American Fire Services

1982

Anal y ses, Al ternati ves, I nnovati ons,

Solutions
Ignatius Kapalczynski
Principal

139 Selden Hill Drive Office: (860) 521-7056

West Hartford, CT Cell: (860) 817-3771
06107-3128 americanfiresvc@juno.com
An Operational and Functional View
of a
Sprinkler System Design
 Demonstrate application of the hydraulic calculation
review process as a method for evaluating and
validating automatic sprinkler system design
assumptions and layouts.

 Using the implications of commonly found deficiencies

and errors on overall system performance to develop
concise and informative plan review comments.
 Prior to 1982 -
no requirements;
numerous violations;
corrective reconstruction required.

 Public Act 83-432 introduced -

Section 29-263, CGS
CSFSC Part I , Section 29-292-4e & 29-292-5e
(coordination with Building Official)
 To determine if the hydraulics support the
system design and layout.

 To assure that the delivery of water will be

sufficient, adequate and appropriate for the
expected hazard.

◦ It is easier to make corrections and adjustments on the

paper and to run confirming calculations than it is to
explain lack of system performance.
 Assures adequate coverage

 Allows design flexibility

 Evaluates alternatives and special conditions

 Saves time and human error (sometimes)

 Minimizes water requirement, while assuring

distribution
 Human error

 Computer data entry

◦ Garbage in = Garbage out

◦ Lately - Garbage in = gospel out

 Knowledge of basic hydraulics can detect

serious design errors
 Consequences of failure affect life and property!

 Reflects poorly on official & jurisdiction

 Corrective action takes time & money

 Correction by re-doing rather than by recalculating

 Non-conformance results in:

Legal action
An unreliable system
 A Traffic Analogy

◦ Water traveling from a source to the fire in a pipe

network is like a car traveling to a destination in a
road network.

◦ Many of the terms and conditions are comparable

◦ We can all relate to driving and traffic

They take you from one place to another
 They have Ups and Downs

 They slow you on the way up

 They speed you on the way down

 So why do we say speed up and slow down?

 They change direction of traffic

 They add traffic

 They remove traffic

 They control traffic

Ensure that the system being installed is

Capable of delivering

The minimum amount of water

Necessary for the expected fire.

 1 – Select an appropriate density/area or flow/pressure
strategy for the system to be analyzed

 2 – Determine the coverage area for each sprinkler

(calculation spacing versus sprinkler spacing)

 3 – Determine the arrangement of the system piping,

valves, and fittings, including changes in elevation

 4 – Determine the required amount of water needed from

the most demanding sprinkler
 5 – Determine which sprinklers will open in a fire (remote
area) and which ones will be the most demanding of the
water supply.

 6 – Determine which single sprinkler will be the most

demanding, and then determine the primary water path
and any attachment paths.

 7 – Calculate how much pressure and flow will be needed

for the entire remote area because of that first sprinkler

 8 – Compare the water flow and pressure that is required

versus the available supply.
 What is the expected fire challenge?

◦ What can burn?

◦ How much is there?

◦ How is it arranged?

◦ How quickly will it spread?

 Light

 Ordinary I

 Ordinary II

 Extra Hazard I

 Extra Hazard II

 Kind of like Beer

 Chapter 5
 Occupancies or portions thereof,

 Quantity and/or combustibility is low

 Rates of heat release low

Assembly, Educational, Health Care, Business, Residential

 Occupancies or portions thereof,

 Quantity moderate

 Combustibility low

 Less than 8 feet high

 Rates of heat release moderate

Automotive, Storage, Manufacturing, Laundries, Kitchens

 Occupancies or portions thereof,

 Quantity and/or combustibility moderate to high

 Combustibility moderate - less than 12 feet high

 Combustibility high - less than 8 feet high

 Rates of heat release moderate

 Agricultural, Combustible Manufacturing, Mercantile,

 Storage, Repair
 Occupancies or portions thereof,

 Quantity and/or combustibility very high

 Dust, lint or other materials

 Rapidly developing fires

 Rates of heat release high

 Little or no flammable or combustible liquids

 Aircraft Facilities, Mills, Materials Processing

 Occupancies or portions thereof,

 Moderate to substantial amounts of flammable or

combustible liquids

 Shielding of combustibles extensive

 Painting, Spraying, Quenching, Dipping, Plastics, Solvents

 Result will be a:

 Volume rate (gallons per minute)

 over an area (square feet)

 Example: 0.10 gpm / 1500 ft2

 Area of Coverage

 Type of Sprinkler

 Required Flow

 Required Pressure
Most standard sprinklers discharge a circular pattern with
a diameter of 15 – 16 feet or approximately 192 square feet.
Design hazard classes specify spacing along branch lines and
between branch lines of lesser dimensions to provide overlap
and increased coverage base on the hazard severity.
 Most standard sprinklers discharge a circular pattern
with a diameter of 15 – 16 feet or approximately 192
square feet.

