MODULE 3-FINAL COVERAGE

ETHICS030
COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES
Prepared by: Miss Diana B. Rodrigo
UNIT 5: VIRTUE ETHICS

Unit Objectives: At the end of the lesson, the students should have:
1. Articulated what virtue ethics is;
2. known the virtue-based moral theory of Aristotle and St. Thomas Aquinas;
3. understood and articulated the rights’ theory;
4. understood the relationship between consequentialism and utilitarianism;
5. expressed their realization on what justice and fairness are.
6. recognized the appropriations of utilitarianism theory in everyday life and analyzed the possible abuses.

LESSON Virtue
VIRTUE
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✓ (Etymologically) means manliness, i.e. strength, courage
✓ A disposition, ability, or habit inclining man to think and act correctly to follow what is right and
avoid what is evil.
✓A highly regarded personality trait or aspect of character.
✓ Good universal values, all of us should have
VIRTUE ETHICS
✓ It considers excellence or goodness in terms of performance.
✓ Any activity that is good reflect the doing of things in an excellent way.
✓ A good life and the manner by which it is lived, and exemplification of the virtues
✓ The possession of virtues that give rise to a good life

The following are the APPROACHES TO VIRTUE ETHICS:

1. Eudaimonism (synonymous with Virtue Ethics)

✓ Affirms that the goal of human existence is to achieve eudaimonia or happiness. (in anything that we do,
we always hope for happiness. We earn money to be happy; we devote ourselves to God to be happy; we
study hard to graduate and to be happy, etc.)
✓ However, goodness is only attainable by mean of acting out the virtues, called phronesis. Phronesis is s tool
therefore to achieve happiness. (One who engages himself in drugs and other ungodly activities which he
thinks he is happy with, is not genuinely happy. Happiness is only when we live rightly.)
2. Ethics of Care

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 ✓ It is an outgrowth of feminist theory of Annette Baier in the 20th century.
✓ This affirms that gender role influences a person’s action and thinking. (a man thinks a behaves differently
from a woman.)
✓ This suggests that goodness is attained by means of taking care of others, patient and nurturing, and
willingness to sacrifice one’s own happiness for the sake of other’s happiness
3. Agent-based Theory (by Michael Slote)
✓ This uses the largest, most normal, and most lauded virtues across time and culture (ex. Kindness and
mercy)

THE 4 CARDINAL VIRTUES (Basic and most important virtues)

1. Prudence- This is the capacity to regulate the intellect, to think of the right thing and to avoid evil. Prudence is, a
good judgment. (one who thinks of vengeance to an enemy lacks prudence.)
2. Justice- Regulates the will of giving what is due to others. (Taking what is not yours is an injustice to the owner.)
3. Fortitude- this regulates the weakness of the character. (One who continues despite all odds has fortitude.)
4. Temperance- A voluntary self-restraint, a practice of controlling your actions, thoughts, or feelings. (being not too
angry, impatient, not drinking or eating too much, etc.)

Charity
✓ It is the mover, the mother and root of all virtues and the source of good will, kindness, mercy, and forgiveness.
✓ A supernatural virtue of loving God above all things and loving one’s neighbor because of God.
✓ It gives unity and harmony to individual moral life and to the whole humanity.
✓ It means helping the poor, the unfortunate, the underprivileged

JUSTICE AND ITS KIND

By justice, we give what is due for others and by that, we don’t step on any right. The following are the classifications of
justice:

