the inflexibility of the frequency axis of the display and inability to adjust resolution ie. to view the magnified portions of the display in detail. 3.6 Applications of Spectrum Analyzer The spectrum analyzer is a powerful tool and has many and varied applications. i) Modulation measurement : When the frequency scan of spectrum analyzer is set to zero and x axis is representing time instead of frequency, it operates as a fixed tuned receiver to measure amplitude against time. This is called its synchroscope mode. When the analyzer is tuned to the carrier sao anal frequency with bandwidth at least base line twice that of modulation frequency and with a linear display, the envelope of Fig. 3.10 an AM signal is observed as shown in the Fig. 3.10. Measuring the peak Vp and the Carrier trough Vi, the modulation index can be determined. When operated in the normal mode, two sidebands separated from ale, L the carrier by the modulation frequency ‘ fm are observed. This is shown in the Fig. 3.11. Fig. 3.11 Spectrum of amplitude modulation ‘SidebandElectronic Instrumentation 3-17 ‘Signal Analyzers The modulation index can be calculated from the sideband and carrier amplitude. Similarly it can be used to measure the distortion occurring in the modulation process. The sideband configuration in frequency modulation enables observer to calculate the frequency modulation index. The frequency modulation displays are shown in the Fig. 3.11. ii) Continuous wave signal frequency stability : The frequency drift of a signal can be measured by observing the excursions of the signal across the display. Over periods of minutes, it gives long term stability while over periods of seconds it gives short term stability. Lin} =5=4=3-2-1Genrt 23 4 5 frequency frequency (a) Low deviation FM (b) High deviation FM Fig. 3.12 FM displays on spectrum analyzer iii) Harmonic distortion measurement : The distortion affect the frequency components of a signal to be transmitted. The harmonics appear as the additional signals in the spectrum analyzer display at multiples of the carrier frequency. To keep it low, its measurement plays an important role. The spectrum analyzer can be used to make such distortion measurements. The display of a spectrum with harmonics is shown in the Fig. 3.13. I il I fh \ | Fig. 3.13 Spectrum with harmonicsElectronic Instrumentation 3-18 Signal Analyzers iv)Noise measurement : The noise can be measured with very straightforward method using the spectrum analyzer. Similarly the measurement of impulse noise also can be measured using spectrum analyzer. The examples of impulse noise is the generation of voltage spikes due to engine ignition and electric motor commutation. . v) Examining pulse modulation : Infact this is the first application of spectrum analyzer. The spectrum analyzer can be used to measure or evaluate the quality of the pulse modulation. The difficult task of measuring pulse modulation of radar transmitters is possible due to the spectrum analyzer. Apart from these common applications it is used in the following applications as well : vi)In the fields of biomedical electronics, geological surveying and oceanography. It is used to analyze the air and water pollution. vii) It is used to measure antenna pattern. viii) It is used for tuning a parametric amplifier. ix) It is used to examine the vibration signals from automobiles, airplanes, space vehicles, bridges and other mechanical systems. It provides useful information about mechanical integrity, unbalance and bearing, gear wear. x) It finds the number of applications in the field of electronic testing related to troubleshooting and quality control. 3.7 Logic Analyzer The conventional instruments used to solve the measurement problems are voltmeters, ammeters, multimeters and oscilloscopes. But the measurement problems associated with the digital systems cannot be solved by the conventional instruments. The digital systems, digital equipments, the microprocessor based systems, computer motherboard circuits are the examples where the test instrument required must be very fast and provide the detailed analysis of the problem. For example, it is required to analyse the functioning of a particular memory chip in a microprocessor based system. The chip is associated with number of microprocessor activities. Formation of digital data, address bus, transferring data to the memory at the correct clock pulse etc. are the few examples of such digital activities. This analysis requires an instrument which can display the number of waveforms simultneously which are related to each other. Hence the instrument has to have number of channels and other advanced features. It must deal with the digital domain and must be able to provide detailed analysis of the digital circuit. Such an instrument which deals with the digital systems, for their trouble shooting purpose is the logic analyzer. Oscilloscope is important to time domain, spectrum analyzer is important to frequency domain and logic analyzer is important to digital data domain. Such a digital data domain is characterised by state space concepts, data formats, data flows and the equipment architerture.Electronic instrumentation 3-19 Signal Analyzers Basically there are two types of logic analyzers which are : i) Logie timing analyzer : In this device, the data is sampled according to a clock signal generated at regular intervals and stored in a memory. This stored information is then displayed in a timing waveform, It displays relation of each signal with time. The method is suited for the analysis of problems related to computer hardware. This method is called asynchronous measurement. ii) Logic state analyzer : This uses the clock signals generated inside the measured equipment. The data is sampled and stored in the memory only when the signals are synchronized with the measured equipment. It gives binary or hexadecimal display. This method is called synchronous measurement. This is suitable for problems related with software. Now modem logic analyzer consists of both the above types of functioning in a single unit itself. A logic analyzer can be considered as a multichannel oscilloscope. 