 Design hazard classes specify spacing along branch

lines and between branch lines of lesser dimensions to
provide overlap and increased coverage base on the
hazard severity.

 Specify both maximum dimension and maximum area

 Specify both maximum dimension and maximum area

 Example:

 Hazard Class = Ordinary I

 Maximum Sprinkler Protection Area = 130 ft2

 Maximum Sprinkler Spacing (Branch Line) = 15 ft

 Maximum Branch line Spacing = 130/15 = 8.67 ft

 Example

 Area of Coverage = 130 ft2

 Design Density = 0.15 gpm/ft2

 Required Flow = 130 x 0.15 = 19.5 gpm

 Determine Sprinkler Type

 Determine K-Factor

 Verify with manufacturer’s specifications

 Calculate
 Discharge coefficient (theoretical) that determines how
much water can flow from a particular sprinkler.

 Sprinklers are identified by K-Factor rather than an

orifice size. A K-Factor 5.6 is not necessarily a ½” orifice
sprinkler.

 K-Factor ranges 1.4 to 28 (and larger special)

 Discharge coefficient (theoretical) that determines how
much water can flow from a particular sprinkler.

 Sprinklers are identified by K-Factor rather than an

orifice size. A K-Factor 5.6 is not necessarily a ½” orifice
sprinkler.

 K-Factor ranges 1.4 to 28 (and larger special)

 Flow (Q) = 19.5 gpm

 Sprinkler K-Factor (K) = 5.6

 Solve for Pressue (P) ( Q / K ) 2 = P

 ( 19.5 / 5.6 ) 2 = 12.1 psi

 Check

◦ What is minimum required pressure by code ? ( 7 psi)

◦ What is minimum pressure required by manufacturer? (specs)

◦ Is minimum calculated pressure greater than minimums?

12.1 >= 7 or specs? (Yes)
 Sprinkler Spacing
◦ Sprinklers and Branch Lines

◦ Example
 S x L = 15 x 8.67 = 130 ft2
 Area / Sprinkler Area = 1500 / 130 = 11.5 sprinklers
 Round up to 12 (no partial sprinklers)

◦ Add area or sprinklers to round up (Dog Leg)

 Area Increases

◦ Dry or Pre-action Systems (30%)

◦ Pitched Roofs (30%)

 Decreases

◦ Quick Response (QR) sprinklers

 Why?

◦ Sprinkler Response Time

 By Flow (Q) – usually the largest

 By Pressure (P) – usually the highest

 By Elevation (E) – usually the highest

 By piping – size, lengths, types

 By Arrangement – branches, loops, grids

 By Hazard – size, location

 May be a combination of all of the above

 Combinations may cause counter-intuitive

results

 When in doubt – calculate another area

 Relative to Area Demand (industrial vs residential)
 To Building (distance)
 Actual water main
 Date – How recent
 Date – Day of week (weekday vs weekend)
 Time – Usage peak
 Who Conducted
 Elevation to flow point
 Who Conducted? (qualifications, biases)
 Who prepared the calculations?

 What is the project?

 Where is it located?

 When was it done?

 CGS 29-263
◦ No building or structure shall be constructed or altered without an
application to the LBO & issuance of a permit

◦ Within 30 days of application LBO/LFM must review plans & LBO

either issue or refuse permit

◦ Plans accepted must be in substantial compliance with the

applicable codes.

 CSFSC
◦ 29-292-4e – Plans submittal
◦ 29-292-5e – Notify BO - 30 day time frame.
 License Required by Connecticut

◦ C.G.S. 29-263a

◦ Working drawings used for the installation, alteration or

modification (change) of a fire sprinkler system, no state, city, town or
borough building official responsible for the enforcement of laws,
ordinances or regulations relating to the construction or alteration of
buildings or structures, pursuant to section 29-263, shall accept or
approve any such drawings or specifications which are not
accompanied by evidence of licensure by the state as an automatic
fire sprinkler system layout technician licensed pursuant to section
20-304a OR are not accompanied by evidence of licensure by the
state as a professional engineer in accordance with chapter 391.
Professional Engineer’s Seal & Signature