1. Legal justice
-it binds all men to do what is for the common good in accordance with the law by regulating the exercise of rights
between the community and the authority charged with the welfare of it. It include the imposition of the laws.
2. Distributive justice (community to individuals)
-it directs the state to share out to the people benefits and offices according to the merits and capabilities. Its
objective is the particular good and individual rights of each member of the society by which the society ought to
preserve and respect. It is distributive justice which regulates the imposition of taxes, fees, or privileges and likewise,
the members should also accept the equitable distribution of burdens and privileges.
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 3. Commutative justice (justice between individuals)
-it is the duty of one individual to give what is due to another. It covers private persons to render to each other
according to “give-and-take” principle. It means that the exchange of anything shall be based on equal value. If I
bought a 1 kilo rice at a certain price, what should I get should be equal to the price which I paid. This encompasses
the business transaction of equitable pricing of goods.
4. Social justice
-it directs individuals to give society its due. Its goal is to promote equal chances and opportunities in life. It
imposes the obligation to assist those in need so that they too can live their life worthy of dignity as persons. By the
initiative of helping the others for the sake of solidarity, the members (citizens) could give back to the society by
means of strengthening needy members. Those who offer educational scholarship programs to the poor so they can
be helped in elevating their living, implies social justice.
5. International justice
-its concern is the common welfare of all nations. Main duties are preservation of world peace, unity, and
brotherhood. It is international justice when the production of nuclear weapons is prohibited.

VIRTUE-BASED MORALITY

✓ It is the extent of excellence performed by an individual and as to where that individual is expected to function well.

There are two great thinkers who espoused a virtue-based moral system namely Aristotle and St. Thomas Aquinas.

The Aristotelian Virtue Ethics

✓ it is teleological (“telos,” meaning end) and eudaiministic (“eudaimonia,” meaning happiness).

✓ Aristotle said that human beings have the natural inclination to pursue an end, which is happiness. (We always
pursue what makes us happy)
✓ In Aristotle’s society, students are trained to acquire moral knowledge and skills
✓ there is a reassurance in the honing of the two-fold virtues to human excellence: intellectual virtue and courage.
✓ Moral education or ethical instruction is the key in fostering good habits (virtues) and discouraging bad habits
(vices)
✓ Aristotle is also known for his “Doctrine of the Mean.”

Happiness as a Virtue (On Aristotle)

✓ Anything which is good, makes a human happy.
✓ For Aristotle, happiness is that which is pursued by pleasure (sensual gratification) but then, it should be a lasting
enjoyment. Accomplishing a bachelor’s course is something which would give one a long term gratification thus,
there is happiness.

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✓ Higher beings (man) enjoy higher pleasures guided by their rationality, while lower form of animals enjoys lower
pleasures guided by their lower faculties (appetites). Thus, a person who only heeds to lower appetitive tendencies,
experience lower pleasures the same as those of the animals. That’s why happiness should be guided by virtues and
without such virtues, there can hardly be happiness.

St. Thomas Aquinas on Natural Law

✓ St. Aquinas puts forward that there is within us a conscience directing our moral thinking.
✓ This sense of right and wrong must be informed, guided, and grounded on morality.
✓ We are called to heed the voice of conscience and maintain a life of virtue.
✓ For Thomas Aquinas, Natural law is the basis of ethics and the ultimate ground directing our sense of what is right
and wrong.
✓ God directs man to arrive at his perfection and reach their proper end which is returning to God.
Divisions of Law
1. ETERNAL LAW
✓ Eternal law according to St. Aquinas, is nothing else but God’s plan in creating the universe, God’s law which
directs all things to their proper end.
✓ It is a norm whereby God governs the universe and most of which are unknowable to man.
✓ It keeps the universe (Kosmos) in proper working order
✓ It applies to all creatures: rational, irrational, animate, inanimate.
✓ Example: To us, humans, we are governed by our conscience. Sometimes, we hear voices within us which
tells us that what we’re doing is not good even if we don’t will the voice inside- it’s just simply there.
Without sometimes knowing, this conscience just simply directs us to our supposed “proper end” which is
returning back to God.
✓ The laws concerning the tides, eclipses, daytime and nighttime, etc.
2. NATURAL LAW
✓ Is an aspect of eternal law knowable to man and applicable to human lives.
✓ An “intellect-bit size of reality.”
✓ Man has participation and contribution as a rational being
✓ It says that humans possess an intrinsic sense of right and wrong all throughout time, that governs our
reasoning and behavior and it is what which should be possessed by a just society.
✓ When a child tearfully exclaims “it’s not fair (that)…” or when viewing a documentary about the suffering of
war, we feel pain because we are reminded of the horrors of human evil and with these, natural law works.
3. HUMAN LAW
✓ Is an application of the general principles of natural law to situations, by the human minds.
✓ Is a morally-based earthly law by which human societies function.
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 ✓ Examples are the constitutional laws, republic acts, decrees, ordinances, ecclesiastical laws, etc.
4. DIVINE LAW
✓ An aspect of the eternal law made known to human minds by God through historical revelations or
scriptures.
✓ Laid out in Old and New testaments
✓ Example is the 10 Commandments