3.7.1 Block Diagram of Logic Analyzer The simplified block diagram of logic analyzer is shown in the Fig. 3.14. Contro! signals, Clock | enabler ‘Screen User interface Storage qualifier Fig. 3.14 Block diagram of logic analyzer The logic analyzer has basic six functional blocks as, 1. Probes 2. High speed memory 3. Trigger block 4. Clock generator 5. Storage qualifier 6. User interface.Electronic Instrumentation 3-20 Signal Analyzers The block probes, connects physically the instrument to the system under test. The probes should not unduly load down the logic signal of interest or disturb its timing. The Probes operate as voltage dividers, the lowest possible slew rate can be selected by dividing the input signal. This helps in capturing high speed signals. The voltage comparators in probe, transform the input signals into logic values. Different logic families such as TTL, CMOS etc. have different voltage thresholds hence adjustable threshold comparators are used. The logic analyzer uses a high speed recording memory subsystem which stores the sampled values. The memory address for a given sample is internally supplied. Some analyzers can store several megasamples. The clock signal may be external clock or an internal asynchronous clock input. Depending upon the clock signals, the input data is sampled and stored in memory. ‘The memory subsystem continuously writes the data till the trigger signal is received from trigger block. ‘The trigger block generates a trigger signal. The user can set the trigger word switches to set the required binary word ie. pattern of logical ones and zeros. The Fig. 3.15 shows how a sample trigger pattern corresponds with timing and state mode data. Trigger 8; Sz S3 s. 1 oo 1 t 014 ' 1 4.0 S2 | 10 0 S. T 1 0 1 <4 Trigger 1144 l 0 4 0 State mode Timing mode Fig. 3.15 Example of trigger pattern ‘Some form of logic comparator is used as a word recognizer which compares the word with binary input word. Once the trigger word pattern matches with input data word, the trigger signal is generated. It is given to the memory. Once trigger occurs, the storage memory continues to store a selected number of post trigger samples. Once the post trigger store is complete, the measurement is stopped. The storage memory acts as a loop hence samples before the trigger event are captured representing time before event, This pretrigger capturing is also called negative time capturing. Such pretrigger display is very useful to search causes of malfunctioning of logic circuit. Depending on whether state mode or timing mode is selected, sample clocks are supplied by user or generated by instrument. In a state mode, the analyzer takes sample based on rising or falling pulse edge of an input signal. The clock generator is very flexible. It can form clocking signal by ORing or ANDing input signals together. The userElectronic Instrumentation 3-24 Signal Analyzers can create a composite clock using logic elements of system under test. In the timing mode two different approaches are used to generate sample clock, ) ‘Continuous storage approach : In this mode, sample clock is generated at a selected rate. It is not dependent on the input signal. At the time of the clock, the logic value of input signal is stored at memory. This is shown in the Fig. 3.16 (2). ida bad demwe LT re o1 444 0 0 4 1 0 — Sample valve o1 2 3 4 § 6 7 B g Memory location 3.16 (a) Continuous storage mode ii) Transitional timing approach : In this mode, sample clock is generated at a selected rate. But it stores value in memory when transition in logic value of input takes place. At change over only the clock function clocks input signal to memory. Memory is used more efficiently in this mode as it gets used only if input changes. This is shown in the Fig. 3.16 (b). To Ty Th Ts Ty Ts Ts Ty Te Ty Tro Time etd d bd bbe d t see —F LET L'a o 4 ° 1 0 Sample started te: Fj Ts ty T, value Memory o4 2 3 4 location Fig. 3.16 (b) Transitional timing mode The storage qualifier function is to determine which data samples are to be clocked into memory. The storage qualifier looks at the sampled data and tests it against a criterion. The storage qualifier criterion is also a binary word. If the criterion is matched, data is stored in memory. The user interface allows user to display the measurements. It may be an oscilloscope which displays the data on the screen. The display device may be liquid crystal display. Many analyzers use graphical user interfaces similar to the computers. The keyboard which is dedicated and screen are the parts which users use to operate the instrument. Apart from keyboard, mouse and screen, users can operate the instrumentElectronic Instrumentation 3-22 Signal Analyzers from a computer or work station also. The remote interface can be user’s web browser if an instrument is web enabled. There are three types of displays possible in the logic analyzers which are, i) Pretrigger display : In this case, the display shows all the samples taken just before the occurrence of the trigger signal. ii) Center trigger display : In this case, half of the samples taken before the trigger and half after the trigger are displayed. iii) Post trigger display : In this case, all the samples are taken after the occurrence of a trigger signal and are displayed. 