◦ C.G.S. 20-293

 The working drawings and specifications prepared for such

buildings or structures, which by the terms of this chapter shall be
prepared by a licensed architect, shall be stamped with his seal.
Except for plans for buildings or structures under the provisions of
section 20-298, no official of this state or of any city, town, or
borough therein, charged with the enforcement of laws, ordinances
or regulations relating to the construction or alteration of buildings
or structures, shall accept or approve any plans or specifications
that are not stamped with the seal of a licensed architect or a
licensed professional engineer.
 Engineer (PE) (any PE or discipline - (landscape,
electrical)

 NICET III (triangular seal; layout only)

 Things to watch out for:

◦ Stamps for sale
◦ Trust in computer programs
◦ GIGO
 Hazard Type

 Design Density

 Design Area

 Area per SprinklerAS

 Minimum Pressure Required

 Flow (Q) per Sprinkler

 Total Requirement
+ water curtains, rack sprinklers
 Static Pressure
 Residual Pressure
 Flow
 C-Factor – roughness of pipe material

 Age and Condition of Pipe

 Pipe condition deteriorates with time

 Type

 Orientation

 Coverage

 Orifice

 K Factor
 Capacity
 NFPA 13 – none

 Design Practice – good engineering

 Reliability - insurance
 Node

 Elevation

 Flow (Q)

 Pressure (P)

 % or wastage
 Everything the manufacturer wants you to
know so that they don’t get into trouble

 “Following the directions”

 Schedule

 Area Density

 Room Design
 Construction Requirements

 Suppression Mode
 Control
 Extinguishment
 Life Safety Only
◦ When any of the following occur the system may
NOT be effective and may require redesign

 building expansion or extensive renovation

 change in occupancy classification

 change in hazards classification

 decrease in available water supply

 More lanes = more traffic flow

 More lanes = faster traffic flow

 Road Materials - Concrete, Asphalt, Dirt

 Pipe Materials – Steel, Copper, Plastic

 Pipe Condition – smooth, rusted, silted, clogged

 Road Condition – smooth, cracked, pot holes, ruts

 Elbows = Turns

 Tees = Intersections

 Check Valves = Stop Spikes

 Gate Valves = Traffic Lights, Drawbridges

 Flow Switch = EZPass

Required by Dept. of Health, however, proper location
and large friction loss if installed affect hydraulic
calculations and system operation within compliance of
CFSC and NFPA 13 & 14.
 Fittings are like Curves

 Curves slow traffic – Fittings slow flow

 Equivalent length is how far you would have traveled on

a straight road if you hadn’t slowed for curves
 Toto – We’re not in Kansas any more
 Flow velocity

 Laminar Flow – smooth traffic and speed

 Turbulent Flow – rush hour

 Volume – speed
As Volume Increases – Resistance Increases – Traffic Slows
 Pipe – Interaction of flow with pipe inner surface

 Roads - Interaction with guardrails, accidents, frequent

lane changes, rubber necking
 Problem: 100 feet of 1 inch pipe
◦ 10 gpm = 6psi
◦ 20 gpm = 22 psi
◦ 50 gpm = 120 psi
◦ 100 gpm = 440 psi (pipe may burst)

 Problem: 10,000 gallons through a soda straw.

Possible???
◦ Yes, but over how much time
◦ Faster requires more pressure
◦ More pressure if strength of material permits
 FL = ( 4.52 x Q1.85 ) / ( C1.85 x D4.87 )

 Problem: What is the friction loss for a new 6 inch,

schedule 40 pipe that is flowing 200 gpm

◦ (4.52) x (200^1.85) / (120^1.85) x (6.065^4.87)

◦ (4.52) x (18067.8) / (7022.4) x 6492.11)
◦ 0.0018 psi per foot

 Problem: What if the pipe is 780 feet long?

◦ x (780) = 1.4 psi
 Pipe
◦ Path of least resistance
◦ Because that’s the only way it will go

Traffic
Fastest path setting on GPS
 1 – Choose Remote Riser - B
Riser B

 2 – Starting Flow = 250 gpm @ 100 psi (NFPA 14)

 3 – Added Flow = 250 gpm

 4 – Elevation Pressure = 65 ft x 0.433 #/ft = 28 psi

 5a – Pipe 4 inch + 1 Elbow = 65 ft

 + 35 ft
 + 10 ft
 ______
 = 110 ft @ 500 gpm = 11 psi

 5b – Pipe 6 inch + 1 Tee = 105 ft

 + 30 ft
 ______
 =135 ft @ 500 gpm = 2 psi
Riser C

 6 – Add Flow from Riser C = 250 (from A) + 500 (from B) = 750 gpm

 7 – Elevation Pressure = N/A same as Riser B

Tee to Fire Department Siamese (Not Storz)