The Natural Law and its Tenets

✓ Naturally, we are naturally inclined to promote life and continue living despite its odds.
✓ We do not simply settle on securing our earthly life but we deepen our relationship with God.
✓ St. Thomas emphasizes that it is human nature to desire his/her ultimate end in God.
✓ Happiness (Felicitas) is the ultimate end or good pursued by human beings (as previously discussed) however,
for St. Aquinas, the ultimate happiness is in afterlife which is different from that of Aristotle who asserted that
happiness can be achieved on earth.
✓ Ultimate happiness requires the virtue of FAITH, HOPE, and LOVE and through this union with God, perfect
happiness could be attained.

Think time…

Word pool. Write the letter of the correct answer before the number.

A. God B. Ethics C. Natural Law D. Pleasure E. Happiness

F. Old law G. Intuition H. Eternal Law I. Will J. Eudaimonia
K. Phronesis L. Prudencia

____1. It is either innate or acquired.

____2. It means morally good habits in Greek.

____3. It is what human beings naturally seek.

____4. It is a norm whereby God governs the universe, most of which is unknowable to man.

____5. It is an aspect of the Divine law made known by God through pre-Christian revelation to the Jewish people.

____6. It is the aspect of the eternal law that is knowable to the finite human minds and applicable to human life.

____7. According to St. Thomas Aquinas, it is the ultimate happiness that human beings should seek.

____8. It is the Latin term for practical reason.

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____9. It is an end-goal of any deliberate act that human beings engage in.

____10. It is the Greek term for happiness.

In a brief answer…

1. Since everything governing human conduct is already contained in the natural moral law, why do we still need
the laws of the state (or human positive law)
2. In case of conflict between a law of the state and the law of conscience, which prevails over which? Give reasons
for your answer.
3. In what way or ways may a law become unjust?

LESSON Kant

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KANTIAN ETHICS

✓ The main objective of Kantian ethics is to put morality on a solid foundation because for him, it has always been laid
in a shallow ground because of the absence of the ultimate norm of sound judgment.
✓ Emmanuel Kant stressed that man’s objective is the achievement of his end (purpose).
✓ Moral action comes from the conviction of the “oughtness” or duty which does not expect any result and in any
given circumstance, one should do his very duty. (one must do good not because of a return.)
✓ Kant also asserted that the invocation to God or any following of the divine will and law is not warranted.
✓ There should always be a good will- that which remains constant despite the changing circumstances. (example: one
should behave rightly regardless of the mood he/she has)
✓ Kant believes that morality is constant regardless of the race, culture, and religion.
✓ There are 2 imperatives involved: the categorical and hypothetical imperative.

HYPOTHETICAL IMPERATIVE (if-and-then moral command)

✓ It is a conditional moral command by which the end becomes a condition. Kant says that this is all about
PRUDENCE (good thinking), NOT MORALITY. If you want a good money, then you must work hard. If you want a
good grade, then you must study. This imperative is very evident today like in the case of (not all) politicians
wherein they only do good deeds for them to be recognized by the people and become more popular. So, if an
action- regardless how moral it is- would bring no benefit to you, you would not do the action- and that is
prudence.

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KANT and CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE

✓ For Kant, this is where morality should be rooted from.

✓ These are commands you must follow, regardless of your desires. Moral obligations are derived from pure
reasons.
✓ This imperative asserts that moral actions are not oriented towards any purpose or end. (example: one helps
the needy not because of any other purpose like for popularity or for a good image but rather, it is because it’s
the RIGHT THING TO DO.)
✓ This is not based on natural inclinations or end like happiness. (because example, if telling the truth would not
make you happy, does it mean that you’ll already have the free ticket to tell the lie? Thus, one must always tell
the truth, regardless what would be the consequence, because it is just basically what one ought to do, and that
it morality for Kant.)
✓ You don’t need religion to determine what the law is because what’s right and wrong is totally knowable just by
using your intellect (natural law).