3.7.2. Operating Controls of a Typical Logic Analyzer The various front panel operating controls of a typical logic analyzer are shown in the Fig. 3.17. Data Rec. counter Rnd Trigger Else Goto NoT Immediate © @vVert. pos © Hor. pos Start / Stop Timing Otrg.in ©Tig. out Fig. 3.17 Operating controls in a typical logic analyzerElectro instrumentation 3-23 Signal Analyzers The data movement keys are used to move the information among the equipment memories and to the display. The various keys like EVENT, COMMAND and STRUCTURE alongwith the [ ], OR and NOT keys are used to enter the user’s programme. The delete is used to remove unwanted information from the programme. The data scrolling keys are used to move the display window through the acquired data or a stored programme. The cursor keys move the blinking cursor around the screen, allowing programmes to be entered or detected and parameters to be changed. The immediate key is used to indicate that the contents of the memory selected are to be displayed on the screen. This key is used with display key. The variety of new models and types are available, nowadays in the market. 3.7.3 Applications and Features of Logic Analyzer The logic ‘analyzers available today are well equipped with advanced features and hence can be used to diagnose the faults in the complex digital systems. The important feature of a logic analyzer is the availability of viewing the acquired data in the form of program listing as well as a waveforms in the different windows. This helps the designer to correlate the programme execution on real time basis to the hardware performance and there by locate any faults. The time correlated acquisitions from multiple data sources can be displayed easily due to the inclusion of time stamp information with stored data samples. Due to the facility of the asynchronous internal clocking, all the activities in the system under test can be observed on real time basis. Another important feature of a logic analyzer is its ability to detect and trigger on signals glitches. A glitch is a signal that makes a transition through the threshold voltage two ot more times between the successive clock samples. The glitches are unwanted signals and can cause circuit malfunctions. Most of the digital systems have glitches in some of the data signal lines. As long as these glitches do not occur at critical times like data write to a latch, they may not cause problems. The logic analyzer can trigger on a glitch, either alone or in combination with other signals. This is very useful in catching intermittent glitches. One can capture noise spikes and pulse ringing using the glitch capture feature. This helps in diagnosing the digital circuits. 3.8 Distortion Analyzer The application of purely sinusoidal input signal to an amplifier should result in purely sinusoidal signal at the output. But practically output waveform is not exact replica of the input. This is because of presence of various types of distortions. Such distortions are due to the inherent nature of amplifier or nonlinear characteristics of various components used.Electronic Instrumentation 3-24 Signal Analyzers The distortion caused due to nonlinear behaviour of the circuit elements is called harmonic distortion. In case of sine wave which is harmonically distorted, it consists of a fundamental frequency 'f and the harmonic multiples of fundamental frequency 2f, 3f ... etc. A measure of the distortion represented by a particular harmonic is simply the ratio of the amplitude of the harmonic to that of the fundamental frequency, expressed as percentage. It is represented as, Ba By B: D; = a and so on. D2 = where Da (n = 2, 3,..) represents the distortion of the n'* harmonic. Bn represents the amplitude of the n‘* harmonic and Byrepresents the amplitude of the fundamental frequency component. The total harmonic distortion or distortion factor is defined as, [5 Giarmoniesy?/2 fBaBtiBye = fundamental =~ IT - (2) (B) + - bo Some of the methods used to measure the harmonic distortion factor are described below : THD. 3.8.1 Fundamental Suppression Distortion Analyzer This is used to measure the distortion factor (T.H.D.) rather than the contribution by each component. In this analyzer, the input is applied to such a network that suppresses or rejects the fundamental component but passes all the harmonic frequency components for the measurement. The block diagram is shown in the Fig. 3.18. (see on next page.) The analyzer consists of four major sections : i) Impedance converter ii) Rejection amplifier fii) Metering circuit and iv) Power supply The impedance converter provides a low noise, high impedance input circuit. The rejection amplifier rejects the fundamental frequency. The metering circuit measures the harmonic distortion present which provides visual indication of the T.H.D. in terms of a percentage of the total input voltage. The power supply provides the supply for proper circuit operation.Electronic Instrumentation 3-2 Signal Analyzers Input RF Deto . Set level 4 Function,’ Meter range ’ . ° t 4:1 and 100:1 Attenuator 7 Normal } Voltmeter Impedance converter Sensitivity re Bridge