 8 – Pipe 6 inch + 2 Elbows = 75 ft

 + 5 ft
 + 3 ft
 + 28 ft (14 ft x 2)
 ______
 = 111 ft @ 750 gpm = 3 psi
Total

 9 – Add Pressures = 100 psi (from #2)

 + 28 psi (from #4)
 + 11 psi (from #5a)
 + 2 psi (from #5b)
 + 3 psi (from #8)
 _______
 = 144 psi

 10 – System Demand = 750 gpm @ 144 psi

 More
◦ Risers
◦ Building Height (Elevation)
◦ Flows
◦ Pipe
◦ Fittings
◦ More repeat calculations

◦ But Still The Same Problem!

 A small building owned by a company that processes
and distributes fruit juice beverages.

 Will be protected with a wet/dry pipe sprinkler system.

 The 3,792 ft2 building will be used to fill small cans of

fruit juices.
 Hazard class - Ordinary Hazard Group 1

 Storage over 12 ft in height or racks storage? – No

 Sprinklers - QR, ½ NPT orifice, K-factor 5.6

 Piping - Black steel, Schedule 40

 Branch tree system

 Design Approach – Area Density

 Do calculations correlate with drawings?

 Nodes

 Pipe lengths

 Fittings

 Pipe diameters

 Elevations
 Check sprinkler elevations

 Roof deck = 20 ft aff (see architecturals)

 Branch Lines = 19 ft aff

 Cross main = 3 ft below B/L = 16 ft aff

 Water supply
◦ 72 psi static, 58 psi residual, 1200 gpm flowing.

 What don’t we know?

◦ Who, where, when and elevation differences.
 = 0.15 gpm/ft2 over 1500 ft2 (Chapter 11)
 Sprinkler Coverage (As) – 130 ft2

 Area allowed = 130 ft2

 Actual (As) = 14 ft x 9 ft = 126 ft2
 S = distance between sprinklers along branch line

 L = distance between branch lines

 As actual = S x L = 14 ft x 9 ft = 126 ft2

 126 ft2 <= 130 ft2 OK

 Distance from walls = S/2 = 7 feet (not 7.5 feet – oops)

 Check distance between sprinklers on opposite sides of

cross main
 Determine the required flow from most demanding
sprinkler

 Area (As) = S x L = 14 ft x 9 ft = 126 ft2

 Density (D) = 0.15 gpm / ft2

 Flow (Q) = As x D = 126 ft2 x 0.15 gpm/ft2 = 18.9 gpm

 Determine the required pressure

◦ Flow (Q) = 18.9 gpm

◦ Sprinkler K-Factor (K) = 5.6

◦ Solve for Pressue (P) ( Q / K ) 2 = P

◦ ( 18.9 / 5.6 ) 2 = 12.1 psi

 Just because a particular sprinkler may cover
a smaller area does not allow this pressure or
flow to be reduced.

 If anyone argues where is it in the code, they

clearly do not understand physics (and
probably think it can be modified)
 Determine location of remote area (as before)

 1500 ft2 as determined by Table

 Increases?

 30% for dry pipe?

 30% for double interlock preaction?
 30% for pitched roof
 100% Combustible concealed spaces
 Apply twice if both apply
 Decreases
 Decreases?

 Wet pipe system? - Yes

 QR sprinklers? - Yes
 Ceiling height? – 20 ft - OK
 Unprotected ceiling pockets? - No
 Hazard class? – Ordinary I - OK
 1500 ft2 x 75% = 1125 ft2
 Shape of remote area

 Square shape not allowed because fires do not grow

symmetrically

 Rectangle is more hydraulically challenging (and realistic)

 Rectangular remote area opens more sprinklers on a line
 Rectangle = A = L x W

 L = 1.2 √ A

 L = 1.2 x √ 1125

 L = 1.2 x 33.54

 L = 40.25
 Add enough sprinklers to cover at least 1125 ft2

 Number of sprinklers = 1125 ft2 / (126 ft2/sprinkler = 8.9

= 9 sprinklers (round up)

 Sometimes more sprinklers must be added

 L is too short – must be at least 40.25 ft
 Add 4th sprinkler
 L actual = 52
Add B/L to get 9th sprinklerAS
Add 2nd B/L

Add 9th AS – Where?