Kant came up with 4 formulations (principles) of Categorical Imperative and 2 of which are below:

1. The Universal Law Principle/ Universalizability Principle

“Act only according to that maxim (a rule or principle of action) which you can at the same time will that it should
become a universal law without contradiction.”
Example, I am at school with no money and with an empty stomach. I saw a left wallet and when opened it, it
has several bills which I thought I can use for buying my food and other necessities probably. With my needs in
mind, I have decided not to bother myself on returning the wallet to the owner. With that, can my act of
stealing become an action that everyone can do if they are as well placed in a similar situation (universal
principle)? Does it mean that everyone who’s needy can just indulged themselves to stealing? NO.
What Kant is trying to say is that it’s not fair to make exceptions for yourself like by saying, “God would understand
me if I still because He knows that I’ve got nothing to eat.” Moral rules apply to everyone equally and one thing you
are not permitted to do is violate the moral law, even if others are doing so, or even if it is for a really good cause.
2. The Formula of Humanity
“Act so that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in that of another, always as an end, and never as a
mere means (to use it only for your own benefit, with no thought to the interests or benefit of the thing you’re
using). “
We always use things as a mere means like a mug for drinking coffee and once it’s broke, we don’t use it anymore.
However, this should not be applied to humans because for Kant, we are ends-in-ourselves. WE ARE NOT MERE
OBJECTS THAT EXIST TO BE USED BY OTHERS. WE’RE OUR OWN ENDS, RATIONAL, AND AUTONOMOUS. WE HAVE
THE ABILITY TO SET OUR OWN GOALS AND WORK TOWARDS THEM. Coffee mugs exist for coffee while humans

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 exist for themselves and not for anybody else. One must be aware that the persons he/she are encountering have
their own personal goals and he/she should respect such. Although we can always be a mere means of someone
else’s goals- like you (students) would use your teacher for you to get information or knowledge from him/her- the
person that we are using must be informed and must agree on their functions and they should not be manipulated
for our own benefit. By that, everyone would have his/her self-worth. Lying and deception for example are not okay
because someone who is being lied to and deceived is not being able to make his/her autonomous decision because
his/her facts are based on false information. Jane, who is being lied to by his/her lover, will not be able to make a
correct decision in their relationship because of her false beliefs, thus, the lying lover is stepping on Jane’s self-worth,
and we all know that it’s wrong.

LESSON Utilitarianism
EXOTICISM
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✓ It is a phenomenon which tries to depict poverty to an extreme degree where people’s
actual condition is used in order to generate beautiful reviews of the show and profit for the network which
produces the show.

CONSEQUENTIALISM

✓ This works in the idea that the result is more important than the means.

QUESTION: Is Batman morally good for not killing the joker because the former believes that killing is a crime? Or is he
morally evil for putting the lives of the majority at stake for letting Joker live?

The Principle of UTILITARIANISM

✓ It embraces a norm that will bring happiness to as many persons as possible.

✓ States that an action can be measured best to be moral or not if and only if the said action is agreed by all or a great
many people to be good.
✓ It is a moral theory which focusses on the results, or consequences (consequentialism) of our actions, and treats
intentions as irrelevant. Therefore, GOOD CONSEQUENCES equal GOOD ACTIONS.
This contrasts with Kant’s categorical imperative where morality is always constant regardless of the reasons and
intentions. For utilitarianism, if telling a lie would benefit many people and would bring better consequences more
than telling the truth, then it would be the moral thing to do. What’s regarded in here is the amount of good benefits
an action would yield.
✓ Utilitarianism was founded by Jeremy Bentham and Stuart Mill, but the theory can be traced from a Greek
philosopher, Epicurus. They agreed that actions should be measured in terms of the happiness, or pleasure, they
produce. Afterall, happiness is our good end.