amplifier Meter amplifier amplifier t it Frequency, 4 ! range ! Balance o--— coarselfine Rejection amplifier Fig. 3.18 Fundamental suppression distortion analyzer ‘There are two modes of operation : a b) Voltmeter mode : In this, it acts as normal a.c. voltmeter. The input is applied through 1: 1 and 100 : 1 attenuator which selects proper meter range. The impedance converter bypasses the rejection amplifier as shown dotted. The meter measures the rms. value of the ac. input voltage Distortion mode : In this case, output of the impedance converter is applied to the rejection amplifier. But before applying to the impedance converter, now the input signal is applied to 1 MQ input attenuator which provides the 50 dB attenuation in 10 dB steps. This is controlled by a front panel control named sensitivity. Due to low noise, high impedance provided by impedance converter, accurate measurement is possible. The rejection amplifier circuit consists of a pre-amplifier, a wien bridge and a bridge amplifier. The. pre-amplifier provides further amplification at extremely low distortion levels. The bridge is connected as an interstage coupling between the pre-amplifier and the bridge amplifier. By the front panel, the bridge is tuned and balanced, no output results due to balancing. Hence fundamental frequency component is rejected.Electronic Instrumentation 3-26 Signal Analyzers For other frequencies, wien bridge provides varying output which is amplified by bridge amplifier. The output is then given to meter circuit through post attenuator. This limits output to 1 mV for full scale deflection on all ranges. The meter amplifier has flat response characteristics. The meter is connected in the bridge type rectifier and reads the average value. The meter scale is calibrated to read the r.m-s. value. By using the equation for T.H.D. stated earlier, harmonic distortion factor is determined. Fundamental suppression harmonic distortion analyzer has following advantages : i) The harmonic distortion generated within the instrument itself which may cause error in T.H.D. measurement, is very small and can be neglected. ii) The selectivity requirements are not severe because only the fundamental frequency component must be suppressed. ‘The only disadvantage is that they give only total distortion and not the individual distortion components. 3.8.2 Heterodyne Harmonic Distortion Analyzer In this type of analyzer, a highly selective, fixed frequency filter is used. The Fig. 3.19 shows the functional block diagram of heterodyne type harmonic distortion analyzer. 9 Amplifier © Bandwidth range Hi Input attenuator Input signal 1 Frequency range $ tuning Frequency } Fig. 3.19 Heterodyne harmonic distortion analyzer The variable frequency oscillator output is mixed with each harmonic of the input signal, with the help of balanced mixer, either the sum or difference frequency is made equal to the frequency of the filter. The quartz crystal type highly selective filters can be used as each harmonic frequency is converted to a constant frequency. This allows to select constant frequency signal related to a particular harmonic and pass it to the metering circuit. The balanced mixer consists of a balanced modulator and it eliminates original frequency of the harmonic, Generation of low harmonic distortion is the advantage of the balanced modulator. In some cases, the meter reading is calibrated directly interms ofElectronic Instrumentation 3 7 Signal Analyzers voltage while in some cases the harmonics are compared with a reference voltage, which is representation of the fundamental component. As the calibration interms of voltage is the feature of direct reading heterodyne harmonic distortion analyzer, they are also called frequency selective voltmeters. These instruments are also called carrier frequency voltmeters and selective level voltmeters. 3.8.3 Intermodulation Distortion Meter The two frequency signals can be mixed in either linear circuit or non-linear circuit. Let f, be the higher frequency and f, be the lower frequency. When two such frequencies are mixed into the linear circuit then the output contains only two frequencies, But other than this, if the two same frequencies are mixed into the non-linear circuit, then the output contains sum and differences of original frequencies such as (f, + f;) and (f, ~ f,), along with the original frequencies such as f; and f,. This is nothing but a modulation. The common example of non-linear circuit is an amplifier with distortion. The calculation of an intermodulation distortion is done using intermodulation distortion meter as shown in the Fig. 3.20. ‘Source a fh) ‘Source 2 (2) = Amplifer under test Fig. 3.20 Block diagram of intermodulation distortion meter In the intermodulation distortion meter, two frequencies are mixed using a linear circuit. Hence at output we get only two frequency components. According to the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers the two frequencies are defined as 7 kHz as f, and 60 Hz as f), Their amplitude ratio for high frequency signal to low frequency signal is considered as 1: 4. According to European standard, the high and low frequencies are defined as 8 kHz and 250 Hz. In both the standards, the ratio of amplitudes of the high frequency signal to the low frequency signal is 1: 4. Since at the output low degree ofElectronic Instrumentation 3-28 Signal Analyzers nondinearity is expected, the amplitude of low frequency signal is made 4 times higher than that of high frequency signal. The output of a