 - Close to cross main because more challenging
 Determine actual area covered
 52 ft x 8.5 ft = 442 ft2
 52 ft x 9 ft = 468 ft2
 Actual floor area covered by sprinkler 9 = 126 ft2
 Sprinklers 1-4 = 442 ft2
 Sprinklers 5-8 = 468 ft2
 Sprinkler 9 = 126 ft2
 Total = 1036 ft2

 1036 ft2 < 1125 ft2 - not enough sprinklers in area

 Add sprinkler 10 12 ft x 9 ft = 108 ft2
 1036 ft2 + 108 ft2 = 1144 ft2 > 1125 ft2

 OK finally
 Determine where the remote area is located.

 Same considerations as before

 When in doubt, request calculations from a different area

to compare – you’ll be surprised
 Check Nodes

 Pipe ends, flow points, pipe size changes, elevation

changes, valves, devices and any other points where
variables change (Q,L,D,C pipe type)
 RN1, RN2, RN3
 CM1, CM2, CM3
 BOR
 System Isometric with Nodes
 Primary Path – Your travel on your street

 Attachment Path – Your neighbors travel on their streets

 System – Everyone traveling

 Path K-Factor – Don’t worry – short cut not necessary

for computer
 Determine the required pressure – How much gas will
you need?

 Step 1 – Follow the path from most remote sprinkler to

source – remember this is a one way trip and all roads
are one way (for a tree system)

 Step 2 – Determine start Q and P (from before) 18.9

gpm @ 11.4 psi

 Code says 7 psi minimum – this would be inadequate

  1st pipe segment
 Step 3 - Fill-in the blanks – your traffic
 Pipe Segment
 Length (L),
 Diameter (D),
 Fittings,
 Flow (Q),
 Elevation (E)
 F/L per foot by Table or Equation

 F/L = ( 4.52 x Q1.85 ) / ( C1.85 / D4.87 )

 Step 4 – Next pipe – you and your neighbors traffic

 Determine new Q based on higher P

 Fill in the blanks
  2nd pipe segment

 Step 5 – Remember to add attachment flows – still more

traffic

 Step 6 – Repeat, Repeat until you reach source – drive

until you get there
  Additional B/L’s


 Step 7 – At source determine Q & P

 P = how much gas you need

 Step 8 – Add some Q for hose line

 Primary path with two attachment paths – everyone
traveling on the highway with you
 Step 9 – Determine if source is adequate (>demand)
 Data Entry

◦ Pipe type
◦ Pipe length
◦ Pipe size
◦ Omitted Fittings
◦ Wrong Hazen Williams Constant
◦ Note: for dry pipe, HWC = 100
 Sprinklers

◦ Listing of sprinkler
◦ Flows
◦ Pressure
◦ Application
◦ Position
 Calculation

◦ Water flowing up hill

◦ Unbalanced flows
◦ Unbalanced pressures at same point
◦ Smaller upstream flows
◦ Negative flows
◦ Insufficient supply
◦ Reversed flow in loop
◦ Negative pressures
◦ Missing demands, i.e. water curtain
◦ Calculation downstream rather than upstream
◦ Velocity pressure method which gives lower pressures
 Problems

◦ Same elevation sprinklers

◦ Elevation to street
◦ Large pipe sizes
◦ Location of FD connection
◦ Choice of hydraulic remote area
◦ Design w/o safety factor
◦ Data entry, magnitude/number of errors
◦ FM corrections
◦ Hydraulic reference points shown on the plan that correspond with
comparable reference points on the hydraulic calculation sheets.
◦ Points don’t match - reject
 Bad Design

◦ Oversize pipes
◦ Inconsistent water supplies between calcs for same
building
◦ Safety pressure too small
◦ Pump vs no pump
◦ Stamped drawings of calculations that don’t work
 Pressure increases towards source

 Flows increase towards source

 Does it make sense?

 Is there enough water and pressure

 Were any laws of Physics violated

 Penalty for Physics violation is usually death

 Usually wins Darwin Award

 The truth is, we do not do many manual calculations any more.

 Current technology makes it practical for nearly all hydraulic

calculations to be performed by computers.

 However, a computer is only as good as the programmer who

programmed, and we know most programmers are not
engineers, and only as good as the data that was entered, and
we know that job always goes to the junior member, with the
least experience, on a Friday afternoon, as punishment, in the
hopes that they will still do a good job.

 Data entry is tedious, repetitious, and boring; tedious,

repetitious, and boring; tedious, repetitious, and boring;
tedious, repetitious, and boring; tedious, repetitious, and
boring.
 However, a true understanding of how calculations are
performed manually, allows the reviewer have gain
insight and understanding of the software reports and to
identify quickly identify significant errors and omissions
that could result in performance failure.