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 ✓ Utilitarianism is a hedonistic moral theory (pleasure- oriented) because we ought morally to pursue pleasure and
happiness and work to avoid pain. It is other-regarding because “we should act always so as to produce the greatest
good for the greatest number” and not just acting for ourselves (Principle of Utility). It could also mean sacrificing your
own happiness for the happiness of others, like when you sacrifice some amount of money for yourself to treat your
family on your birthday.

Know your morality! Answer this.

As a person, to which do you adhere more your moral beliefs and actions? On Kant’s categorical imperative
or on the principles of utilitarianism? Why?

LESSON Religion and

“Because of a systematic religion, humanity could possibly live their life to the fullest.”
14 Ethics
What is a RELIGION?
✓ It is a personalized or institutionalized system of religious beliefs, attitudes, and practices.

Although is possible to have ethics WITHOUT religion, it is also equally possible for religion to be a BASIS of ethics
because mostly, the sources of morality could be traced from the Divine revelations in the form of scriptures. To
situate their relation, both have to be differentiated.

ETHICS AS A PHILOSOPHY

➢ It engages in a rational investigation of goodness regardless of religious convictions.

RELIGION

➢ The word religion came from the Latin word, “religare” meaning, “to bind.” It is grounded on traditions;
one’s moral behavior is practiced in the light of religious traditions.
… because as evident today, morality comes from different practices of various religions. A Muslim
husband for example could still be considered moral despite engaging in polygyny (having 2 or more wives
at the same time) yet, may be considered non-moral if a husband who practices such act is a Christian.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ETHICS AND RELIGION

✓ Ethics teaches the value of religion, presenting it as a duty to the Almighty. For someone to be truly religious,
he/she must be also ethical. On the other hand…

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 ✓ Religion contributes to the teaching of Ethics and continues to enrich with its moral insights. In our churches
regardless of what congregation it is, every teaching that is relayed to the members has always something to do
with moral actions. We are reminded of the things we must pursue and avoid thus, by religion, we widen our
understanding of ethics and try more to adhere to what is ethical.
✓ There are plenteous religions in the world however, despite the different moral beliefs of different religions,
they still coincide in their efforts to improve both man and human societies. All great religions for instance, hold
life in deep respect and propose universal brotherhood as necessary for global peace and security.

Globalization>>> A process of an increasingly integrated global economy marked especially by free trade, free
flow of capital, and the tapping of cheaper foreign labor markets. The world has become a wide village because
of all its parts already connected by mostly, economy.

Human progress is the promise of globalization but ironically, advancements have not really secured
people lives’ improvement due to:

✓ CAPITALISM;
✓ CONSUMERISM;
✓ OTHER FORMS OF MATERIALISM; and
✓ LITTLE EMPHASIS ON KNOWLEDGE, VIRTUES, HOLINESS, AND SPIRITUALITY.

Now, this is where the role of religion comes in. Religion has preset of laws governing the lives of its believers worldwide.

Such laws can address on pressing issues (like those mentioned above) affecting social life. With this, RELIGION CAN:

1. Bind people despite various orientations. At some points, there have always been a commonality between
different religions may it be in their beliefs or practices. By finding this/these common point/s, people would find a
general agreement and would also allot spaces for understanding and respect of the differences.
2. Correct the disorientations and disvalues. Humans are imperfect so we could not have the perfect natural law and
conscience within us. We have to be reminded also of our wrong conducts as a person and by religion, we are
continually nurtured and enlightened.
3. Reach out across cultures and different nations. Religions have their sent-out missionaries for the purpose of
indoctrination and by that, religious and ethical teachings can reach across the globe.

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 Essay time…

Answer the following briefly.

1. Knowing the fact that some people use religion to justify their ill-intentions like killing innocent lives in
the name of God, do you think it is still necessary to belong to a religion, or to believe in God?
Substantiate your answer.
2. While religion offers a system that addresses violence, it nevertheless triggers the existence of violence.
Is religion a problem or the solution in the issue of violence? Why?

End of Final coverage

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