linear mixer is fed to the amplifier under test. The output of the amplifier is fed to the highpass filter. The output of this circuit consists high frequency carrier signal along with low frequency modulation signal waveform as shown in the Fig. 3.21. Fig. 3.21 Waveform of output of intermodulation distortion meter The intermodulation distortion (IMD) can be calculated directly by observing the waveform on the device like oscilloscope. Mathematically IMD is given by, Amplitude of modulation B-A = deolcamin ~ * 100 = “Amplitude of carrier x 100 But the intermodulation distortion meter has capability of ‘calculating IMD and displaying it directly using the modified circuit. The output of the highpass filter is detected by rm.s. detector 2. The same output is further demodulated by using detector and then it is fed to the low pass filter section to remove high frequency components. The output of the low pass filter consisting only low frequency component is detected by rms. detector 1. The outputs of both rms. detectors are fed to the ratio detector where IMD is calculated by taking the ratio of the detector outputs. The value of IMD is then displayed directly by using an indicator or display device. A difference frequency distortion meter is the special case of the intermodulation distortion meter. It is also known as CCIF intermodulation distortion meter. In this type of the distortion meter, only the lower frequencies are considered. Thus to make meter sensitive to the low (difference) frequencies only, the highpass filter section and detectorElectronic Instrumentation 3-29 Signal Analyzers section both are removed from the intermodulation distortion meter. The output of the amplifier is directly connected to the lowpass filter which outputs only the low frequency component. Such difference frequency analyzer or meter is as shown in the Fig. 3.22. Source 4 () an onc 1 Source 2 () RMS. $+ detector : under test Fig. 3.22 Block diagram of difference distortion meter 3.8.4 Transient Intermodulation Distortion When the input signal of the amplifier changes rapidly then the amplifier is not able to respond this rapid changes. Then the transient intermodulation distortion occurs in the amplifier output. To test amplifier output for the transient intermodulation distortion, the amplifier fed with a square wave signal with high frequency sine wave superimposed on it as shown in the Fig, 3.23(a). When. an amplifier is ideal, then the pry) output will change in accordance with the change in the input as shown in the Fig. 3.23(c). In such cases the amplifier } output is free of transient intermodulation ! distortion. But for the practical amplifier, there Output always exists a transient intermodulation distortion. Then the amplifier output misses initial portion of the high frequency signal for time T as shown in the Fig. 3.23(b). To measure the transient intermodulation distortion, the time T for (c) which high frequency signal is missing is measured. {deal output Fig. 3.23 Waveform of the amplifier for transient intermodulation distortion measurementElectronic instrumentation 3-30 Signal Analyzers 3.8.5 Standing Wave Ratio Meter 3 The standing wave ratio (SWR) is the important term related to the transmission line. This is the important design parameter in the design of antenna as most of the antennas are fed by the transmission lines. In general, a transmission line is considered as a chain of symmetrical networks connected in cascade. The important property of such symmetrical networks is the characteristics impedance (Z;). Generally all the symmetrical networks are terminated at load side into the characteristics impedance, Zj). But when the transmission line is terminated at load into the impedance other than the characteristic impedance of the line, the forward wave of the signal from the input to the output is reflected back from the load as reverse wave. This reverse wave towards input or generator is called reflected wave. This reflected wave gets mixed with the forward wave shown in the Fig.3.24(a). Hence at any point along the wave the resultant amplitude is the algebraic sum of the amplitudes of the forward wave and the reflected wave. Forward wave Amplitude 0 M2 MB Nose ‘Antinode {b) Calculation (a) Formation of tho of SWR ‘standing waves Fig. 3.24 Standing waves The points along the line where the amplitude of voltage or current is zero are ‘called nodes, while the points along the line where the amplitude of voltage or. current is maximum are called antinodes as shown in the Fig. 3.24(a). These nodes and antinodes along the wave do not move relative to the transmission line. That means the nodes and antinodes are stationary and the waves are known as standing waves. When the line is open circuited at the load side, ie. load impedance is «, then the forward wave is reflected back totally. In such case, Vinjn is zero. Thus for open circuited a line, the antinodes are located at every 3 distance along the line starting back from open | Greuited load end.Electronic Instrumentation 3-31 Signa! Analyzers When the line is short circuited at the load side, ie. load impedance is 0, then also’ the forward wave is reflected back totally. Now for short circuited lines the nodes are a located at every 5 distance along the line starting back from short circuited load end. If the line is open circuited or short circuited the standing wave pattern obtained is identical. But there is relative shift in the positions of the nodes and antinodes. If the transmission line is terminated in the impedance Z,, which is other than open circuit impedance or short circuit impedance, the part of the forward wave is absorbed by the load impedance. Then the amplitude of the reflected wave is relatively less than that of the forward wave. This is illustrated in Fig. 3.24(b). The Standing Wave Ratio (SWR) is defined as the ratio of maximum amplitude of voltage or current to the minimum amplitude of voltage to current, In general, Vimaxl _ {Imax SWR = f | _ [max (1) ‘Vmin| The ratio of maximum amplitude of voltage (Vma,) to minimum amplitude of voltage (Vynin) is called Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR). VSWR = jn} --@) Similarly the ratio of maximum amplitude of current ([,,,,) to minimum amplitude of current (Ipin) is called Current Standing Wave Ratio (ISWR). [Imax ISWR = +) Trin! © If Py is the forward power from the input side to the output side and P, is the power reflected back from the output side to the input side, then the standing wave ratio is given by, v2 SWR = sm) ld) Pp 72 (F) ‘The standing wave ratio can be expressed in terms of impedances. If the characteristic impedance of the line is Zy and the load impedance is Z;, the standing wave ratio is given by, Zo SWR = 7 (if Z>Z) =.) F lt% = Q) Where fe = Resolution frequency T = Window time The number of readings within the window directly affects the quality of spectral calculations. According to Nyquist sampling theorem the highest frequency component of a complete signal that can be accurately sampled is one half the sampling rate. For example if 2s of data is to be obtained at 2 kHz sampling rate then the calculated 1 spectrum will have range of 3xsampling rate ie, 1 kHz i.e. 1 to 1000 Hz with a spectrum 1 display point every 5 Hz. Therefore 2000 points can be displayed. If the frequency range of the input to the FFT spectrum analyzer is more than one half of the sampling rate then the spurious spectral components get generated. These are called aliases. So input frequency range must be limited to not more than one half of the sampling frequency. The resolution of analog to digital converter also affects the quality of the spectrum. Finer the resolution of A to D conversion, more accurate is the spectrum calculation. The dynamic range is defined as the ratio of the largest increment to the smallest increment that can be resolved by the analog to digital converter. It is expressed in dB and given by, Ra = 20Log2N ~@Electronic Instrumentation 3-38 Signal Analyzers ‘Where N = Number of bits in ADC The greatest level of dynamic range gets limited by overload which produces intermodulation products while the lower level is limited by the noise level of the analyzer. The noise associated with the analog to digital conversion is called quantization noise. ‘mm Example 3.3: What resolution, total frequency display and dynamic range would be available from an input signal that was sampled for 4 s at a sampling rate of 20 kHz using @ 10-bit conversion ? Solution : The resolution is given by, 1.4 7= 0.25 Hz The maximum calculated spectral frequency is half the sampling frequency. f,_ 20kEz fy = $= y= 10 kHz This is the total frequency of display. Dynamic range = Rg =20Log 2" =20 Log 210 = 60.206 dB 3.10 Network Analyzer In general, network analysis term is used in case of linear networks which produce sine wave output when excited by sine wave input. The since wave testing method is ideal method to plot the amplitude and phase response as a function of frequency. This is valid at a lower frequency range where network elements are lumped in nature. But at higher frequencies above 1 MHz, the wavelengths of operation become comparable in dimension with the physical properties of circuit element, Then the network becomes distributed type in nature. Then instead of defining voltage and current at a node in the network, it is suitable to characterise the response of the waves in the transmission medium to the components in the transmission path. ‘Thus in broader sense, the network analysis is defined as a process a developing a data model of the transfer and or impedance characteristics of the linear network using stimulus response tests over the frequency range of interest, The higher frequency range is a microwave range. So the circuits operating at microwave range. So the circuits operating at microwave frequencies are called microwave circuits. Thus to characterise the microwave components accurately as a function of frequency a new class of instruments is developed, which is called network analyzer. Thus network analyzer is the key instrument developed for making accurate and efficient measurements on passive as well as active microwave components and networks. The network analyzers can measure both impedance and gain characteristics of the microwave device. As any network can beElectronic Instrumentation 3-39 Signal Analyzers completely described by impedance and transmission characteristics, the network analyzer is an indispensable instrument for optimizing the microwave network design. It characterises both active and passive networks by creating a data model of component parameters. This parameters vary as a function of frequency and both, magnitude and phase, have complex variables. For the characterization of microwave networks, scattering parameters or S-parameters are convenient. 3.11 Scattering Parameters (S Parameters) The scattering parameters are useful in determining the signal flow conditions when a device is introduced in the microwave network. The device of which the scattering parameters are to be obtained is called device under test (DUT). The scattering parameters of the device under test are useful in determining rae + the transmission and > === by reflection parameters of oUT >. the device. The device under test can be " represented as a two port Fig. 3.29 Two port network representation of DUT network as shown in the (device under test) Fig. 3.29. In the above representation, a; and a2 are the signals entering the device; while b; and b; are the signals leaving the device. The relationship between these. signals can be written in the form of linear equations. These linear equations are obtained by assuming a1 and a2 as independent variable and b and bz as dependent variables. The linear equations including four variables and scattering parameters are given by, by = Su ay + Syz ag wn(1) by = Sq a1 + Sy a2 w= (2) ‘As the device is represented as two port network, we get two linear equations Similarly for n-port network representation, n number of linear equations are obtained. Representing above equations in the matrix form, we get, fbr Su = [| = 8) al Es Spo | Laz ® Thus we can write matrix representation in symbol form as, } = (5) fa} ol) Here [S] is called scattering parameter matrix.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electronic Instrumentation 3-41 Signal Analyzers From equation (1-B), we get, Se = al a7) The parameter S12 is called reverse transmission coefficient when input is terminated in Zo: From equation (2~B), we get, (8) The parameter 822 is called output reflection coefficient when input is terminated in Zo. 3.11.2 Transmission and Reflection At microwave frequencies, the operational wavelengths becomes comparable with the physical dimensions of the device. Hence at the microwave frequencies it is customary to consider a wave propagating through a transmitting medium which is similar to the propogation of the light waves. The energy incident on the device under test (DUT) is either reflected from the device or transmitted through the device. It is illustrated in the Fig. 3.32. Incident energy out Transmitted energy Reflected energy Fig. 3.32 Reflection and transmission of the energy incident on the device under ‘tost at microwave frequencies The transmission and reflection characteristics of the DUT can be explained interms of magnitudes only (ie. scalar) or interms of magnitudes and phase both (i.e. vector). Let the incident wave is defined by Vincp. Let the reflected and transmitted waves be defined by Vper. and VrRans respectively. The ratio of incident voltage to incident current is called transmission system characteristic impedance Zo. Vineo. 20 = Tina = 8Electronic Instrumentation 3-42 Signal Analyzers Let the input impedance of the device be Zi, which acts as load impedance as DUT is terminating a transmission system. A) Reflection Parameters The major reflection parameters are as follows, i) Reflection Coefficient (2) ii) Standing Wave Ratio (SWR), and ) Return Loss. Let us define each parameter interms of Veer, VincD- The reflection coefficient is defined as, _ Ven. 21 - Zo Viseo ~ Z1. + Zo n-(10) Note that Zo is the characteristic impedance of the transmission medium and Z, is the load impedance. In the case of reflection parameters Z;, can be considered as the input impedance of the DUT. The reflection coefficient is a vector or complex quantity, hence it has magnitude and phase both. The magnitude of the reflection coefficient is given by, e = Itl (11) Now the standing wave ratio (SWR) is given by, + lo SWR = sn(12) 2 Note the standing wave ratio is measured interms of either voltages or currents on a transmission medium from equation (12) we can write, 1+|t| SWR = 1-h| Similarly we can modify equation (10) as, att _ Zi + %)+ (Zt - 20) Tot" (& + Zy)- (1 - Zo) 1+t 221, T-t = Wo l+t Z SWR = T= Z w(14)Electronic Instrumentation 3-43 Signal Analyzers The return loss is typically expressed in decibels and it is given by, Return loss (dB) = ~ 20 logp a) The negative sign indicates loss and p indicates the magnitude of the complex reflection coefficient. The return loss varies from 0 dB to infinity with the variation of magnitude of reflection coefficient varying from 1 to 0. The unity magnitude of the reflection coefficient indicates 100% reflection while zero magnitude indicates zero reflection or no reflection. From the expression of t (.e. reflection coefficient) arid SWR (ie. standing wave ratio) it is clear that their expressions are dependent of the load impedance Z;. If the load impedance and the system characteristic impedance Zp are not matched, then reflection takes place. Thus measurement of these parameters is useful in determining impedance characteristics of the DUT. B) Transmission Parameters Similar to the reflection parameters, there are transmission parameters. But there are only two important transmission parameters namely, i) Transmission Coefficient, and ii) Insertion Loss (or Gain) The transmission coefficient is defined as the ratio of voltage on the transmitted wave through the DUT to that on the incident wave on to the DUT. or os Vrgans 1 coefficient = -HRANS. ‘ransmission coe! Vacs (16) The insertion loss is defined as, : [Vrrans | Insertion Loss (in dB) = 20.logig TrazaT (17) Se INCD Similarly insertion gain can also be defined as, i in (i * Vinco| Insertion Gain (in 4B) = 20 logag }yatcOe (18) TRANS| In both the equations namely (17) and (18), the terms | Virzans| and | Vincp| represents the magnitude of the voltages on the transmitted and incident waves. ‘As Vrran and Vincp are the vector quantities defined with magnitude and phase, we can have one more important parameter known as insertion phase and it is given by,Electronic Instrumentation 3-44 Signal Analyzers Insertion Phase = [2 Vrran - 4 Vincp] wf 19) Where Vian. = relative phase angle of the transmitted wave through a DUT. Vincp = relative phase angle of the incident wave to a DUT. The scattering parameter matrix of the DUT includes four S-parameters such os Si, Siz, Sq and S22. Bach parameter is a complex quantity having magnitude and phase information. These parameters represent some of the transmission and reflection DUT characteristics of the DUT. For example a, oo by input and output reflection coefficients are indicated by S11 and Sz, respectively, while forward and reverse transmission coefficients are indicated by Sq and Sy ry a respectively. All the signals are interrelated © 4 4 ‘ation of 8 ter : : ig. tepresentation of S-parameters to each other as shown in the Fig. 3.33. for the DUT 3.12 Elements of Network Analyzer System A general network analyzer measurement Incident em 8 fo] important parts given as Signal source below. i) Signal Source, Reflected Transmitted au Device, tynentees end in | te“ iv) Display A. typical network analyzer measurement mrt ash the Fig. 3.34. Let us now consider Fig. 3.34 Typical network analyzer measurement system how clements of a typical network analyzer measurement system function and the flow of measurement process takes place.Electronic Instrumentation 3-45 Signal Analyzers 3.12.1 Signal Source A signal source is used to provide a stimulus to the test device. The signal source may be RF. signal source or microwave signal source. It produces the incident signal to the test device. In response, the test device reflects part of the signal incident on to it while transmits the remaining part of the incident signal. To obtain the frequency response of the test device, the frequency of the source is swept. A typical network analyzer measurement system may use the source namely either sweep oscillator or synthesized sweeper depending on the device. Typically the source of the sweep oscillator type is low cost, but as compared to frequency synthesizer it has low accuracy and frequency stability. The synthesized source is prefered when the response of the test device varies considerably over the FM spectrum width of a sweep generator. Also when the phase response of the device, rapidly varies with frequency, to avoid the drift, frequency synthesizers are extensively used as they are stable frequency sources. 3.12.2 Signal Separation Device After having the incident, reflected and transmitted signals, the next step in the process is to separate these signals. It is done with the help of signal separation device. In general, the signal separation is carried out with the help of directional couplers, power splitters, high impedance probes or bridges. To measure magnitude and phase differences, the signal separation is necessary. A directional coupler consists two coupled transmission lines configured to coupled energy to an auxillary port going through main port in only one direction as shown in the Fig. 335. The coupled arms of the directional coupler samples signal travelling in one direction only. With the use of the directional coupler very less amount of incident power is lost because it provides relatively less loss in the main path. =101020dB Incident Source Transmitted Fig. 3.35 Transmission measurement using the directional coupler The main important characteristic of the directional coupler is directivity. Directivity is defined as difference between the signals detected in the forward and reverse or backward directions. If the directivity of the directional coupler is imperfect then signal leakage, connector reflections, internal coupler load reflections takes place. A power splitter consists simply two resistors as shown in the Fig, 3.36 and it can be used to sample either of the incident and transmitted signal.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.lectronic Instrumentation 3-50 Signal Analyzers Linear region Wh > R= oc RA. output . Input Diode ‘Square law region detector 2: tog (Pin) (a) Schematic {b) Characteristics Fig. 3.42 Diode detector characteristics There are two distinct regions in the characteristics of the diode detector. In the first region, the output voltage is (Vour ) is proportional to the input power (Py) or square of _ (Wn)? Zo” | Hence this region is called square law region. the input voltage [pons Bn After certain power level, the response becomes linear which is called as linear region of characteristics. The scalar network analyzer has capability to extent the usable dynamic range by providing certain compensations for the changes in the detector characteristics. A typical scalar network analyzer front pannel is as shown in the Fig. 3.43. Diode detector Fig. 3.43 Block diagram of square wave modulated a.c. detection ‘The diode detection technique uses either d.c. detection or a.c. detection. In case of dic. detection the signal used to excite the test device is unmodulated RF. signal. The output of the test device is connected to the diode detector. The diode detector outputs a dc. signal proportional to the input power. The a.c. detection produces square wave output as shown in Fig. 3.43. The ac. detection is more advantageous as it avoids d.c. drifts in the diode detector and the temperature sensitivities. Also the a.c. detection is not affected by the unmodulated signals